Paintings of the Russian Middle Ages - frescoes, mosaics, icons - are of constant interest to art historians and scientists around the world.
Old Russian monumental painting (fresco and mosaic) appeared during the time of Kievan Rus under princes Vladimir (980-1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054). Before the reign of Vladimir, Rus' was pagan and worshiped many deities. This prince baptized Kyiv and most of Rus', accepting Christianity from Byzantium. The new religion established one God and determined the shape of Russian history and culture for many centuries.
Over the centuries, Russian craftsmen adopted the subtle art of the “Greeks” (as the Byzantines were called because they spoke Greek).
Mosaic- a monumental type of painting, where the image is formed by arranging a set and fixing multi-colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles and other materials on the surface.
Smalt- small pieces of colored opaque glass. It reflects light well and retains its brightness for many centuries.
To decorate Kyiv churches with mosaics, a workshop was built where smalt was made. Smalt cubes were painted in different colors. So scientists counted 177 shades in the mosaics of Hagia Sophia!
The mosaic technique, as the most expensive and complex, was used to create compositions in the dome and apse.
The remaining parts of the temple were painted with frescoes.
Fresco- a type of monumental painting, painting with water paints on wet plaster. Frescoes are most susceptible to destruction by light, unlike mosaics. Frescoes also lose their original appearance when cracks appear in the plaster over time.
Some frescoes have survived to this day. To prevent the fresco from fading, darkening or deteriorating from dampness longer, there were special recipes that were passed down from master to student from generation to generation and kept in the strictest confidence.
The Russian Middle Ages did not know oil painting.
Hagia Sophia in Kyiv- the oldest monument that has preserved the monumental painting of pre-Mongol Rus'.
At the zenith of the central dome of Hagia Sophia of Kyiv, in the medallion, there is a huge half-length image of Christ the Pantocrator. Four archangels were located around the medallion. Only one mosaic figure in a blue robe has survived, and the other three were added in oil in 1884 by M. A. Vrubel.
Of the twelve life-size images of the apostles placed in the walls of the light drum, only the upper part of the mosaic figure of Paul has survived. Below, on the spherical sails supporting the central dome of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kiev, there are four evangelists (only the image of Mark has been completely preserved). Fifteen mosaic medallions with images of martyrs survived on the girth arches. On the two pillars of the eastern arch there is a mosaic scene of the Annunciation: on the left is the Archangel Gabriel, on the right is the Virgin Mary.
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| the Virgin Mary |
In the middle tier of the apse of St. Sophia Cathedral, the multi-figure composition “Eucharist” (communion) is widely deployed.
The lower tier of the apse of Hagia Sophia of Kyiv is occupied by images of the “church fathers” - saints and archdeacons (the mosaic survived only in the upper part of the figures).
The decoration of the main altar of the Cathedral of St. Sophia of Kiev is a high example of the synthesis of architecture and painting, which is generally characteristic of the entire ancient interior of St. Sophia of Kyiv. Scenes and characters in mosaics are symbols that reveal the main provisions of Christian doctrine. They are perceived as a kind of epigraph to the subsequent pictorial story, presented using the fresco technique. On the scenes of the transept (the main transverse division of the temple) there are Gospel scenes of a narrative nature, of which the best preserved are “The Crucifixion”, “The Descent of Christ into Hell”, “The Appearance of Christ to the Myrrh-Bearing Women”, as well as the scene “The Descent of the Holy Spirit”, remarkable for its composition, unique style of writing and soft color scheme.
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| fresco "The Descent of Christ into Hell" ("Descent into Hell"). Transept. North side of Sofia Kyiv |
A significant place in the picturesque decoration of the Temple of St. Sophia of Kiev is occupied by ornaments that decorate window and door openings, frame individual fresco and mosaic compositions, and emphasize the main architectural lines of the interior. Most often they are of a plant nature and consist of stylized palmettes, vine shoots, curls and buds. Geometric ornamental structures are less common. Elegant and colorful, the ornaments also introduce a secular element into the general system of paintings of St. Sophia of Kyiv
General view of the altar
In XII - AD XIII century. The city of Vladimir became the center of political and cultural life of Russian lands. The principles of monumental painting began to change. On the Vladimir-Suzdal frescoes, the apostles are not the massive figures of the Kyiv temple with their hypnotizing gaze directed directly at the viewer. The artist depicted the apostles in dynamic poses. They are dressed in wide, flowing cloaks and are facing each other, as if they are talking. The faces of the saints are voluminous, the transitions from light to shadow are smooth. In the Vladimir Cathedral, as in Sophia of Kyiv, the Greek master was helped by Russian painters, for whom such cooperation was the best school.
From the 10th century to 1240, 125 churches were built in Novgorod. By special invitation, Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340-1410), a remarkable Byzantine painter, arrived in Novgorod. During his life, he painted many churches in Rus' and beyond, but only the frescoes of the Novgorod Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyin Street have survived.
Icon(ancient Greek “image”, “image”) - in Christianity, a sacred image of persons or events of biblical or church history.
The unification of Russian lands around Moscow opened a new era in the development of Russian history and culture. The fusion of Byzantine and Slavic heritage formed the core of Russian national culture. Monumental painting of Moscow Rus', based on Byzantine and Vladimir-Suzdal traditions, experienced an extraordinary rise in the work of the greatest masters of the era - Andrei Rublev (c. 1360-1430) and Dionysius (c. 1440-1505).
Andrei Rublev was commissioned to paint the most important churches of Moscow Rus'. Together with his teacher Theophan the Greek, he painted the interior of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, and also decorated the Trinity-Sergius Cathedral, and restored the painting of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir after the Mongol-Tatar yoke.
A contemplative - lyrical direction of painting can be traced in his work.
The works of Andrei Rublev belong to the highest achievements of Russian and world spiritual art, which embodied a sublime understanding of the spiritual beauty and moral strength of the people of Rus'. These qualities are inherent in the icons of the Zvenigorod rank (“Savior”, “Apostle Paul” (located in the Russian Museum), “Archangel Michael”, all from the turn of the 14th-15th centuries), where laconic smooth contours and a broad brushwork style are close to the techniques of monumental painting.
In the period XIV - AD. XV century Rublev created his masterpiece - the Trinity icon (located in the State Tretyakov Gallery). He filled the traditional biblical story with deep poetic and philosophical content. Departing from traditional canons, he placed a single cup in the center of the composition (symbolizing sacrificial death), and repeated its outlines in the contours of the side angels. The central (symbolizing Christ) angel took the place of the victim and is highlighted by the expressive contrast of spots of dark cherry and blue. The composition inscribed in a circle is permeated with deep circular rhythms, subordinating all the contour lines, the consistency of which produces an almost musical effect. The icons were painted in tempera (they did not know oil paints).
The greatest masters of ancient Russian painting, including Dionysius, were deeply influenced by his work. Dionysius is the last of the greatest icon painters of Ancient Rus', a representative of the Golden Age of Russian icon painting.
“The Crucifixion” is an icon of the festive rite. It contains not only death, suffering and horror, but also the trampling of this death, the joy of the future resurrection, the atonement for the sins of all people. This entire icon is a vertical movement, starting with the unusually elongated figure of Christ, a symbol of the breakthrough from the earthly sphere to the heavenly one. This breakthrough occurs through the cross, which is one of the most important Christian symbols. The plane of the icon is mentally divided vertically into three zones: the lower, narrowest, means the underworld, the middle - the human world on earth, the upper - heaven. Here two perspectives are combined: traditional for painting (the whole world) and traditional for icon painting - the reverse (the figure of Christ). The main meaning of this icon is an incomprehensible miracle, the transformation of the humiliation and suffering of the God-Man into his exaltation and glorification, his death into a symbol of immortality.
