How speech works. Ontogenesis of speech function (stages of speech development). Speech is an integral part of the harmonious development of children. Often parents do not attach importance to deviations in speech development, but practice shows that early speech therapy correction of speech problems is much more effective. Therefore, it is very important to know the stages of speech development in children.
How speech works
Speech is a complex process in which two closely interacting mechanisms can be distinguished: internal speech and external speech.
Inner speech (speech understanding)
Speech understanding is formed through speech hearing. This is the ability to distinguish speech sounds from each other; with its help, the child begins to recognize words and distinguish them from each other. Speech hearing is developed during the first year of life. In children with developmental disorders, hearing is formed much later and with the help of different techniques and exercises.
External speech (or the child's own speech)
It develops on the basis of inner speech. The child tries to reproduce the sounds of the language and words that he hears from the outside. His speech hearing evaluates the result. And if imitation is unsuccessful, the child continues to look for new, more accurate ways of pronouncing. So he gradually learns to speak.
Stages of speech development
In the development of speech, all children go through the same stages, but the individual characteristics of each child leave their mark on the picture of his speech development and can cause deviations. These deviations most often relate to the age at which certain speech abilities arise. Sometimes these deviations do not go beyond the norm, and sometimes the formation of speech in a child is delayed, and then they talk about a delay in his speech development.
The active formation of speech in children begins almost from birth (there is an opinion that it begins in the prenatal period). First, understanding of speech appears, then one’s own, external speech develops.
Speech understanding develops on the basis of phonemic (speech) hearing. Already in the first month of life, the child distinguishes human speech from other sounds. At three months he recognizes his mother's voice and distinguishes intonations.
By about five months, he understands some words and the most frequent calls (Let's eat. Give me a pen.).
After six to seven months, speech understanding develops rapidly, but depends on the child’s natural abilities, as well as on the speech environment in which he is located.
The child also develops his own speech immediately after birth. The first manifestation of speech is a cry, then vowel sounds appear. In the second month, the baby begins to laugh. At three months, humming appears (long-drawn repetition of vowel sounds combined with consonants AA, A-GU, etc.), then babbling appears (pronouncing more complex combinations of sounds, including repetition of the syllables BA-BA, PA-PA , MOTHER).
But all these initial experiences of pronunciation are not yet the result of deliberate imitation of speech sounds, but are produced by the child unconsciously, instinctively.
The formation of one’s own meaningful speech, strange as it may seem, begins with a gesture. The first to appear is the pointing gesture and the gesture with which the child reaches for the object. In fact, these gestures depict actions and are peculiar analogues of verbs (look at or do something with this object and give).
Then words join gestures, but they never completely supplant gesticulation. The gesture is, as it were, included in the internal semantic structure of the word, “collapsed”, sometimes even to the point of “internal” gesticulation, barely noticeable to the eye. In an adult, sign language always accompanies normal speech, and sometimes somewhat precedes it (as if “launching” it). So the important role of gesture in speech remains forever.
After about six months, the child begins to consciously imitate speech sounds and pronounce chains of sounds reminiscent of words. By the end of the first year, he appears the first simple words (dai, mama, baba), as well as truncated forms of more complex words.
After a year, too many individual characteristics and originality appear in the speech development of children, so that it becomes difficult to somehow typify it. In general, by the age of one and a half years, a child should have a simple phrase (action + object). Words in these phrases may not be fully pronounced, and sentence members may be omitted.
By the age of two, a child should be able to pronounce a sentence of three to four words. It’s time for him to start formalizing his speech grammatically (not always yet, of course), that is, to use endings (for example, the plural, including incorrectly: doll - dolls), it’s time to use some suffixes (for example, diminutive), prefixes ( came, went). At this age, it is the level of development of phrasal speech, and not the richness of the vocabulary, that determines how favorable the child’s speech situation is.
After two years, a normally developing child already understands speech well and correctly follows available instructions. By the age of three, he should have formed a complex (of several words), full-fledged, well-formed phrase using prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, that is, almost all linguistic means. For this age, it is considered normal to incorrectly pronounce certain sounds: most often (P), (L), hissing and whistling.
Thus, by the age of three, the development of a child’s speech is basically and in principle completed, and its further development consists of gradual improvement and complication of already established linguistic forms.
Features of speech development in children with intellectual disabilities
A characteristic feature of the speech development of children with intellectual disabilities is the late development of speech. A sharp lag is observed already in the period of pre-speech vocalizations (babble appears in the period from 12 to 24 months). The first words appear later than 3 years, sometimes from 2.5 to 5 years (normally, the appearance of the first words in children is from 10 to 18 months). The appearance of phrasal speech also lags significantly behind.
Speech disorders in mentally retarded children are characterized by persistence; they are eliminated with great difficulty, remaining for life.
In children with mental retardation:
- Phonemic (speech) hearing suffers, and hence such disorders as defects in sound pronunciation, underdevelopment of grammatical structure (agrammatisms), dyslexia, and dysgraphia.
- There is a violation of general motor skills, in particular articulatory motor skills. These two disorders together give rise to a sensorimotor defect (distinctive - pronunciation).
- Impaired motivation, decreased need for verbal communication.
- Poor dictionary, big gap between active and passive dictionaries.
Children with mental retardation can experience all forms of speech disorders: alalia, dysarthria, rhinolalia, dysphonia, dyslexia, dysgraphia, stuttering, etc.
The peculiarity of speech disorders in mentally retarded children is that the dominant defect in their structure is a semantic defect. Speech disorders in mentally retarded children manifest themselves against the background of gross impairment of cognitive activity and abnormal mental development in general. Speech disorders are systemic in nature, i.e. speech as an integral functional system suffers.
Types of speech disorders:
Alalia is a violation of the development of language ability in children with normal hearing and primarily intact intelligence. Occurs with organic brain lesions in the pre-speech period.
Dysarthria– a violation of the sound-pronunciation and prosodic aspects of speech, caused by insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus. Dysarthria is a Latin term and translated means disorders of articulate speech. The term “dysarthria” combines all forms of sound pronunciation disorders: from distortion of sounds (fuzzy, blurred speech) to nasal, slurred, poorly perceived pronunciation.
Rhinolalia– pathological change in voice timbre and distorted pronunciation of speech sounds as a result of disruption of the normal participation of the nasal cavity in the process of speech formation.
Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, caused by the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus.
Dysphonia (aphonia)– absence or disorder of phonation due to pathological changes in the vocal apparatus.
Dyslexia– partial specific disorder of the reading process.
Dysgraphia– partial specific violation of the writing process.
The consequence of the above-mentioned features of speech development in mentally retarded children are vocal, prosodic and articulatory-phonemic defects. All this significantly impairs the intelligibility, intelligibility, smoothness and clarity of speech.
The development of speech in a child is not only an element of socialization, but also an important indicator of the development of intelligence. With the advent of all kinds of electronic devices in recent decades, the need for people to communicate verbally has decreased, including the need for parents to communicate with their children.
In this regard, in practice, I increasingly began to notice a shift in the timing of speech development; children have a reduced incentive to verbally express their needs. Most parents don't pay attention to this. However, this may be a sign of delayed development of the child in general and speech development in particular. Usually in such cases, doctors prescribe drug treatment, this helps stimulate the development of the articulatory apparatus and creates favorable conditions for speech therapy, which is carried out by a speech therapist.
However, it is not always worth resorting to treatment with medications; it is much more effective to consult a speech therapist in the early stages, when, perhaps, the problem has not yet formed.
When counseling children, unfortunately, we constantly hear from parents that experts recommended correcting violations at the age of 5-6 years, “before school,” “later,” “when the child is ready.”