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| Crucifixion. Dionysius |
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| Frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary at the Ferapontov Monastery. Dionysius |
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| Descent into hell. Dionysius |
Russian icon painting is the fine art of Ancient Rus' that developed in the depths of the Orthodox Church, which began at the end of the 10th century with the baptism of Rus'. Icon painting remained the core of ancient Russian culture until the end of the 17th century, when in the era of Peter the Great it was supplanted by secular types of fine art.
In the case of Byzantium, one can accurately name the year that became the starting point of the Byzantine empire, culture, and civilization. Emperor Constantine I the Great moved his capital to the city of Byzantium (from the 1st century AD).
e. part of the Roman Empire) and renamed it Constantinople in 330.The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be considered as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of Byzantine society, which was based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogma developed under the strong influence of Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, and Manichaeism. It was a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which were ancient philosophical teachings. The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism is being replaced by a compromise between the Christian and ancient worldviews. The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. Thinkers such as Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzus lay the foundation of Byzantine philosophy, which is rooted in the history of Hellenic thought. At the center of their philosophy is the understanding of existence as perfection. A new aesthetics is born, a new system of spiritual and moral values, and the man of that era himself, his vision of the world and attitude towards the universe, nature, and society changes.
Periods of the history of Byzantine art
Early Christian period (the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries)
early Byzantine period, the “golden age” of Emperor Justinian I, the architecture of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries)
iconoclastic period (VII-early 9th centuries). It was called the Dark Time - largely by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe.
the period of the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) is generally considered the classical period of Byzantine art.
period of conservatism under the emperors of the Komnenos dynasty (1081-1185)
the period of the Palaiologan Renaissance, the revival of Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453).
The art of the Byzantine Empire is largely a subject of debate among historians, philosophers and cultural experts. But if many philosophical treatises and paintings were lost over several centuries, then the beautiful Byzantine mosaics made of stone and smalt became a symbol of the era and an entire civilization. In the Byzantine Empire, the production of mosaics and smalt was put on stream; historical records included stories about experiments carried out by smalt masters to obtain different shades of smalt and attempts to impart various properties to smalt glass. Mosaics made of smalt were an indispensable attribute not only of religious buildings and royal palaces, but also decorated the interior of the houses of ordinary citizens.
Compared to antique mosaics made from pieces of stone, smalt compositions were distinguished by a greater variety of colors, brightness, play of light on the surface and, importantly, were much more affordable. This determined the rapid spread of smalt technology both within the Byzantine Empire itself and beyond its borders (in particular, in Ancient Rus')
Byzantine mosaics made of smalt. Early Byzantine period
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, 5th century.
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, according to legend, was built as a burial place for the daughter of Emperor Theodosius. However, in fact, Galla was buried in Rome, and her so-called mausoleum was a chapel dedicated to St. Lawrence - a particularly revered martyr in the family of Theodosius and patron of the imperial family. Like many other Ravenna buildings, this martyrium was built using the Lombard bricklaying technique. Outwardly, it is very similar to a fortress structure: a closed volume, deliberately fenced off from the outside world, is emphasized by thick walls and narrow windows, like embrasures. In plan, the mausoleum is a Greek cross; at the intersection of the arms of the cross there is a cube, inside of which there is a dome on sails. The heavy, overhanging vault, which has no clear boundaries, is devoid of window openings. Only through narrow windows in the walls does dim, flickering light penetrate into the church.
The lower part of the walls of the chapel (up to the level of human height) is lined with transparent flowing marble of a slightly yellowish tint. The surfaces of the dome and arches, as well as the rounded sections of the walls under the arches (lunettes) are decorated with smalt mosaics. Irregularly shaped pieces of smalt form an uneven surface. Because of this, the light from it is reflected at different angles, creating not a uniform cold shine, but a magical radiant flicker, as if fluttering in the semi-darkness of the temple.
The theme of the mausoleum painting is related to the funeral rite. Mosaics are located only in the upper parts of the temple. In the center of the vault is a cross (a symbol of victory over death) with stars in the blue sky. The vaults are decorated with dense floral patterns associated with the symbolism of the Garden of Eden. The southern lower lunette depicts St. Lawrence walking with a cross to his death. The open cabinet displays the books of the four Gospels, inspiring the martyr to heroic deeds in the name of the Savior.
Saint Lawrence. Mosaic of the south lunette of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. About 440.
In the upper, large lunettes on the sides of the windows, the apostles are depicted full-length in pairs. They raise their hands to the dome with the cross, in a silent gesture embodying the gospel call, personified by the image of St. Lawrence: “Take up your cross and follow Me.” The apostles are depicted in such a way that their turns and gestures organize a circular movement moving from lunette to lunette. Only the supreme chief apostles Peter and Paul in the eastern lunette (where the altar is located) are depicted symmetrically: the movement ends here.
In the northern lower lunette - Christ in the image of the Good Shepherd looks at the visitor from the wall above the entrance. The sheep walk around Him on the green grass, and He tenderly touches the sheep as it approaches. The Divine Shepherd is dressed in golden robes and sits on a hillock, like an emperor on a throne, leaning firmly on the cross. The cross here acts as an attribute of power, like an imperial staff; Christ establishes it over the world as a sign of the triumphal march of Christianity. The figure of the Son of God is shown in a complex contrapposto spread: his legs are crossed, his hand reaches out to the sheep, but his head is turned in the other direction, and his gaze is directed into the distance.
Christ the Good Shepherd. Mosaic of the north lunette of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. About 440.
A characteristic feature of the mosaics of the Galla Mausoleum is the contrast of the two lunettes.
The scene with the Good Shepherd is performed in the spirit of an ancient pastoral with deliberately touching images. The pinkish-green palette, subtle color transitions, and the use of halftones in the rendering of flesh demonstrate the unfading charm of antiquity, emphasized by the enclosure of the composition in a heavy and lush frame of the surrounding box vault.
Scene with the image of St. Lavrentiya demonstrates the birth of a new artistic language. The composition is clear, distinguished by the simple symmetry of large forms. The image is deliberately brought to the foreground. The beginnings of reverse perspective (the image of a lattice under a greatly reduced window) create the illusion of space “tipping over” onto the viewer. The composition is not built centrically and pyramidally (following the example of “The Good Shepherd”), but crosswise, along diagonals. Figure of St. Lavrentia is captured in motion. The fragile contours of the folds of his clothing do not fall, but fly up and intersect in a whimsical rhythm. In the face of the saint there is not a trace of the soft beauty and psychological neutrality of the pastoral. The spiritual principle, the ecstatic illumination of a martyr for the faith, is acutely and powerfully manifested in him.
Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna, 5th century. Dome mosaic
The Baptistery (baptistery) of the Orthodox in Ravenna is an example of a centric type building. The plan is an octagon. The Baptistery was decorated under Bishop Neon (451-73). Its luxurious decoration allows you to feel the special splendor of the baptismal ceremony. The decoration is very well thought out from an architectural point of view, and the architectural (enriched Ionic order) and sculptural decoration (high reliefs with images of prophets) are organically combined with the mosaic painting and are included as an integral part of it.
The main feature of the decoration is the implementation of a single motif at all its levels - an arch on columns or a portico with a pediment on columns. This motif forms the lowest tier of the octagonal baptistery, where deep arcasolia alternate with false niches. In the second tier it multiplies: arches, framing sculptures of prophets, surround window openings. In a more complex and rich form, the same motif is found in the third, mosaic tier of the decoration. Here this motif is embodied illusionistically: it reproduces the space of the basilica, where porticoes with bishop's chairs and fruit trees are located on the sides of the apses, in which thrones with crosses or altars with open Gospels on the thrones are presented. Higher up, in the very last tier surrounding the central medallion, the arch motif on the columns appears in a hidden form: the columns here become luxurious golden candelabra separating the figures of the apostles, and the arches or pediments become curves of drapery hanging in festoons from the frame of the central medallion.
The decoration of the baptistery is closely related to the theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem, revealed to the gaze of a Christian in the scene of the Baptism of the Savior (Epiphany), located in the dome, directly above the baptismal font. The decoration seems to be “fitted” into the sphere of the dome; this is achieved by a special technique: the figures and the elements separating them are treated as a kind of radii - golden rays emanating from the central disk. The theme of the Jerusalem above explains the presence of crowns in the hands of the apostles: they will sit on twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. Thus, Baptism is immediately placed in the context of the search for a good answer at the judgment of Christ, and lush fruit-bearing trees in the sections of the symbolic basilicas of the third tier are an image of the Christian soul bearing good fruit. The judgment is that “Light has come into the world,” and the motif of light flowing from the central medallion with Christ, indicated by white and gold streams (at the level of the apostolic circle), takes on special meaning in the composition.
Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna. V century Dome mosaic.
Central medallion containing the scene of the baptism of Christ (Epiphany).
Around the Central medallion is an apostolic circle.
The theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem appears in close intertwining with the theme of the earthly church. Along with the prospect of a vision of the Heavenly City in the Epiphany scene, the theme of the transfer of power and grace is no less significant here. From the Savior receiving Baptism (central medallion), the blessed energy through the apostles (radial rays) is transferred to the earthly church (it is symbolized by the altars and bishop's seats of the third level of decoration). This outflow of beneficial energy is considered continuous, constant.
The idea of inexhaustibility, the infinity of this flow is emphasized by the peculiarity of the composition of the apostolic circle: there is neither beginning nor end in it, there is no center towards which the disciples of Christ would move. More precisely, this center is located outside the circle itself, this is the image of the Savior on the central medallion. The painting as a whole is very impressive. The figures of the apostles are shown in motion. The size of their stride is emphasized by their widely spaced legs and the arch of their hips. The illusion of space is still present: the surface on which the apostles walk appears lighter than the mysterious and bottomless blue background of the main image. Heavy and lush clothes recall the splendor of Roman patrician robes. In the apostolic tunics, only two colors vary - white, personifying light, and gold - heavenly light. Only multi-colored shadows (gray, blue, gray) set off these luminous vestments. Golden clothes are likened to a thin airy fabric - it lies in lush, as if swelling folds. White fabric, on the contrary, freezes into unnaturally brittle folds.
The theme of Epiphany is primarily the theme of the outflow of light, the giving of light. The apostles are shown as bearers of this eternal light, since they carry the light of Christian enlightenment - enlightenment with the truth. The faces of the apostles are impressive, each of them has a distinct personality. They appear as real individuals, which is facilitated by the as yet undeveloped typology and iconography of Christian images. Large noses, sharply defined nasolabial folds, prominent wrinkles, powerfully protruding napes, plump lips, expressive looks. In these images, likened to the Roman patricians, one can discern incredible internal energy, which symbolizes the power of the Christian Church of the 5th century, which became practically the only spiritual and political authority in the Western world.
Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
In contrast to the religious buildings of the era, the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople contains a large number of images of everyday scenes involving people and animals. The background mosaic layout attracts attention - hundreds of thousands of pieces of a single-color white mosaic form a bizarre pattern, in which the scale of the work and the accuracy of the ancient masters amaze.
Eagle and snake. Mosaic floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
Deer and snake. Mosaic floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
Hare and dogs. Mosaic floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
Boy with a basket. Mosaic floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
Pastoral scene. Mosaic floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century
Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, 6th century
The compositions are dominated by ideal balance. Architectural forms, plant motifs, human bodies, likened to the simplest geometric figures, seem to be drawn using a ruler. The draperies have neither volume nor lively softness. There is no living sensation of substance in anything, not even a remote hint of natural breath. Space finally loses any resemblance to reality.
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, 6th century
In the depiction of martyrs and martyrs there is a clear trend that can be called the sacralization of style. The image deliberately seeks to detach itself from any specific life associations. Even the remotest hint of an imaginary space or environment of action disappears - all free space is occupied by an endless golden background. Flowers under the feet of the Magi and Martyrs play a purely symbolic role and further emphasize the unreality of what is depicted.
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe in Ravenna, 6th century
The style of the mosaics shows clear signs of Western taste. The forms are abstract and deliberately simplified; linear rhythm dominates the composition. Wide and ethereal spots of silhouettes are painted in an even color, which is the only color that retains expressiveness. External elegance and color sonority compensate for the anemic and amorphous style.
Byzantine mosaics made of smalt. The era of the Komnenos dynasty
Smalt mosaics in the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady, Daphne
The most striking and complete manifestation of the Byzantine style of the late 11th century and the Comnenos era are the mosaics of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne, near Athens, representing a unique phenomenon in the history of Byzantine art. The temple is decorated partly according to the classical scheme: in the dome - Pantocrator with sixteen prophets in the walls of the drum, in the apse - the Mother of God with the worshiping prophets. However, a large number of festive scenes are located on flat surfaces of the walls, and not just on the transitional elements of architecture between rectangular and round parts or arched passages.
Christ is Pantocrator. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100
Daphne's mosaics create a feeling of festivity, unclouded calm and universal harmony. Any gloomy tones completely disappear from painting, and gospel images are filled with poetic beauty. Even in the scenes of passion there is no hint of passion and pathos of suffering and sacrifice. This world of noble and neutral beauty does not accommodate blood, pain and the crown of thorns of the Crucifixion.
In Daphne's mosaics, narrative trends are growing: there are more scenes, landscapes and architectural elements appear in them, and more attention is paid to the plot. However, the main motivation of the master is by no means the desire for a pronounced development of the story. Carefully selected details, the ideal nature of the action, the absence of any emotions and, especially, expression and spiritual tension capture the world not as a process, but as a state. The artist is rather interested not in what happens, but in how it happens.
Baptism of Christ. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100
In Daphne, the compositional principles of Byzantine painting were developed. The mosaic compositions are very free, filled with a wide breath of space not occupied by forms. Characteristic is not just statuesqueness, but the ideal, complete roundness of the volumes, likening the figures of the painting to a beautiful round sculpture. The relationship of the figures to each other and to space has changed: the characters are depicted from a variety of angles and spreads, the abundance of three-quarter and profile outlines creates a constant movement of volumes from the depths to the outside. Voluminous but light fabrics demonstrate the plasticity of bodies and at the same time lag behind the surface, as if slightly blown by the wind.
Appearance of an angel to Joachim. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. Around 1100
The faces are striking in their special coldish beauty, serenity, endless distance from the world of passions and emotions. Even the pretty, gentle types (the Mother of God, the angels) are completely distracted from the emotional tenderness. The feeling of ideal dispassion likens the image of man and the God-man to the dispassion of an ideally structured and ordered cosmos. The color palette of smalt acquires a special airiness and inner radiance. The extraordinary richness of color tints, instantly transforming the basic tone, evokes the feeling of an oscillating surface of the fabrics. All colors are taken in a single, coldish-silver key with a predominance of ash, silver, blue, cold pink and shining sapphire shades. The golden smalt background looks loose and transparent due to the light, slightly greenish tint of gold.