Speech as a product of speech activity
Speech activity is a specific type of activity. Speech activity as such takes place only when speech is valuable in itself, when the underlying motive that motivates it cannot be satisfied in any other way than speech.
At the same time, the “word” (speech) arises in the process of social practice, and therefore is a fact of objective reality, independent of the individual consciousness of a person.
Speech activity is defined as the process of using language to communicate during some other human activity.
The distinctive features of speech activity are the following:
Subject matter of the activity. It is determined by the fact that speech activity occurs “eye to eye with the outside world.”
Purposefulness, which means that any act of activity is characterized by a final goal, and any action is characterized by an intermediate goal, the achievement of which, as a rule, is planned by the subject in advance.
Motivation of speech activity. It is determined by the fact that in reality, the act of any activity is prompted simultaneously by several motives merged into one whole.
Hierarchical (“vertical”) organization of speech activity, including the hierarchical organization of its units.
Phase (“horizontal”) organization of activity.
The main and universal type of interaction between people in human society is speech, speech activity. Thus, the activity of communication and speech activity is considered in general psychology as general and particular, as a whole and a part. Speech in this case can be considered as a form and at the same time a method of communication. “Speech activity,” says AA. Leontiev, “is a specialized use of speech for communication and in this sense is a special case of the activity of communication.”
Speech activity has two main options for its implementation. The first is the process of verbal communication (verbal communication), which accounts for approximately two-thirds of the entire “layer” of speech activity; the second is individual speech-thinking activity, realized through internal speech.
Speech activity, as one of the types of human activity, is characterized by purposefulness and consists of several successive phases: orientation, planning (in the form of internal programming), implementation and control. In accordance with these phases, each individual speech action is carried out. The starting point of any speech action is a speech situation, that is, such a combination of circumstances that prompts a person to perform a speech action (for example, to make a statement). Examples of speech situations: the need to answer a question, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc. A speech situation gives rise to a motive for speaking, which in some cases develops into the need to perform this action. The following stages are distinguished in the implementation of speech action:
1) preparation of a statement: awareness of motives, needs, goals, probabilistic forecasting of the results of a statement based on past experience and taking into account the situation;
2) structuring the utterance: the choice of words, their arrangement in the desired sequence and grammatical design - all this happens internally;
3) transition to external speech: sound or graphic design of the utterance. This stage is the most crucial, since it determines the positive or negative result of the statement. If the transition from internal to external speech is disrupted for some reason, that is, internal speech is poorly formed in external speech, then such speech seems incomplete, incoherent, and difficult to understand.
The result of a speech act is judged by its perception and reaction to it, i.e. feedback. Speech perception (the process of listening or reading) includes the following stages: 1) transition from an acoustic or graphic code to an internal speech code; 2) decoding syntactic structures, grammatical forms; 3) understanding the general plan of the statement; 4) understanding the intentions and motives of the statement; 5) assessment of the information received (the content of the statement, its ideas, the speaker’s position, etc.); 6) understanding the choice of form and linguistic means.
Understanding (as an integral part of the perception process) includes two levels: linguistic and content. The first without the second is possible, but the second without the first is not. Obviously, complete understanding is not always achieved.
Feedback (i.e., reaction to an utterance) is an important element of control of speech action, allowing one to evaluate its result. The most complete feedback is provided in dialogue.
9. Means of verbal communication - verbal and non-verbal
The signs used to convey information can be verbal (explicit, expressed in words) and non-verbal (i.e. hidden - facial expressions, pantomime, voice characteristics, tempo, spatial pattern, breathing, etc.).
However, this second type itself requires a more detailed division into various forms. Today, numerous forms of nonverbal sign systems have been described and studied. The main ones are: kinesics, paralinguistics, proxemics, visual communication. Accordingly, a variety of types of communication process arises.
Verbal means of business communications include oral and written speech (including various types of documentation).
Verbal communication uses human speech, natural sound language, as a sign system, i.e., a system of phonetic signs that includes two principles: lexical and syntactic. Speech is the most universal means of communication, since when transmitting information through speech, the meaning of the message is least lost.
The accuracy of the listener’s understanding of the meaning of the utterance can become obvious to the communicator only when there is a change in “communicative roles” (a conventional term designating “speaker” and “listener”), i.e. when the recipient turns into a communicator and makes it known with his utterance how he revealed the meaning of the received information.
In social psychology, there is a large number of experimental studies that elucidate the conditions and methods for increasing the effect of speech influence; both the forms of various communication barriers and ways to overcome them have been studied in sufficient detail.
An analysis of all nonverbal communication systems shows that they undoubtedly play a large auxiliary (and sometimes independent) role in the communication process. Having the ability not only to strengthen or weaken the verbal impact, all non-verbal communication systems help to take into account such an essential parameter of the communicative process as the intentions of its participants (the “subtext” of communication), the emotional background, the health status of the partner, his profession (compare the handshake of a blacksmith and a musician), status, age, etc. The quantity and quality of non-verbal signals depends on a person’s age (for children they are easier to read), gender, nationality (compare, for example, the gestures of Italians and Swedes), type of temperament, social status, level of professionalism (the higher socio-economic status and professionalism of a person, the less developed his gestures and poorer body movements) and other indicators.
In order not to make mistakes in the interpretation of non-verbal signals, you need to be guided by the following rules - You should judge not by individual gestures (they can have several meanings), but by their totality. Gestures cannot be interpreted in isolation from the context of their manifestation. The same gesture (for example, arms crossed on the chest) during negotiations can mean stiffness, reluctance to participate in the discussion of the problem, perhaps mistrust, and a person standing with crossed arms at a bus stop in winter is probably simply cold. National and regional characteristics of nonverbal communication should be taken into account. The same gesture can have completely different meanings among different peoples.
When interpreting gestures, try not to attribute your experience or your condition to another.
Other factors influencing the interpretation of gestures. It could be a health condition. For example, nearsighted people have dilated pupils, while farsighted people have constricted pupils. A patient with polyarthritis prefers to avoid shaking hands for fear of joint pain. The width of the pupil is also influenced by the brightness of the light, and the desire to avoid shaking hands is influenced by profession. The latter applies to artists, musicians, surgeons and people in other professions that require sensitive fingers.
Together with the verbal communication system, nonverbal communication systems provide the exchange of information that people need to organize joint activities.
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Introduction
1. The essence of speech activity as an activity
2 Basic forms of speech
2.1 External speech
2.2 Inner speech
3. Types of speech activity
3.1 Speaking
3.2 Reading
3.3 Letter
3.4 Hearing
4. The structure of speech activity as one of the main types of activity
4.1 Orientation
4.2 Planning
4.3 External implementation
4.4 Control
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Every speech utterance, every act of generating or perceiving speech is multilaterally conditioned. On the one hand, there are a number of factors that influence what content will be expressed in a statement (when speaking about content, we mean not only semantics, but also such features of the statement as its modality, etc.). These are factors, primarily psychological. On the other hand, there are many factors that determine how certain content will be realized in speech (this includes, in addition to psychological ones, factors that are actually linguistic, stylistic, sociological, etc.). The nature of all these factors and the way in which they determine the generation of a particular speech utterance can be described using various theories or models.
Speech activity should be understood as human activity (behavior), to one degree or another mediated by language signs. More narrowly, speech activity should be understood as an activity in which a linguistic sign acts as a “stimulus-means,” i.e., an activity during which we form a speech utterance and use it to achieve some predetermined goal.
The topic of my test is “The main stages of speech activity.”
The purpose of this work is to reveal the concept of “speech activity”, to consider the main forms, types, and structural components of this process.
Speech is a form of communication that has developed historically in the process of material transformative activity of people, mediated by language. Speech includes the processes of generating and perceiving messages for the purposes of communication or (in a particular case) for the purposes of regulation and control of one’s own activities (Inner speech, egocentric speech). Of interest to psychology is, first of all, the place of speech in the system of higher mental functions of a person - in its relationship with thinking, consciousness, memory, emotions, etc.; At the same time, those features that reflect the structure of personality and activity are especially important. Most Soviet psychologists consider speech as speech activity, appearing either in the form of an integral act of activity (if it has a specific motivation that is not realized by other types of activity), or in the form of speech actions included in non-speech activity. The structure of speech activity or speech action, in principle, coincides with the structure of any action, that is, it includes the phases of orientation, planning (in the form of “internal programming”), implementation and control. Speech can be active, constructed anew each time, and reactive, representing is a chain of dynamic speech stereotypes.
So, what is speech activity? What is the essence of this process? What types of speech activity exist, and what are its structural features?
I tried to answer these and many other questions in this test.
1. The essence of speech activity as a type of activity
Activity is defined as “a complex set of processes united by a common focus on achieving a certain result, which is at the same time an objective motivator of this activity, i.e., something in which this or that need of the subject is specified.” From this definition, the purposeful nature of activity is clear: it presupposes a certain pre-set goal (which, if the act of activity is successful, is its result) and a motive that determines the setting and achievement of this goal. We will have to dwell on the relationship between motive and purpose later when we talk about the concept of meaning.
The second distinctive feature of activity is its structure, its certain internal organization. It is reflected, first of all, in the fact that an act of activity consists of individual actions (“relatively independent processes subordinated to a conscious goal”). The same actions can be included in different activities and vice versa - the same result may be achieved through different actions. This reflects, among other things, the “metric” nature of human activity, which makes it possible to use, given a fixed goal, various methods of achieving it and, as the plan is carried out, to change these methods according to the changed situation.
Speech activity is one of the most complex types of activity in all its parameters.
Firstly, in terms of its organization. Let's start with the fact that speech activity extremely rarely acts as an independent, complete act of activity: it is usually included as an integral part of a higher-order activity. For example, a typical speech utterance is an utterance that somehow regulates the behavior of another person. But this means that the activity can be considered completed only if such regulation is successful. For example, I ask my neighbor at the table to pass me a piece of bread. The act of activity, taken as a whole, is not completed: the goal will be achieved only if the neighbor actually gives me the bread. Thus, speaking further about speech activity, we are not entirely precise: it will be of interest to us and we will further consider not the entire act of speech activity, but only a set of speech actions that have their own intermediate goal, subordinate to the goal of the activity as such. Speech activity is studied by various sciences. Speech activity is an object studied by linguistics and other sciences: language is a specific subject of linguistics that actually exists as an integral part of an object (speech activity) and is modeled by linguists in the form of a special system for certain theoretical or practical purposes.
2 . Basic forms of speech
In psychology, it is customary to distinguish between two main forms of speech: external and internal.
2.1 External form of speech
External speech includes:
1. Oral (dialogue and monologue)
Sh Dialogical speech is supported speech; the interlocutor asks clarifying questions during the conversation, giving remarks that can help complete the thought (or reorient it). Dialogue is direct communication between two or more people. A type of dialogic communication is a conversation in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.
The basic rules of dialogical speech are:
- Politely introduce yourself and introduce others.
- Ask and answer questions politely.
- Express a request, wish, bewilderment, delight, regret, agreement and disagreement, apologize and accept.
- Talk on the phone.
- Play your role expressively and close to reality in a dramatization of a conversation, interview, or conversation.
- Replay situations of communication with foreign peers and guests.
- Exchange opinions about an event, fact, problem of discussion.
- Exchange impressions about your future profession or further education.
- Discuss environmental issues, preserving peace, health, etc.
- Interview communication partners on various issues.
Ш Monologue speech is a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts and knowledge by one person. It also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, therefore the speaker has an active, expressive, facial and gestural influence. In monologue speech, compared to dialogical speech, the semantic side changes most significantly. Monologue speech is coherent, contextual. Its content must, first of all, satisfy the requirements of consistency and evidence in presentation. Another condition, inextricably linked with the first, is the grammatically correct construction of sentences. A monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. It places a number of demands on the tempo and sound of speech. The substantive side of the monologue must be combined with the expressive side. Expressiveness is created both by linguistic means (the ability to use a word, phrase, syntactic construction that most accurately convey the speaker’s intention) and by non-linguistic communicative means (intonation, a system of pauses, the division of the pronunciation of a word or several words, which performs the function of a kind of emphasis, facial expressions and gestures).
During a monologue speech it is allowed
§ Speak on the content of the text with relying on short notes, an outline or keywords.
§ Express your opinion on the content of illustrative material based on questions.
§ Convey the content of the text you listened to or read.
§ Talk about an event or fact.
§ Present in class with a report or essay prepared at home.
§ Speak briefly on the content of the text read or listened to.
Oral speech is verbal (verbal) communication using linguistic means perceived by ear. Oral speech is characterized by the fact that individual components of a speech message are generated and perceived sequentially.
The processes of generating oral speech include links of orientation, simultaneous planning (programming), speech implementation and control: in this case, planning, in turn, occurs through two parallel channels and concerns the content and motor-articulatory aspects of oral speech.
Oral speech is speech produced in the process of speaking; the main form of using natural language in speech activity. For the colloquial style of a literary language, the oral form is the main one, while book styles function in both written and oral form (a scientific article and an oral scientific report, a speech at a meeting without a previously prepared text and a recording of this speech in the minutes of the meeting). The most important distinguishing feature of oral speech is its unpreparedness: oral speech, as a rule, is created during a conversation. However, the degree of unpreparedness may vary. This may be a speech on a topic unknown in advance, carried out as an improvisation. On the other hand, it can be a speech on a previously known topic, thought out in certain parts. Oral speech of this kind is typical for official public communication. From oral speech, i.e. speech generated in the process of speaking, one should distinguish between speech read and learned by heart; for this type of speech the term "sounding speech" is sometimes used. The unprepared nature of oral speech gives rise to a number of its specific features: an abundance of unfinished syntactic constructions (for example: Well, in general... contemplation... I can draw for friends); self-interrupting (There are still many people in Russia who want... who write with a pen and not on a computer); repetitions (I would... I would... like to say more); constructions with nominative themes (This boy / he wakes me up every morning); pick-ups (A - We invite you... B - tomorrow to the theater). The specific features caused by unprepared oral speech mentioned above are not speech errors, because do not interfere with understanding the content of speech, and in some cases serve as an important means of expression. Moreover, speech designed for direct perception, which is oral speech, loses if it is too detailed, consists exclusively of detailed sentences, if direct word order predominates in it. In a speech intended for a listener, the structural and logical pattern of a phrase often changes, incomplete sentences are very appropriate (saving the energy and time of the speaker and listener), incidental additional thoughts and evaluative phrases are allowed (enriching the text and being well separated from the main text through intonation). One of the most significant shortcomings of oral speech is its intermittency (logical, grammatical and intonation), which consists in unjustified stopping of speech, breaking off phrases, thoughts, and sometimes unjustified repetition of the same words. The reasons for this are different: ignorance of what needs to be said, inability to formulate the subsequent thought, the desire to correct what was said. The second of the most common shortcomings of oral speech is its lack of differentiation (intonation and grammatical): phrases follow one after another without pauses, logical stresses, without clear grammatical design of sentences. Grammar and intonation confusion naturally affects the logic of speech: thoughts merge, the order of their occurrence becomes unclear, the content of the text becomes vague and indefinite. Written speech is speech created using visible (graphic) signs on paper, other material, or a monitor screen.