Mosaics from the Cathedral of Cefalu
The mosaics of the basilica in Cefalu (Sicily) belong to the classical movement of art of the Comnenian era, which continued to live throughout the 12th century. The creation of mosaics in Cefalu coincided with the reign of Manuel Comnenus, a time of widespread expansion of Byzantine art, the brilliant work of Constantinople artists around the world, resuscitating the glory of the great Roman Empire, the revival of the greatness of which the emperor dreamed of.
The ensemble was performed by Constantinople masters commissioned by the Norman king Roger II. The compositions combine the Byzantine perfection of artistic execution and the depth of spiritual meaning with an extraordinary, slightly barbaric sense of festive luxury. The most important element of the mosaic decoration of the cathedral is the monumental image of Christ Pantocrator in the apse conch. This typically Byzantine image traditionally occupied the central dome in Greek temples. In the hand of Christ is the Gospel, on the spread of which the line is read: “I am the Light of the World.” Reflecting the dual nature of Sicilian culture at the time, the inscription is reproduced in two languages, on one page in Latin, on the other in Greek, although the image itself is clearly the work of a Byzantine master.
Christ Pantocrator. Mosaic of the concha of the apse of the Cathedral of Cefalu. XII century
The face of Christ is full of greatness, but it does not have that severe aloofness and spiritual intensity that are characteristic of Eastern Christian ideas about Christ as a “formidable Judge.” The composition is distinguished by clarity, rigor, transparency of artistic language and internal meaning. The figure of Christ is full of grace and special nobility of form.
2 - Frescoes
A series of misfortunes that befell European culture, in some kind of methodical sequence, destroyed these monuments. But most of all they suffered from negligence and lack of funds. In particular, the history of the empire is now (with short breaks) a history of gradual demoralization and bankruptcy. Added to this was the indifference to the classical art of decadent pagans and the hatred of triumphant Christian fanatics towards it. Temples were locked and destroyed for lack of worshipers, idols were destroyed like devilish masks, and thus the sources of artistic knowledge and inspiration perished, for not only the art of the catacombs was the offspring of ancient art, but all the art of Byzantium until the 10th century (and partly further) was the same. To this slow organic decay must be added more terrifying, sometimes even deadly, crises, such as the influx of barbarians. Italy, except for the papal region, was already a “cultural desert” in the 7th century, and all the main strongholds of ancient education grew wild and deserted, thanks to the pressure of elements arriving from Asia: Egypt, Antioch, the entire north of Africa. The revival of some of these areas is already taking place under the new sign of Islam.
In the real “capital” of the decaying kingdom, in the “new Rome” - in Constantinople, these crises correspond to dynastic and other riots, invasions and sieges, as well as the devastation of the long-term iconoclastic movement. What some spared, others destroyed. In particular, the iconoclasts destroy everything that their predecessors created, all Christian-ecclesiastical creativity, and in return they mark a certain turn to the ancient “secular” understanding of art; the reactionary clergy overcome the iconoclasts, with all the more fury they had to continue the work of ruining pagan antiquity. The pitiful remnants of Hellenism then perished under the layers of Arab and, subsequently, Turkish culture.
From what remains of the last (already Christian) period of ancient painting, it all comes down to wall mosaics and frescoes in Ravenna, Rome, Naples, Sinai, Thessaloniki, Cyprus, in small Egyptian churches, to several dozen manuscripts with illustrations (none of which are original), textiles, mostly Egyptian, and several mosaic floors. Further, an indirect idea of painting is given by ivory items and relief decorations on Palestinian oil vessels and marble sarcophagi. All these monuments confirm the power of Hellenistic art, which we have already encountered when analyzing Campanian and Roman frescoes; all bear the features of late Alexandrian (or East Asian) art and at the same time already strongly express some kind of “exotic” character alien to classicism . One must think that the national elements temporarily suppressed by the Greeks and Romans in the Asian and African provinces, the kingdom of Alexander and the empire of the Caesars, from the moment the alluvial culture of the conquerors weakened, began to gradually take over it again, and to this was added the role of the East as the cradle of the universally accepted official religion, and and finally, the influence of the Persian civilization pressing on the empire from the east.
The young man David the psalmist among the flock. Miniature from the "Paris Psalter" of the 10th century
This “oriental shade” of Christian ancient art contributed, on the one hand, to ignoring all purely plastic elements: painting became more and more “flat” 1 ; on the other hand, this same “oriental shade” imparted to the art of the entire empire that majestic schematicism that was alien to classical culture. The court of the Byzantine emperors borrowed many features of etiquette from eastern court rituals, imparting these same features to church art, which became directly connected with imperial power.
Simultaneously with the stern solemnity and schematic protocol, a thirst for amazing luxury and splendor came from the east, expressed both in the immense use of gold and silver, and in thick, bright colors.
Transfer of the relics of St. Stamp to Venice. In the background of the composition is the Cathedral of St. The brand is in its original form. A rare example of "veduta" in Byzantine painting. 13th century mosaic on the façade of the cathedral.
It can be argued that everything that is gentle, elegant, harmonious, witty, and more or less vital in Christian antique art is the last traces of fading Hellenism. On the contrary, everything that is callous and “proud” in its forms, variegated and luxurious in colors, all of this came from the east, and not the least role could have been played by the lost cultures of Assyria and Babylon, which gave their last reflection in art around the same time Sassanids.
The main changes in Christian art, as one might expect, occurred in the field of religious painting of a historical and symbolic nature, to which we will turn later; on the contrary, in the area that is subject to our study in this part, i.e. in the landscape, as well as in the painting of animals and dead nature, we see for a long time, right up to the 10th century (and in miniature even longer), a persistent reliving of ancient forms and, as it were, even the very spirit of Hellenistic art.
In 330, long before the collapse of the Roman Empire into the western and eastern parts, Emperor Constantine built a city named after him - Constantinople - on the territory of Asia Minor. This city was built on the site of the ancient city of Byzantium. Subsequently, when the Roman Empire was divided, the eastern part was called Byzantium, and Constantinople became its capital.
Byzantine art developed on the basis of the Hellenistic culture of Greece, Palestine, Ptolemaic Egypt, and Iran. Byzantium marked the beginning of the formation of the Greek-Eastern type of culture. Byzantine art is permeated with the ideas of Orthodox Christianity. The cult united all types of art: architecture, painting, literature, sculpture, applied art. Since Byzantine art is cultic, it is strictly canonized.
In Byzantine artistic culture, two principles are merged: the emotional and spiritual essence and the decorative principle, magnificent entertainment and sophisticated spiritualism (spirito - spirit). The uniqueness of Byzantine art is that it united both into a single artistic system, strictly normative, canonical, imbued with the spirit of a solemn and mysterious ceremony. Splendor, pomp, gold and marble, beauty and radiance - everything turned out to be appropriate, as a symbol of spiritual bliss, and at the same time this luxury suited the style of the Eastern Roman Empire and the tastes of the rich Constantinople court. Periods of development of Byzantine art. Early period – “The Golden Age of Emperor Justinian 527-565.” – 4-7 centuries AD Period of iconoclasm - 8th century - 1st half of 9th century. AD Macedonian Renaissance 2nd half of the 9th century - 10th century. AD Komnin period (Komnenos dynasty) – 11-12 centuries. AD Palaeologian period (Palaeologian dynasty) – 1261-1453. AD The main forms of Byzantine painting were: monumental temple painting (mosaic, fresco), icons, book miniatures. Mosaic is the most characteristic creation of the Byzantine Genius. Small multi-colored cubes of smalt (an alloy of glass with mineral paints) flicker, flash, shimmer, reflecting light. By accurately calculating the angle of incidence of light, making the surface of the mosaic somewhat rough, the masters achieved magnificent pictorial effects. They took into account the optical fusion of colors in the eye of the praying person looking at her from a great distance. The most ancient mosaics are found in the tombs and temples of Ravenna (Italy). Justinian's period. 1. Mausoleum of Galla Placidius: “Christ the Good Shepherd”, mid 5th century. On a blue background, the image of the young Christ. Christ is given in iconography as Emmanuel (“God with us”). Christ as the Good Shepherd, the idea of the Gardens of Eden2. Church of St. Vitalius, Ravenna, 6th century. AD : Two paired mosaics: Emperor Justinian with his retinue and Empress Theodora with his retinue.3. Paired mosaic “Martyrs and Martyrs”, Church of San Apollinare in Nuovo (mid-6th century). The mosaic is made on a gold background, in white and green tones. The presence of lush decorativeness and spirituality. The martyrs are in a state of anticipation, in their hands are crowns of glory. The figures are presented frontally, static. Their names are inscribed above the heads of the martyrs, but there is no individual description. The state of being in spiritual unity with God, which makes it similar to the mosaic of Justinian. If the martyrs differ slightly in their age characteristics, then the martyrs do not have this either. The similarity of appearance conveys the similarity of their fate. It was important for the artist to emphasize that they are all “Brothers and Sisters in Christ” Komnenian period. The mosaics of the Comnenian period are distinguished by their stylistic diversity. 1. Emperor John II and Empress Irina in front of the Virgin and Child. Tsarevich Alexei Both of these mosaics date back to the 12th century. and they are located in Sophia of Constantinople. The figures are frozen in tense poses. They completely turned into flat silhouettes covered with geometric patterns, as if pasted onto a golden background. Human flesh disappears behind the play of ornamental forms. The faces are made of small, well-fitted smalt cubes, which also form geometric patterns. In this version, the blush on the Empress’s cheeks more closely resembles a tattoo, and the highlights on Alexei’s face resemble scars. 2. Christ, 12th century.3. Virgin and Child, 9c It is located in the central apse of Sophia of Constantinople. According to legend, the mosaic was made by the famous Greek artist Lazarus. He died in 854, having suffered greatly from the iconoclasts. The artist emphasized the cosmic role of the virgin in saving the world, and in addition emphasized the motif of the Mother of God as the throne of divine wisdom. A living and full-blooded experience of antiquity, indicating that for Byzantine art the classical, being an image of ideal human beauty, was also a way of searching for the highest spirituality. The images are endowed with genuine monumentality, the statuesque nature dominates, the solemnity and royalty of the Mother of God are created here not only by unattainable grandeur, but also by ideal abstraction from the world of earthly dimensions. The Virgin Mary is the queen of heaven here, but perhaps for the last time she is also a Goddess. Iconography “Panahrantos” - “Most Pure One”. Interpretation of the image of a baby - a small adult.
The mosaics of the churches in Daphni and Cefalu have a different style. Instead of a picturesque solution to the mosaics of the Comnenian period, a closed contour line is cultivated. These mosaics are characterized by great graphics. 1. Christ Pantocrator (Pantocrator), apse of the cathedral in Cefalu 2. Baptism of Christ, monastery in Daphne 3. Pantocrator, in the dome of the monastery church in Daphne The images are more strict, ascetic, severe. Palaiologan period. In the mosaics of the Palaiologan period there is greater expression and freedom of movement. Everything in these mosaics moved. The figures are not static and not frontal. They do not face the person praying, but turn to each other. A certain general compositional solution is created. In these mosaics, images of fantastic architectural structures appear, protruding already in a slightly recessed space. Mosaics of the Kahrie-Jami Church. The Birth of the Virgin Mary. Flight to Egypt. Saints Joseph and Mary before the scribes of King Herod. Byzantine fresco Masters resorted to frescoes if the church was very small or poor. Annunciation, Church of St. Mary, 7th century. The Maccabean brothers and their mother Samona, Church of St. Mary, 7th century. The fresco is distinguished by its relaxedness, naturalness in the posing of the figures, and the absence of rigidity in poses. The forms are sculpted with a wide, freely thrown brushstroke. Annunciation, Church of St. Mary, 8th century. The interpretation of the face is “inspired ugliness.” Feeling of internal burning." Beautiful Angel", Church of St. Mary, 8th century. Cooler coloring, powerful rounding, powerful, wide line. Flight into Egypt, St. Mary's Church, 8th century. The forms are more massive and plastically defined. Holy Fathers, Sophia of Ohrid, 12th century.
The period from the mid-9th to the 14th centuries was the time of the greatest flowering of Byzantine mosaics and frescoes. One of the earliest monuments of this period is the mosaic of the Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki. The composition “Ascension” (880-885) is located in the dome of the temple. In the center is Christ in a medallion, with a disproportionately large head, sitting on a rainbow. The medallion is supported by two flying Angels in white robes with multi-colored wings. Directly below Christ, in the drum of the dome, the Mother of God is depicted in full height with raised arms (“Oranta”), on both sides of Her are two Angels pointing with their hands to the ascending Christ. In the same row are the twelve apostles, separated from one another by tall trees with bare trunks and green crowns. In the conch of the apse the Mother of God and Child are depicted sitting on a throne (the turn of the 11th and 12th centuries). In the vault of the altar vima there is an image of a cross left over from the times of iconoclasm.
An outstanding monument of Christian fine art from the Macedonian Renaissance are the mosaics of the monastery of Hosios Loukas (St. Luke), dating from the 1st half of the 11th century and superbly preserved. The dome of the temple depicts Pentecost: in the center of the composition is the “Prepared Throne”, on top of which is a dove with a head in a golden halo, symbolizing the Holy Spirit. From the medallion, rays of light descend on the twelve apostles sitting in the dome, and above the head of each apostle there is a tongue of flame. The apostles are depicted sitting on thrones and talking with each other; Each apostle holds the Gospel in his hand. In the sails of the dome are representatives of different nations in fancy clothes standing and listening to the apostles. The conch of the altar apse is occupied by an image of the Virgin and Child sitting on a throne. The Christological cycle consists of four compositions in the main part of the temple (“Annunciation”, “Nativity”, “Candlemas” and “Baptism”) in the sails above the tympanum of the dome, scenes of the Passion in the narthex (“Washing of the feet”, “Crucifixion”, “Descent into Hell” ") and "Pentecost" in the small dome above the altar. The rest of the temple space is decorated with many images of saints (about 150) with wide-open, disproportionately large eyes and dark pupils: among the saints, the venerables occupy a significant place, which is due to the monastic nature of the building. In the deaconne mosaics on Old Testament scenes have been preserved: Daniel in the lion's den, three youths in the furnace of Babylon.
In addition to mosaics, a number of frescoes dating from the mid-10th to the first quarter of the 11th century have been preserved in Hosios Loukas. One of them depicts Joshua in military clothing: he has a helmet on his head, chain mail is put on his body, a spear in his left hand, and a sword in his belt. The composition “The Meeting of Christ with John the Baptist” is placed in two arches: in the left arch there is a picture of the Forerunner facing Christ in a cloak lined with wool, with a cross in his right hand and his left hand extended to Jesus; in the right arch - Christ with a scroll in his left hand and his right hand raised in a gesture of blessing; The Forerunner is depicted standing on the ground, Jesus walking towards him. In the composition “The Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem” Christ, with a scroll in his hand, sits on a donkey; a child climbing a tree looks at Christ; the people with palm branches greet the coming Messiah. In the Entombment scene, Christ is depicted wrapped in burial shrouds; only His face with closed eyes remains open; the grieving Mother of God bent over the body of Christ; Joseph and Nicodemus support the body with their hands. The same composition depicts another scene from the gospel story: two myrrh-bearing women at an empty tomb, on the lid of which an Angel sits.