Oral speech is usually considered to be more ancient than written language. Writing is seen as an additional, secondary method of communication. The date of the emergence of written language is usually associated with the finds of ancient texts on stone, clay tablets, and papyri.
Oral speech predominates in everyday life, which is why it is considered leading. But gradually written language begins to have an increasing influence on oral speech. Written speech is prepared speech. It can be checked, corrected, edited, shown to specialists and repeatedly improved, achieving improved content and form of presentation. All this cannot be done if you keep the speech only in your mind. In addition, written speech is easier to remember and retains in memory longer. A written text disciplines the speaker, gives him the opportunity to avoid repetitions, sloppy formulations, slips of the tongue, hesitations, and makes speech more confident. The norms and literary norms of written speech are more strict; grammar courses were usually based on the structures of written speech.
Oral speech has some advantages: it has more spontaneity and living feeling. At the same time, it requires a lot of training: almost automaticity in the choice of words. In oral speech the syntax is simpler, literary norms are not so strict; it uses numerous means of sound expressiveness: intonation, various pauses; it is accompanied by gestures and facial expressions. It is oral speech that provides greater contact when communicating.
2. Written speech is a type of monologue speech. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. This is due to the fact that written speech presupposes the absence of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, written speech does not have any additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and punctuation marks that organize the sentence.
2.2 Internal form of speech
This is a special type of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, internal speech, on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation and fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. Therefore, inner speech is extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogical. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
The translation of external speech into internal speech (interiorization) is accompanied by a reduction (shortening) of the structure of external speech, and the transition from internal speech to external speech (exteriorization) requires, on the contrary, the deployment of the structure of internal speech, its construction in accordance not only with logical rules, but also with grammatical ones.
The informativeness of a speech depends, first of all, on the value of the facts conveyed in it and on the ability of its author to communicate.
The understandability of speech depends, firstly, on its semantic content, secondly, on its linguistic features and, thirdly, on the relationship between its complexity, on the one hand, and the level of development, range of knowledge and interests of listeners, on the other.
Expressiveness of speech requires taking into account the situation of the speech, clarity and distinctness of pronunciation, correct intonation, and the ability to use words and expressions with figurative and figurative meaning.
There are three main types of inner speech:
Ш internal pronunciation - “speech to oneself”, preserving the structure of external speech, but devoid of phonation, i.e. pronunciation
Ш sounds, and typical for solving mental problems in difficult conditions;
Internal speech itself, when it acts as a means of thinking, uses specific units (code of images and schemes, subject code, subject meanings) and has a specific structure, different from the structure of external speech;
Ш internal programming, i.e. formation and consolidation in specific units of the plan (type, program) of a speech utterance, the whole text and its meaningful parts (A. N. Sokolov; I. I. Zhinkin, etc.). In ontogenesis, internal speech is formed in the process of internalization of external speech.
Dactyl speech is speech that reproduces words using dactyl letters, i.e., certain configurations of fingers and their movements. Factile speech is used as an auxiliary speech aid in teaching verbal speech to deaf people, as well as in interpersonal communication of deaf people and communication between hearing people and deaf people.
Sign speech is a method of interpersonal communication between people who are deaf, using a system of gestures characterized by unique lexical and grammatical patterns. The patterns of sign speech are determined by the expressed originality of its main semantic unit - the gesture, as well as its functional purpose (use in the field of casual communication). In the field of official communication (meetings, translation of lectures, etc.), tracing sign language is used, when gestures are used sequentially to reproduce words. In tracing sign speech, elements of dactyl speech are used to indicate endings, suffixes, etc. Sign speech is used as an auxiliary means (along with the main one - verbal speech) in the process of teaching and raising children with hearing impairments.
3. Types of speech activity
The concept of types of speech activity came into the methodology of teaching the native language from the methodology of teaching a foreign language. It belongs to the famous linguist and teacher Academician Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba.
In essence, this is both a methodological and psychological concept. After all, learning to read, write, write, and speak is, in essence, the formation of specific speech skills and speech or communicative-speech skills based on them (meaning the use of skills to solve various specific, primarily communicative, tasks).
Types of speech activity are different types of speech skills and speech abilities.
The concept of types of speech activity in the methodology of the native language allows us to more clearly imagine the psychological patterns of the formation of relevant skills and abilities. It is logical to expect that methodological techniques, types of exercises, etc. must be correlated with the structure and formation of corresponding psychological mechanisms, always complex and multi-level.
In practice, the need to ensure the formation of individual psychological operations and their complexes cannot but take into account the fact of the interaction of different types of speech activity, their mutual intertwining, especially when solving complex communication problems. Thus, underestimation of the work on the formation of phonemic hearing gives rise to many errors in writing.
“It is not thinking that thinks, it is man who thinks,” wrote the great psychologist L.S. in one of his works. Vygotsky. In the same way, the hand does not write, the tongue does not speak, and the ear does not listen. A person as an integral subject of mental activity, as a person, uses his speech (in a broad sense) skills and abilities in life to solve the problems that confront him. And to be, say, literate is necessary not so much in order to receive a certificate of maturity, but in order to become a full-fledged person among other people, to be fully realized.
The main types of speech activity include:
Ш speaking (oral expression of thoughts),
Ш listening (listening to speech and understanding it),
Ш writing (graphic, written expression of thought) and
Ш reading (i.e. perception and understanding of someone else's recorded speech); distinguish between reading aloud and silent reading - reading to oneself.
It is these types of speech activity that underlie the process of speech communication. The effectiveness and success of verbal communication depends on how well a person has developed the skills of these types of speech activities.
No matter under what conditions speech communication is carried out, no matter what means information is transmitted, it is based on a single model of speech communication. The elements of this model are:
a. The sender of information or addressee is a person speaking or writing.
b. The recipient of information or addressee is a person reading or listening.
c. Message - text in oral or written form. Without text, without information, speech communication, the process of communication itself, is impossible.
3.1 Speaking
Teaching communication in high school is built with a focus on authentic (or close to them) communication situations at school, family, and in public places. In this case, the main attention is paid to the development of communication ethics at the interpersonal and intercultural levels.
Speaking - sending sound signals that carry information; Improving speaking skills includes increasing readiness to maintain a conversation on various topics and mastering speaking techniques. In order to be ready to maintain a conversation on various topics in public and private communication, a person needs to constantly engage in self-education in the broad sense of the word, i.e. acquire new knowledge, not only in one’s specialty, but also other knowledge in the field of science and art that is of public interest, develop independent thinking, trying to give one’s own assessment of the information received from books and newspapers, read fiction in order to better understand life and improve the style of your speech.
3.2 Reading
Reading as a type of speech activity develops on the basis of authentic texts of various genres that have a communicative and personality-oriented orientation. Before starting to work on the text, the teacher is recommended to determine for what purpose the text can be used:
Ш to familiarize yourself with the general content of the text (introductory reading);
Ш for selective familiarization with certain provisions of the text (scanning reading);
Ш for a detailed study of the content of the material read (study reading).
Authentic text is considered as the basis of person-oriented communication. This means that with the help of interrelated exercises, a gradual transition is ensured from indirect communication (based on text) to direct communication (active use of language and speech means in communication situations).
The skills that need to be developed at the final stage of training include the following:
Receptive skills:
1. Anticipate the content of the text using a title, diagram, commentary, illustrative material based on leading questions.
2. Understand the general content of what you read, highlighting the main thought, idea, and key information.
3. Understand the full content of what you read, relying on known lexical units and linguistic means.
4. Extract the necessary fact or event from what you read.
5. Predict events and facts based on the title, diagram, commentary, illustrative material, with discussion in pair or group work.
Reproductive skills:
1. Reproduce what you read based on keywords, a plan, and leading questions.
2. Divide the text into semantic parts, highlighting the main thing in them.
3. Shorten the text by eliminating secondary information for subsequent transmission of its content in the form of a dialogue or monologue.
4. Construct a dialogue in the form of an interview, conversation based on the text read.
5. Compose an abstract, write down theses.
Reproductive skills:
1. Reveal and discuss problems based on the text.
2. Make a plan for speaking on the issue and make short notes for each point of the plan.
3. Convey the contents of the text on behalf of the author, a 3rd person, or on your own behalf.
4. Reconstruct the text in an interview, conversation and dramatize it in pair (or group) work.
5. Generalize the problem, drawing on already known facts from other areas of everyday life.
Productive skills:
1. Use new language and speech means contained in communication situations.
2. Based on the text, write an essay or short report for presentation in class.
3. Participate in project work on a well-known topic.
Reading skills vary from person to person. Sometimes school graduates read quickly enough, but ineffectively, quickly forgetting the content of what they read. Developing reading skills helps you process more information and save time. At the stage of visual perception of text, an important role is played by:
Ш fixation of gaze - stopping the eyes for a split second when perceiving what is written;
Ш eye movement - movement of the gaze from one section of the text to another;
Ш field of view is a section of text that is clearly perceived by the eyes during one fixation of the gaze.
Typical reading deficiencies are:
§ Regressions, i.e. unjustified, mechanical returns to what has already been read, slowing down the reading process.
§ Articulation, i.e. internal pronunciation of the text being read, slowing down the reading speed by 3-4 times.
§ Small field of view. When 2-3 words are perceived in one fixation of gaze, the eyes have to make many stops. The wider the field of view, the more information is perceived each time the eyes stop. A person trained in reading techniques can perceive an entire line, and sometimes even a paragraph, in one fixation of his gaze.
§ Poor development of the semantic forecasting mechanism. The ability to predict what is written and make semantic guesses is necessary to improve reading efficiency.
§ Low level of attention organization. The reading speed of most readers is much lower than what they could achieve without compromising their comprehension if they could control their attention. In a slow reader, attention quickly switches to extraneous thoughts and objects, so interest in the text decreases.
§ Lack of flexible reading strategy. Often people, when starting to read, do not set any goals for themselves and do not use the rules of text processing. In fact, depending on the purpose of reading, you can choose such methods as reading-viewing, introductory reading, in-depth reading.
Thoughts are formed in linguistic forms, expressed out loud or in writing. The differences between oral and written speech are determined by the coding method (in oral speech it is an acoustic code, in written speech it is a graphic code), expressive capabilities, and frequency of use in real life.
3.3 Letter
Written speech is verbal (verbal) communication using written texts. It can be either delayed (for example, a letter) or immediate (exchange of notes during a meeting). Written speech differs from oral speech not only in that it uses graphics, but also in grammatical (primarily syntactic) and stylistic respects - in syntactic constructions typical of written speech and functional styles specific to it. It is characterized by a very complex compositional and structural organization, which must be specially mastered, and hence the special task of teaching written language at school.
Since the text of written speech can be perceived simultaneously or, in any case, in large “chunks,” the perception of written speech differs in many ways from the perception of spoken speech.
Considering the practical significance of written speech communication, writing as a type of speech activity is developed on the basis of only authentic educational material.
Students should be able to:
1. Write out key words, supporting sentences, and necessary information from the text.
2. Make the necessary notes for subsequent discussion of the problem.
3. Compose and fill out the questionnaire.
4. Answer questions in the questionnaire and text.
5. Write a job application.
6. Write a short/detailed autobiography.
7. Write a business letter using the necessary form of speech etiquette.
8. Write a personal letter using the rules of speech etiquette of native speakers.
The written form of speech is the main one for official business and scientific styles of speech, for the language of fiction. The journalistic style uses equally written and oral forms of speech (periodicals and television). The use of written form allows you to think about your speech longer, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the development and use of more complex syntactic structures than is typical for oral speech. Such features of oral speech as repetitions and unfinished constructions would be stylistic errors in a written text. If in oral speech intonation is used as a means of semantically highlighting parts of a statement, then in writing punctuation marks are used, as well as various means of graphically highlighting words, combinations and parts of text: using a different type of font, bold font, italics, underlining, framing, placing text on page. These tools ensure the selection of logically important parts of the text and the expressiveness of written speech.
In conditions of spontaneous oral speech, conscious choice and evaluation of the linguistic means used in it are reduced to a minimum, while in written speech and prepared oral speech they occupy a significant place. Various types and forms of speech are built according to specific patterns (for example, colloquial speech allows significant deviations from the grammatical system of the language, logical and, especially, artistic speech occupies a special place). Speech is studied not only by speech psychology, but also by psycholinguistics, speech physiology, linguistics, semiotics and other sciences.
3.4 Hearing
This is the perception of sound signals and their understanding; Listening is an integral part of the communication process and includes two stages: the stage of primary analysis of the sound signal and its psychomechanical processing; stage of semantic interpretation.
Scientists have discovered a significant gap between the amount of information expressed by a speaker, speaker, or participant in a regular conversation and the amount of information perceived by listeners. It has been experimentally established that when perceiving speech by ear, a person on average reaches only a 25% level of efficiency in 10 minutes. Even in informal conversations, the listener absorbs on average no more than 60-70% of what the interlocutor says.
The reason for this gap is a number of typical listening deficiencies:
§ thoughtless perception, when the sound of speech is only a background for any activity;
§ fragmentary perception, when only individual parts of spoken speech are interpreted;
§ narrowness of perception, i.e. inability to critically analyze the content of a message and establish a connection between it and the facts of reality.
In order to develop effective listening skills, you need to be able to answer the following questions for yourself:
Why is it necessary to listen? What are the factors for effective listening? How to listen?
1. Why is it necessary to listen? This question helps to assess the usefulness that can be gained from listening to a lecture, oral presentation, television program, or speech of an interlocutor. You may find it useful:
- Obtaining information. This is the main purpose of listening in professional activities, but useful information can be gleaned not only from lectures and speeches at production meetings, but also from everyday conversations.
- Entertainment. This is one of the important human needs. The purpose of entertainment is present in ordinary conversations and in listening to some television programs.
- Inspiration. Often a person listens not to learn facts, but to be inspired. This is also one of the human needs.
- Analysis of facts and ideas. Necessary for a more complete perception of speech and the inclusion of the received information in the structure of existing experience and knowledge.
- Improving your own speech. Observing the speech of others teaches a person to be more attentive to his own speech.
2. Factors for effective listening are:
- Attitude of listeners. For successful communication, an objective, unbiased, cooperative attitude of listeners is necessary. Overconfident people are usually poor listeners. An educated person is usually more attentive than an uneducated person. Poorly educated people become passive listeners, because... they have little knowledge with which to compare the speaker's words.
- Listener interest. It has been observed that people show more interest in familiar things than unfamiliar ones, and are also interested in practically useful and new ideas. Therefore, the speaker in his speech should show enthusiasm, talk about exciting and specific things, and use the language of action.
- Listener motivation. The attention of listeners is enhanced if the speech touches on issues related to the basic life needs and feelings of a person. Such motives are self-preservation, interest in property, desire to expand influence, concern for reputation, affection, sentimentality, taste.
- Emotional state. Unwanted emotions that interfere with continuous attention can come from the listener's state of depression, his attitude towards the speaker, his objections to the speaker's statements.