The surviving mosaics of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople give only a partial idea of the ensemble of its interior decoration. Great importance in mosaics was given to the images of Christ and the Virgin Mary, as well as images of emperors and empresses. In the conch of the altar apse, a mosaic image of the Mother of God on a throne with the Child sitting on Her lap, made in 867, has been preserved. The pose of the Mother of God is static, the figure is majestic, the body, dressed in a dark blue maforium, is disproportionately large compared to the head; The faces of the Mother and Baby are designed in ancient traditions. A mosaic image of Christ on a throne with an open Gospel dates back to the beginning of the 10th century; on two sides of Christ there are medallions depicting the Mother of God and the Archangel; at the foot of the throne - Emperor Leo VI the Wise, bowed in reverent prayer (C886-912). At the turn of the 10th and 11th centuries, a mosaic image of the Mother of God enthroned with the Child was created; On Her right hand stands Emperor Justinian with a model of the Church of Hagia Sophia in his hands, on Her left hand stands Constantine the Great with a symbolic model of the city. The image of Christ on the throne with the upcoming Emperor Constantine Monoma dates back to 1044 
home and Empress Zoya. Around 1118, a mosaic was created in which Emperor John Komnenos and Empress Irene are depicted next to the Virgin Mary holding the Child in her arms.
The most impressive in terms of the power of expression of all the surviving mosaic compositions of the Sophia of Constantinople is the Deisis, dating back to 1261. In the center of the composition is Christ in a blue himation with his right hand raised in a blessing gesture and the Gospel in his left. The face of Christ is marked with the stamp of soft concentration 
and, the nose is elongated, the lips are full. The eyes, as on the Sinai icon of Pantocrator, are asymmetrical; the gaze is unfocused, which creates a feeling of the presence and at the same time of some detachment of Christ from the person praying. The Mother of God and John the Baptist are turned half-turned to the Savior: their faces are marked with the stamp of sorrow and concentration.
The mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv are one of the most remarkable monuments of Byzantine fine art of the 1st half of the 11th century. In general, the program of the interior decoration of the temple is focused on Byzantine models. From the original mosaic ensemble, which occupied an area of 640 square meters. m, only about 260 sq. m, but the surviving mosaics give an idea of the grandeur of the plan and the perfection of its implementation. In the dome of the temple there is a medallion with the image of Christ Pantocrator, under it there are four figures of Archangels (only one of them has been partially preserved). In the drum of the dome, between the windows, there were images of the apostles (only part of the figure of the Apostle Paul survived); in the sails are four evangelists (only Mark survived). On the arches supporting the dome there were four medallions, of which two have survived - the Mother of God and Christ the Priest: the latter is a “Semitic-Palestinian” type of image of Christ with short curly hair and a closely trimmed beard. On the transverse arches there are medallions with images of the forty martyrs of Sebaste (15 medallions out of forty have survived). In the conch of the apse the Mother of God “Oranta” is depicted in full height: Her figure (5.45 m high) dominates the entire mosaic ensemble of the temple. Above the “Oranta” is the Deisis in three medallions; under “Oranta” in the middle register is “Communion of the Apostles” (Christ is depicted twice), and in the lower register is the rite 
Saints, in the center of which, in a three-quarter turn, deacons with monstrances are depicted, which gives the entire rite a distinctly liturgical character. The composition “Annunciation” is placed on the pillars in front of the altar concha. On the walls of the cathedral there are numerous images of saints. The figures of Christ, the Virgin Mary and saints in the compositions of the Kyiv Sophia are distinguished by their static and monumental nature; frontal poses predominate. The facial features of most of the characters are emphasized geometric, the eyes are enlarged, the lips are full, the nose is wide.
An outstanding monument of Byzantine monumental painting are the frescoes of the Church of Hagia Sophia in Ohrid (Macedonia), dating back to 1037-1056. The frescoes are distinguished by their craftsmanship, expressiveness of faces, and compositional diversity. In the conch of the altar apse the Virgin Mary is depicted in a static pose, seated on a throne; in Her hands in an oval medallion is the Child Christ. In the lower register - the communion of the apostles: in the center of the composition is Christ, standing under the ciborium and facing the viewer; His right hand is raised in a gesture of blessing, in his left hand He holds bread; on either side of the Savior are two Angels; on the right and left, the apostles approach the Savior, lined up in a row. On the vault of the altar apse there is a grandiose composition “The Ascension”, in the center of which in a medallion there is a depiction of Christ sitting on a rainbow; The medallion is supported by four Angels. On two sides of the medallion there are rows of apostles and angels (one angel in each row); the apostles are presented in dynamic poses with their faces turned to the ascending Christ; among the apostles is the Mother of God. Under each row there is another one, in which Angels are depicted. The walls of the altar apse are decorated with images of saints, scenes from the Old Testament related to the Eucharist (in particular, the hospitality of Abraham), and scenes from the New Testament.
The grandiose ensemble of mosaics of the Monastery of the Dormition of the Virgin Mary in Daphni (Greece) dates back to the end of the 11th century, the time of the so-called Comnenian Renaissance. The ensemble is dominated by the image of Christ Pantocrator: high eyebrows, a gaze directed to the side, folds on the face, forehead and neck, a powerful torso - all this gives the image a severity unusual by Byzantine standards. Sixteen prophets are depicted in the dome drum. In the altar apse there is the Mother of God with the prophets worshiping Her. Much attention is paid to multi-figure compositions dedicated to the main church holidays. The figures of the characters are dynamic and graceful; the characters are presented in a wide variety of poses - frontal, profile, half-turned; The faces are marked with the stamp of calm and concentration. Angels are the protagonists of many compositions, which creates a feeling of constant 
significant presence of Heavenly Forces in human life. The Theotokos cycle includes numerous compositions from the life of the Mother of God, including Her Birth, Introduction and Assumption. In general, the mosaic ensemble is characterized by a desire for the most complete reflection of the main events of the liturgical year: the theme of the mosaics is focused not so much on the sequence of Gospel events, but on the church calendar.
The painting of the Assumption Church in the village dates back to the 90s of the 11th century. Ateni (Ateni Zion). Georgian monumental painting was genetically connected with Byzantium, but had pronounced national features, which were fully reflected in the painting of Aten Zion. In the conch of the altar apse the Mother of God Nikopea is depicted with the Infant Christ, on either side of Her are the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. Below is the composition “Eucharist” with the apostles facing Christ. In the lowest register there are saints, in the openings between the windows there are stylites. Other images of the altar apse include Archdeacon Stephen and the Venerable Roman the Sweet Singer, as well as the patrons of the temple, including King David IV the Builder. In the northern apse there is a cycle of holidays, in the southern apse there are 14 scenes from the life of the Blessed Virgin Mary, in the western apse there is the Last Judgment. The trompos (instead of the evangelists) depict personified biblical rivers Nile, Pishon, Tigris and Euphrates in the form of young men on the waves. The general style of the paintings indicates that they belonged to Georgian masters. Dark colors predominate, the silhouettes of the figures are clearly defined, the images are distinguished by their monumentality, staticity and heaviness of forms.