3. How to listen?
For listening to be beneficial, you need to develop the following skills:
1) ability to concentrate;
2) the ability to analyze content;
3) the ability to listen critically;
4) ability to take notes.
The ability to concentrate allows you to constantly monitor the progress of the presentation of thoughts and all the details of what is being communicated. This skill involves the following techniques:
- Take an objective and cooperative position towards the speaker.
- Remember what you already know about the subject of speech.
- Think about the topic and try to guess how the speaker will develop it.
- Think about how the content of the speech can help you.
- The ability to analyze content is necessary, first of all, for listening to public speeches, because they contain different ideas, and if one of them is missed, the connection between parts of the text will be broken.
The ability to analyze is based on the following techniques:
- determining the purpose of speech;
- definition of speech composition;
- determining the main topic of the speech;
- identifying the main ideas of the speaker;
- definition of forms of argumentation;
- determining the forms of summarization and final conclusions.
Critical listening skills can be developed by doing the following:
Relate what the speaker says to your own experiences. You can agree with the speaker, postpone a decision until further information is received, or question the speaker's words.
Summarize and organize what you heard. Stay ahead of the speaker and try to predict how he will develop the main topic.
The ability to take notes is required in cases where it is important for the listener to keep a record of a lecture, report, or speech. When taking notes, it is recommended to adhere to the following principles:
Use short sentences and paragraphs. Write down only important points and factual material. Use abbreviations and symbols. Take legible notes. Emphasize important ideas. Review your posts periodically.
4. Structure of speech activity
Speech activity as one of the types of human activity is characterized by purposefulness and consists of several successive phases: orientation, internal programming, implementation and control.
4.1 Orientation
To implement an activity on an external level, it is necessary to have: Firstly, a situation in which the activity will be carried out, and secondly, a source that encourages the individual to be active. A situation is usually understood as a set of conditions, both speech and non-speech, necessary and sufficient for the implementation of speech activity.
Researchers distinguish between subject and speech situations. The first reflects a fragment of reality in the form of already given information, the second describes the current situation of communication, therefore the participants in the objective situation are the objects and phenomena depicted in the text. The participants in a speech situation are people, communicants. In the educational process, a speech situation is created artificially, therefore one of the important tasks of the teacher is to bring the process of speech creation closer to natural life conditions. Thanks to stylistics, a speech situation is created in the learning process when students answer the questions: where, for whom, and for what purpose are they producing the text. The source of motivation for an individual to be active is human needs. As soon as the subject is recognized by the individual, the need develops into a motive. Then the nature of the activity changes: from instinctive, impulsive to consistent, directed.
At the orientation stage you must:
- Correctly evaluate communication in order to correctly select adequate means of communication in the future.
- Understand the motive of speech creation.
- Determine the purpose of generating the statement, i.e. answer the question: why am I going to say this?
In general, during the orientation stage, the student knows what he will talk about, but does not yet know how he will do it.
Consequently, the first stage of speech activity is characterized not so much by a linguistic factor as by a social one, since the emergence of speech activity is, first of all, determined by the emergence of a speech situation, in accordance with which both the motive and the purpose of creating the text are already determined.
4.2 Planning
At this stage, the “anticipatory synthesis” mechanism is updated. According to this. Zhinkin noted that when planning his text, a communicator performs 2 basic operations: the operation of choosing words and the operation of placing words. That is, the communicator selects keywords and synthesizes them, i.e. arranged in a certain sequence. The implementation of this stage depends on the development of a person’s internal speech, because the program of action for creating a text is presented in the internal speech of the communicant.
Planning occupies an important place in the structure of speech activity. The communicator’s constraint in presentation leads to the appearance of textual defects and errors associated with the inability to select keywords, systematize them and organize them during planning.
4.3 External implementation
Activity is a complex and multi-level concept. It must include an internal and external plan, which correlate with each other and complement each other. Without one of them, activity cannot exist. speech dialogue vocabulary
At this stage, the text undergoes lexico-grammatical formalization, i.e. thought is conveyed in the form of lexical and grammatical combinations of words. The third stage is based on the linguistic knowledge of the communicant.
4.4 Control
The result of speech activity is checked against the goal, determined in accordance with the situation, and if communicative failures occur, the communicant again goes through all stages of speech activity. In order for the text to be adequately perceived, it is necessary that the recipient tune in to the same wavelength as the author. At this stage, errors can be checked: does the text correspond to the speech situation; whether the subject of speech is revealed, whether the sequence of the text is planned, whether the language means are adequate and appropriately selected, whether the sentences are constructed correctly, whether there are redundant sentences - all this is carried out by the control stage.
In accordance with these phases, each individual speech action is carried out.
The starting point of any speech action is a speech situation, that is, such a combination of circumstances that prompts a person to perform a speech action (for example, to make a statement). Examples of speech situations can be considered: the need to answer a question, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc.
The following stages are distinguished in the implementation of speech action:
1. Preparing a statement. At this stage, the motive for the statement, goals, needs are realized, and the results of the speech are likely predicted based on past experience and taking into account the situation. These preparatory decisions proceed with great speed, almost on a subconscious level. All these decisions culminate in the creation of an internal plan of utterance.
2. Structuring the statement. At this stage, the choice of words and their grammatical design are carried out. It is assumed that the selection of words in memory is carried out by trial and error. At the same time, a mechanism for “evaluating” the selected words operates in RAM.
3. Transition to external speech. At this stage, the sound design of the utterance is carried out. This is the most critical stage.
The results of a speech act are judged by its perception and reaction to it, i.e. by feedback.
Perception of speech is associated with understanding the intentions and motives of the statement, as well as assessing the content of the statement, its ideas, the position of the speaker himself, etc.
Understanding the transmitted message depends on a whole complex of factors, including the explicit and hidden contexts of the statement. Explicit context includes what is subject to direct observation. This type of context is divided into verbal (verbal) and non-verbal (gestures, posture, facial expressions). Hidden context is that part of communication that is not directly observable. The hidden context includes: motives, goals, intentions and attitudes of the participants in the communication process, their personal characteristics, among which are the level of education, age, character, membership in a certain group, etc. Depending on the context, a statement can lead to different results.
In these chapters I tried to highlight the essence and types of speech activity. Thus, we can conclude that speech activity is a very complex and multi-level concept that has its own characteristics, types, characterized by different criteria.
Speech has two main forms:
- Inner speech is speech devoid of sound design and proceeding using linguistic meanings, but outside the communicative function; inner speaking. It can be characterized by predicativeness, expressed in the absence of words representing the subject, and the presence only of words related to the predicate.
- External speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by a person to transmit information, the process of materialization of thought. It may have slang and intonation. External speech includes: oral (dialogue, monologue) and written speech.
As for the types of speech activities, the following stand out: listening, speaking, writing, reading.
In order for a speech action to take place, speech must go through several stages: orientation, planning, the stage of external implementation, and control. Each of these stages has its own characteristics. Namely: orientation is characterized by the emergence of a speech situation, in accordance with which the motive and purpose of creating the text is determined.
The implementation of the planning stage depends on the development of a person’s internal speech. The third stage - external implementation is based on the linguistic knowledge of the communicant. And already at the control stage, errors are checked.
Conclusion
In my test work, I tried to consider in detail the issue of the essence of speech activity, as one of the main types of activity. He also covered in detail the types and forms of speech
Thus, I came to the conclusion that speech activity is a complex process that can be presented as active speech - expressive, and as perceived speech - impressive. Also, speech can be both external and internal, presented in the form of writing, speaking, listening and reading.