During the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries, a number of mosaic ensembles of the Byzantine style were created in churches in Italy, in particular in the Sicilian cities of Cefalu, Monreale and Palermo, in Venice and Rome. The mosaics of the altar apse of the Cathedral of Cefalu, dating from the 1st half of the 12th century, represent one of the most perfect works of Byzantine art. According to the researcher, “these mosaics amaze at first glance with the noble beauty of their purely Byzantine forms. The figures are distinguished by the severity of their proportions, the design by their remarkable strength, the interpretation of the clothing by an almost ancient grace.” The image of Pantocrator in the conch is particularly refined, his hair and beard are carefully modeled, and his facial expression is emphatically ascetic. Under Pantocrator there is an “Oranta” of much smaller size, with two Angels on each side of Her. The lower registers of the altar apse are occupied by images of the apostles. Christ and the Mother of God are presented in strictly frontal poses, while the figures of the apostles are given in various turns. The graphic nature of the design, the accuracy and clarity of the lines are combined in Cefalu's mosaics with the expressiveness of the images, each of which has its own characteristic features.
In the mosaics of Italy, Byzantine influence coexists with the influence of Latin theology and local traditions. One of the 12th century mosaics in Torcello (Venice) shows the composition “The Second Coming”, which includes four registers. In the center of the upper register, in an oval medallion, a seated Christ is depicted with his arms stretched down, palms facing the audience (He shows the wounds from the nails on his hands). A fiery stream flows from the medallion, dividing the composition into the kingdom of the saved (to the left of the viewer, i.e. on the right hand of Christ) and the kingdom of the condemned (to the left). On the sides of Christ stand the Mother of God and John the Baptist, behind them is a host of Angels. In the same register, the apostles are depicted in white robes, with Gospels or scrolls in their hands; Peter, according to tradition, holds the keys. In the center of the second register is the “Prepared Throne” with an eight-pointed cross standing behind it; near the cross there are two Angels, at the foot of the Throne - Adam and Eve kneeling. On the left side of the second register are depicted Angels opening the doors of heaven to the righteous; on the right are Angels plunging the heads of sinners into eternal fire; Inside the flame, Satan is depicted as a green creature with white claws, white hair and a beard, sitting on a two-headed dragon. The left side of the third register is occupied by images of the saved: saints, martyrs, saints and holy women turned to Christ in prayer. On the right side are sinners condemned to torment, presented naked. The left side of the lower register is occupied by the image of a Cherub guarding the entrance to paradise, a prudent thief with a cross at the door of paradise, Abraham and Sarah with numerous offspring. On the right side are the various compartments of hell. The entire composition as a whole reflects not so much the Byzantine vision of posthumous reward for sinners, but rather the idea of the Second Coming, the Last Judgment and eternal torment, which is characteristic of the Latin Middle Ages.
The mosaics of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice, modeled after the Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople, were created over three centuries - from the 12th to the 14th centuries. Masters - both Greek and local origin - followed the program of pictorial decoration of the temple that had developed in Byzantium, but introduced elements characteristic of Western art. A significant part of the mosaics was damaged and was redone in a later era. The mosaics of San Marco represent an ensemble rich in content, including multi-figure compositions executed with virtuoso skill. Often several 
scenes are combined into one composition. The scenes of the Passion Cycle, created at different times, are united by expressiveness and dynamism. In the scene of the betrayal of Judas (1180-1190), the facial features of the negative characters (Judas, soldiers, high priests) are almost grotesque, many characters are depicted in profile. In the scene of the Battle of Gethsemane (13th century), the sleeping apostles are depicted in a realistic manner; each sleeps in a position that is characteristic only of him: one with his head resting on his hand, another with his head on his knees, a third lying on his back, a fourth with his head bowed on the knees of the fifth, etc.
On the ceiling of the western porch of the temple there is a composition “The Creation of the World” (1st half of the 13th century), illustrating the first two chapters of the book of Genesis. (There is also a similar composition in the cathedral in Montreal in Sicily.) In the center of the composition is a medallion with an ornament inside. The medallion is surrounded by three registers of images: the main character of most of them is the Creator, represented as a Youth in a cross-shaped halo; in this image the “antique” image of Christ as the Good Shepherd was revived. The days of creation are symbolized by angelic creatures in white robes, the firmament is symbolized by a circle in which the sun and moon with human faces, as well as six-pointed stars, are inscribed. The story of Adam begins in the second register and continues in the third: Adam’s face in its main features resembles the face of the Creator, which indicates the creation of Adam in the image and likeness of God. (In the Montreal Cathedral mosaics, where the Creator is represented with a beard and long hair, Adam also has a beard and long hair.) Eve's facial features, in turn, are similar to those of Adam. The composition amazes not only with the perfection of its artistic design, but also with the richness of its theological content.
In the period from the 12th to the 14th centuries, many temples in Asia Minor, Greece, Cyprus, Macedonia, Serbia and other countries were decorated with frescoes.
The richest collection of frescoes has been preserved in several churches in the Greek city of Kastoria (province of Western Macedonia). The churches of St. Nicholas of the Execution, the Unmercenary Saints Cosmas and Damian and Panagia Mauriotissa are distinguished by the special richness of their interior decoration. The Church of St. Nicholas was painted in 1160-1180 
years; Gospel stories predominate, as well as scenes from the life of the saint; One of the frescoes depicts the builder of the temple, Nikifor Kaznitsis, and his wife Anna, holding a model of the temple. The Church of the Holy Unmercenaries was painted in a similar style around 1180. The composition “Lamentation of Christ” (a widespread subject in the painting of Byzantine churches) is distinguished by its deep expressiveness. Inner restraint is present in the faces of the great martyrs, whose images decorate the walls of the temple. The painting of both temples is dominated by the desire for realism and expression; the faces are carefully depicted, the poses are flexible and expressive; the drawing is accurate and graphic. The style of paintings in the temple of Panagia Mavriotissa, dating back to the beginning of the 13th century, is somewhat different: the correct proportions are not always observed in the figures, the figures are somewhat angular, the faces are more schematic and conventional.
Impressive fresco ensembles have been preserved in Serbian churches: the Virgin Mary in Studenica (1208-1209), the Holy Apostles in Pec (1230-1240), the Savior in Mileshevo (1st half of the 13th century), the Holy Trinity in Sopocani (the earliest frescoes date back to by 1265, later ones - by the 13th century and the 40s of the 14th century), Our Lady in Gračanica (c. 1320), the Savior in Decani (c. 1348) and others. These frescoes combine Byzantine style with local influences. The plots are dominated by traditional themes: scenes from the Old and New Testaments, images of ancient saints. However, there are also images of people who played an important role in the history of Serbia and its Church: St. Sava, King Vladislav and his brother Radoslav (in Studenica), King Uros and his mother Anna (in Sopocany). Some images from Serbian churches have become world famous, for example, the Angel on the stone of the empty tomb from the painting of the Milesevo Church.
Of no less interest are the preserved frescoes of Macedonian churches of the same period: St. Panteleimon in Nerezi (1164), St. George in Kurbinovo (1191), Theotokos Perivelepta in Ohrid (1295), St. George in Staro Nagorichina (1317-1318), St. Demetrius in the Markov Monastery (c. 1370) and others. In the dome of the Panteleimon Church in Nerezi, Christ Pantocrator is depicted, in the apse conch there is a half-figure of “Oranta” with the Child in a round medallion. The lower register of the apse is occupied by the composition “Eucharist”, the center of which is an oblong altar with bread and wine standing on it; behind the altar are two Angels with ripids at the ciborium; on the sides of the altar is Christ, depicted twice, distributing Communion to the disciples. On the walls of the altar there are depictions of saints standing half-turned towards the viewer, with scrolls in their hands. In front of the altar barrier is an image of St. Panteleimon, the heavenly patron of the temple, in a carved marble icon case. The walls of the temple are decorated with multi-figure compositions depicting various scenes from the Holy Scriptures. Unsurpassed masterpieces are the compositions of the Passion Cycle - “The Descent from the Cross” and “The Lamentation of Jesus”: in terms of the power of expression, they have no equal in Byzantine painting. In both scenes, the Mother of God with a mournful face (sorrow conveyed in the lines of her eyebrows, raised high towards the center and lowered at the edges, in the curve of her lips, in her eyes filled with tears) clung to the face of the dead Christ. In the scene of “Lamentation,” the Mother of God holds the body of Christ with two hands, one clasping the neck, the other the waist, so that the Savior reclines in Her bosom (this unusual arrangement of figures emphasizes the motherhood of the Mother of God, Her blood connection with the Savior born of Her). John and Joseph with Nicodemus bowed before the body of the Deceased in reverent prayerful poses; Half-figures of Angels hover above the entire composition.