Bibliography
1. Psychology. Dictionary/Under general. ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M.: Politizdat, 1990.-494 p.
2. Nemov R.S. Psychology. Textbook for higher students ped. textbook establishments. In 3 books. Book 1.M.: Education, 1995.-576 p.
3. Reader on general psychology: psychology of thinking. - M.. 1981. Piaget J. Selected psychological works.
4. Psychology of intelligence. Genesis of number in a child. Logic and psychology. -M., 1969.
5. Mukhina V.S. Six year old child at school. -M., 1986
6. Mukhina V.S. Child psychology: Textbook. for pedagogical students Institute / Ed. L.A. Wenger. - M.: Enlightenment. 1985. - 272 p.
7. Development of thinking and mental development of a preschooler / Ed. N.N. Solovyova N.N. Learning to communicate: reading..., listening..., speaking..., writing... A textbook on speech culture and verbal communication. -M., 1996.
8. Goykhman O.Ya., Nadeina T.M. Fundamentals of speech communication. Textbook. - M., 1997.
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A.N. Leontyev establishes 4 stages in the development of children’s speech:
1st - preparatory (from the moment of birth - up to 1 year);
2nd - pre-preschool (from 1 year to 3 years);
3rd - preschool (from 3 to 7 years);
4th - school (from 7 to 17 years old).
A.A. Leontyev points out that the time frame of successive periods or “stages” he identified is extremely variable (especially by 3 years).
Preparatory stage. The child is born, and he marks his appearance with a cry. A cry is a child's first vocal reaction. The “humbling” period is observed in all children. Already at 1.5 months, and then at 2-3 months, the child exhibits vocal reactions in the reproduction of sounds such as a-a-bm-bm, bly, u-gu, boo, etc. It is they who will then become the basis for the development of articulate speech. At 4 months, sound combinations become more complex: new ones appear, such as gn-agn, la-ala, rn, etc. In the process of “walking,” the child seems to be playing with his articulatory apparatus, repeating the same sound several times, while enjoying it. A child gurgles when he is dry, well-rested, fed and healthy. If one of the relatives is nearby and begins to “talk” to the baby, he listens to the sounds with pleasure and seems to “pick up” them. Against the background of such positive emotional contact, the baby begins to imitate adults and tries to diversify his voice with expressive intonation.
To develop “walking” skills, the mother is also recommended to do the so-called “visual communication”, during which the child peers at the adult’s facial expressions and tries to reproduce them. O.I. Tikheyeva compares a child during the period of “humming” with a musician tuning his instrument.
With the normal development of a child, “booming” gradually turns into babbling. At 7-8.5 months, children pronounce syllables like ba-ba, dyad-dya, grandfather, etc., relating them to certain people around them. Babbling is not a mechanical reproduction of syllable combinations, but their correlation with certain persons, objects, and actions. “Ma-ma” (mother) says the child, and this refers specifically to the mother. In the process of communicating with adults, the child gradually tries to imitate intonation, tempo, rhythm, melody, and also reproduce the sound elements of the sounding speech of others. At 8.5-9 months, babbling is modulated with a variety of intonations. At 9-10 months, the volume of babbling words expands, which the child tries to repeat after adults.
Thus, in infancy, the child does not yet use proper linguistic means to express his states and needs, the first words appear only at the end of the first year of life, therefore this stage in the development of the child’s speech is usually called pre-verbal or pre-verbal. However, the significance of this period in the child’s speech development is very great. It is in infancy that the first vocal reactions appear, which at first are of a non-speech nature, but gradually become more articulate and begin to express more and more diverse and complex semantic content. In infancy (and even in the prenatal period), the ability to specifically respond to human speech is manifested, and the child begins to understand the speech of adults addressed to him. Thus, this stage in a child’s development can be called pre-speech only conditionally.
In the pre-school stage the volume of babbling words used by the child expands. This stage is characterized by the child’s increased attention to the speech of others, and his speech activity increases. The words used by the child are polysemantic: at the same time, with the same babbling combination, the child denotes several concepts: “bang” - fell, lies, stumbled; “give” - give, bring, give; “bibi” - walks, lies, rides, car, plane, bicycle. After one and a half years, the growth of children’s active vocabulary is observed; the first sentences appear, consisting of amorphous root words:
Papa, di (Papa, go). Ma, yes kh (Mom, give me some kitty).
As research shows, children do not immediately master correct speech: some language phenomena are acquired earlier, others later. This is explained by the fact that the simpler the words are in sound and structure, the easier they are to be remembered by children. During this period, a combination of the following factors plays a particularly important role:
a) a mechanism for imitating the words of others;
b) a complex system of functional connections that ensure speech;
c) favorable conditions in which the child is raised (a friendly environment, attentive attitude towards the child, a full-fledged speech environment, sufficient communication with adults).
Analyzing the quantitative indicators of the growth of the vocabulary of children at this age, the following data can be given: one and a half years - 10-15 words, by the end of the second year - 30 words, by three years - approximately 100 words. Thus, within a year and a half there is a quantitative leap in the expansion of children’s vocabulary. A characteristic indicator of the active speech development of children at this stage is the gradual formation of grammatical categories.
During this period, we can distinguish the stage of “physiological agrammatism,” when the child uses sentences in communication without appropriate grammatical design: “Mama, give Kuka” (Mom, give me a doll); “Vova no tina” (Vova doesn’t have a car). With normal speech development, this period lasts only a few months and by the age of 3 the child independently uses the simplest grammatical structures.
At the age of 1-3 years, the child rearranges, omits, and replaces many sounds of his native language with simpler ones in articulation. This is explained by age-related imperfections of the articulatory apparatus and insufficient level of phoneme perception. But characteristic of this period is a fairly stable reproduction of the intonation-rhythmic, melodic contours of words, for example: kasyanav (cosmonaut), piyamida (pyramid), itaya (guitar), titayaska (Cheburashka), sinyuska (svinyushka).
An indicator of the development of children's speech is the timely development in the child of the ability to use his vocabulary in different sentence structures, and already at 2.5-3 years old children use three to four word sentences using partial grammatical forms (go - goes - let's go - don't go; doll - doll - doll).
Thus, the most favorable and intensive period in the development of a child’s speech falls in the first 3 years of life. It is during this period that all functions of the central nervous system in the process of their natural formation are most easily amenable to training and education. If developmental conditions at this time are unfavorable, then the formation of speech function is so distorted that in the future it is not always possible to fully form full-fledged speech. By the end of the preschool period, children communicate with each other and others using the structure of a simple common sentence, while using the simplest grammatical categories of speech. At three years of age, the anatomical maturation of the speech areas of the brain practically ends. The child masters the main grammatical forms of his native language and accumulates a certain vocabulary. Therefore, if at 2.5-3 years old a child communicates only with the help of babbling words and snatches of babbling sentences, it is necessary to immediately consult a speech therapist, check his physiological hearing, and organize correctional classes.
Preschool stage characterized by the most intensive speech development of children. There is a qualitative leap in the expansion of vocabulary. The child begins to actively use all parts of speech, and word formation skills are gradually formed. The process of language acquisition proceeds so dynamically that after 3 years of age, children with a good level of speech development communicate freely not only using grammatically correct simple sentences, but also many types of complex sentences, using conjunctions and allied words (so, because, if, that... which, etc.):
I will draw Tamusya with green paint, because she is always sick.
The hairs around my ears will be long, as these are my cute little ones.
We will all turn into icicles if an evil and angry wind blows.
At this time, a more differentiated use of words is formed in accordance with their meanings, and the processes of word change are improved. At the age of five or six years, children’s statements are quite extensive, and a certain logic of presentation is captured.