The small-sized church in Kurbinovo amazes with the abundance of multi-figure compositions executed with virtuoso skill (art historians distinguish the style of three masters). The main part of the frescoes dates back to the 12th century, some were added in the 16th century. In the conch of the apse the Virgin Mary is depicted sitting on a throne with the Infant Christ playing in Her arms; on the sides of the Mother of God are the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. The lower register of the apse is occupied by and 
images of saints. Above the apse is the composition “Ascension” with Christ in a medallion, Angels, the Virgin Mary and the apostles. On the sides of the apse is the Annunciation: on the left side there is an Angel in a dynamic and graceful pose, with detailed folds of clothing; on the right is a half-sitting Virgin Mary in an equally unexpected pose: Her head is turned towards the Archangel, and her bent knees are in the other direction. The walls of the temple are decorated with numerous images of saints, as well as the holy great martyrs - Thekla, Paraskeva, Theodora, Barbara, Anastasia and Catherine. Multi-figure compositions are dedicated to the main church holidays. In terms of originality of composition and mastery of execution, the composition “The Descent of Christ into Hell” stands out: Christ is presented in the center in a pose of rapid movement; with his right hand He holds Adam's hand; in His left hand He has a cross with a crown of thorns; the head is strongly tilted towards Adam; the himation flutters in the wind. The figure of Christ is inscribed in a circle divided by eight rays of light into eight segments; the direction of the main lines forming the figure coincides with the direction of the rays, which gives the entire composition almost geometric regularity and strict proportionality.
The frescoes of the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the refectory of the Monastery of the Holy Apostle John the Theologian on the island date back to the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century. Patmos (Greece). Painted with remarkable skill, the frescoes represent an outstanding monument to monumental painting 
. One of the frescoes depicts “The Hospitality of Abraham” - a plot known from the paintings of the Roman catacombs and mosaics of Ravenna. However, in this case, above the three Angels sitting in static poses, there is the inscription “Holy Trinity”. The right and left Angels are written half-turned, the middle one faces the viewer; the right hand of each Angel is raised in a blessing gesture; in the left hands of the two lateral Angels there are rods, in the left hand of the middle Angel there is a scroll. The figure of the middle Angel occupies the central place; he is dressed in a blue himation and a dark red tunic (the characteristic colors of Christ’s clothing), while the other two Angels are dressed in light himation and tunics. On the table are three breads, three knives and a dish with the head and bones of a calf. In the left corner of the composition, Abraham is represented with a dish in his hands; Sarah is missing.
The Temple of Athonite Protat (northern Greece) was painted around 1290 by the legendary artist Manuel Panselin (information about him was preserved in the work of the 18th century Athonite artist Dionysius of Fourna). The iconographic program of the temple is divided into several thematic cycles, each of which is placed in a separate register. The festive cycle includes events from the life of Christ based on the Gospel. The Theotokos cycle is based both on the Gospel narrative and on information from Church Tradition; The culmination of the Virgin cycle is the fresco “Assumption”, which occupies the entire western wall of the central nave: this is the most multi-figured composition in the entire ensemble. The passion cycle consists of eight compositions illustrating the last days, hours and minutes of Christ's earthly life. The Easter cycle includes four compositions dedicated to the appearance of Christ to the disciples after the resurrection. Seven compositions make up a cycle associated with the holiday of Pentecost and corresponding to the celebrations reflected in the liturgical book of the Colored Triodion (Pentikostarion). The walls of the temple are decorated with many images of saints: ancestors and prophets, evangelists and other apostles, saints and deacons, monks, warriors, martyrs, unmercenaries and healers. Panselin paid special attention to the images of saints who came from Thessaloniki, his hometown.
Panselin's art is distinguished by its special spiritual depth, plastic clarity, beauty of images and brightness of colors. The artist gravitates toward symmetrical compositions, portrait realism, and sculptural depictions of the human body. The influence of hesychasm is felt in the artist’s art; the faces - be it of Christ on the throne, the Mother of God on the throne, the great martyrs Theodore Stratelates or Theodore Tyrone - breathe inner silence and spirituality. The faces of Christ in single and multi-figure compositions are extremely diverse. One of the frescoes, known as “Christ Sleeping,” depicts the Baby lying on a pillow: the Baby’s eyes are open, but His facial expression is sleepy, He props up His head with his hand. In another fresco, Christ is represented as a young man with short curly hair and a short beard (Semitic-Palestinian type); the inscription reads: “Jesus Christ in another form.” In the composition “Descent into Hell” Christ is depicted bending towards Adam, whom he leads out of hell; the Savior’s facial features are marked with the stamp of compassion and calm; the faces and figures of Adam and Eve, on the contrary, are full of drama.
One of the peaks of fine art of the Palaeologian Renaissance is the ensemble of mosaics of the Constantinople monastery of Chora (Kahrie Jami). The temple, built in the 12th century, is a domed building, to which three more buildings are attached, each with its own dome: narthex, exonarthex and pare-clesium. The temple was decorated with mosaics at the beginning of the 14th century. In one of the domes of the temple is depicted in m 
food of Christ; 24 forefathers were located in rows around the medallion. In the dome of the narthex there is the Mother of God, around whom 16 forefathers are located. Thus, all the ancestors of Christ mentioned in His genealogy (Matt 1:1-16) are represented in the mosaic ensemble of two domes. The walls, vaults and sails of the narthex are decorated with numerous scenes of healings and miracles from the Gospel, episodes from the life of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and images of saints. Images of Christ and the Virgin Mary dominate the ensemble of figures. On one of the mosaics of the narthex, Christ is depicted sitting on a throne; at the foot of the throne, kneeling at the foot of the throne is the temple ktitor Theodore Metochites, the great logothete (first minister) of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, in a high headdress, holding out a model of the temple to the Savior. In another mosaic, Christ is shown standing; on the right hand of 
He is the Mother of God praying, facing Him half-turned; at the bottom of the composition are small figures of the sebastocrator Isaac Komnenos and the nun Melania (presumably the half-sister of Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos). In the lunette of the exonarthex there is an impressive image of Christ “Land of the Living”.
The mosaic ensemble of the monastery is complemented by an ensemble of frescoes located in the parekklesia of the monastery and created in 1315-1320. The semantic center of the ensemble, which includes several multi-figure scenes and numerous single images of saints, is the composition “Resurrection”. The traditional theme of the “Descent into Hell” (more precisely, the exodus from hell) is interpreted here with special drama. In the middle of the composition is a frontal image of Christ in white clothes; Christ stands with his legs spread wide apart and holds Adam’s hand with his right hand and Eve’s hand with his left. Adam and Eve are presented in dynamic poses: Adam almost running towards Christ, Eve rising from the depths of hell with effort. On the right hand of Christ (to the left of the viewer) John the Baptist and the Old Testament righteous with halos are depicted. On the left hand (to the right of the viewer) are the Old Testament sinners, led by Cain, the son of Eve, standing in indecision.