During this period, the process of mastering the articulation of sounds is completed: by the age of five, a normally developing child can pronounce all the sounds of his native language, reproduce words of different syllabic structure and sound composition. Pronunciation errors are usually found in words that are rarely used and unfamiliar to children (rabaratoriya - laboratory). Incorrect pronunciation of a word by a preschooler may be due not so much to deficiencies in phonemic perception or difficulty in pronunciation, but rather to the desire to comprehend the form of the word, to give motivation to the sound (dadelion - dandelion, spider - web).
The volume of a preschooler's active vocabulary grows rapidly and by the age of 6-7 reaches 3.5-4 thousand words. Individual differences can already be significant at this age, and individual children may have up to 12 thousand words in their vocabulary. Qualitative changes are observed in the vocabulary of children's speech: the proportion of words with a generalized meaning is increasing, words of all parts of speech are used, words are used more differentiated in accordance with their meanings, the stock of synonyms, antonyms, and ambiguous words is increasing. However, the process of development of verbal meanings at this age is not completed, so situations often arise when the child does not understand the word, especially if it is used in a figurative meaning, and incorrect word usage in the child’s speech.
Preschool children use various types of sentences in speech, including many types of complex ones, all grammatical forms. The assimilation of the system of inflection continues, and although at the beginning of this period errors in the formation of word forms persist, due to ignorance of normative variants (repov - rap, guns with an emphasis on the last syllable - guns, clean - clean, peel - peel, chick - chain, tins - tougher), gradually the child begins to focus on the norm.
The processes of mastering the word-formation system of the Russian language are most active in the speech of a preschool child. Until the age of three, only the assimilation of suffixes of subjective evaluation (diminutive, endearing, augmentative) was noted; the remaining word-formation means are acquired later, and this is clearly manifested in children’s independent formation of words according to productive word-formation models - word creation: Get off the cold; I don’t see where there is a tear on the blouse; Your kissing is prickly; Flexible birch; Splash tap; Do modern clowns also walk upside down?
Elementary linguistic generalizations are manifested not only in independent inflection and word formation, but also in the desire to understand and give a logical explanation of linguistic facts: is a deacon a wild person or something?; Having heard the name Lomonosov, he immediately says to himself: “Breaks noses.” A preschooler often asks questions: “Why is it called that (that’s what they say, etc.)?”
Some children’s utterances reveal an awareness of the conventions of a linguistic sign, for example, addressed to no one and said for no reason: “There is no such thing as black bread. Black bread is brown. And they call it black.” A preschooler begins to consciously relate to the speech of others, he is able to notice irregularities in the speech of others: incorrect pronunciation (You know how Yura says - cheekbone instead of skin. And he is bigger than me, he is six years old; incorrect or unfortunate use of words (Hearing the expression “fat bridge”: Thick?! They say that about people - fat, but about the bridge they say wide; do you know what the dictionary calls it? There is also self-correction: Zhenya Gvozdev, in a hurry, said: “Sell” (sell) and immediately: “Trade.” "
In the preschool period, there is a fairly active development of the phonetic side of speech, the ability to reproduce layers of different syllable structures and sound content. If any of the children make mistakes, they concern the most difficult, least used and most often unfamiliar words. In this case, it is enough to correct the child, give a sample answer and “teach” him a little how to pronounce this word correctly, and he will quickly introduce this new word into independent speech.
The developing skill of auditory perception helps you control your own pronunciation and hear errors in the speech of others. During this period, a linguistic sense is formed, which ensures the confident use of all grammatical categories in independent statements. If at this age the child admits persistent agrammatism (I play batik - I play with my brother; my mother was in the store - I was in the store with my mother; the ball fell and then - the ball fell from the table, etc.), contractions and rearrangements of syllables and sounds, assimilation syllables, their replacements and omissions - this is an important and convincing symptom, indicating a pronounced underdevelopment of speech function. Such children need systematic speech therapy sessions before they enter school.
Thus, by the end of the preschool period, the child practically masters his native language, detailed phrasal speech, its phonetics, vocabulary and grammar to the extent necessary and sufficient for oral communication on topics accessible to a preschooler. The level of development of phonemic hearing allows them to master the skills of sound analysis and synthesis, which is a necessary condition for mastering literacy during the school period.
During school period Improvement of coherent speech continues. Children consciously learn the grammatical rules for the design of free statements and fully master sound analysis and synthesis. At this stage, written speech is formed.
At primary school age, educational activity becomes the leading activity that determines the nature of the child’s development. The transition to a new age level determines the significant changes that occur in the child’s speech development. During the learning process, all functions of speech are improved, but speech acquires special importance as a means of cognitive activity.
The speech of a primary school student differs from the situational speech of a preschooler in that it gradually moves into the volitional sphere and becomes arbitrarily regulated: the student needs to specifically think about, plan his statement, and try to understand the speech addressed to him. Primary school age is characterized by intensive development of monologue speech, which requires greater concentration of the speaker (writer), good preliminary preparation, and significant volitional effort. At school, for the first time in his life, a child encounters the concept of a language norm, begins to distinguish literary language from vernacular language, dialect, jargon, and thinks about the appropriateness of using certain means of language in certain situations.
In connection with the mastery of scientific concepts, the generalizing function of speech is intensively improved in a primary school student. This is also manifested in a qualitative change in the child’s vocabulary: the proportion of abstract words in it, which were practically absent in the speech of a preschooler, increases significantly. It is at primary school age that the child masters new types of speech activity - reading and writing, as well as book styles of speech, and above all the scientific (educational and scientific substyle). Under the influence of written speech, oral speech is enriched, its lexical and syntactic diversity is enriched, the morphological structure of words and the syntactic structure of sentences used by the child become more complex. There are also negative aspects in this process, in particular the appearance of spelling errors in students’ speech under the influence of the graphic form of the word. However, the development of written language in younger schoolchildren is just beginning. Research shows that their independent written statements often retain features characteristic of oral speech: situational nature, relatively low lexical variability, and non-attribution. With the start of school, the process of the child’s speech development becomes manageable. An important role in this process is played, on the one hand, by the child’s study of the theory of language, which creates the basis for the conscious and correct use of linguistic means in speech, and on the other hand, by the practice of speech, which ensures the activation of linguistic means, the speed, accuracy and flexibility of their choice in depending on the conditions of speech. M.R. Lvov identified the main trends in the development of students’ speech, manifested at primary school age: growth in volume and structural complexity of speech units, expressed in the increasingly frequent use of large syntactic constructions, in the increase in the internal complexity of these constructions, as well as in the expansion of the scope of use of words with complex morphological composition; an increase in the diversity of linguistic means used, an equalization of the ratios of comparable grammatical units.
So, the development of children's speech is a complex and diverse process. Children do not immediately master the lexico-grammatical structure, inflections, word formation, sound pronunciation and syllabic structure. Some language groups are acquired earlier, others much later. Therefore, at various stages of development of children's speech, some elements of the language are already acquired, while others are only partially acquired. The assimilation of phonetics is closely connected with the general progressive progress of the formation of the lexical and grammatical structure of the Russian language.
As mentioned earlier, in the first years of life a child goes through three stages of language acquisition.
First stage. The preparatory stage is preverbal development of communication.
The stage covers the first year of children's lives. It is of extreme importance in the genesis of the child’s verbal function. Research carried out in the laboratory of psychology of early and preschool children at the Research Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR found that during the first year a child changes at least two forms of communication with surrounding adults:
- · Situational and personal communication with close adults (develops by the second month). It is characterized by the following features: 1) communication is in the position of the leading activity of children, mediating all their other relationships with the world; 2) the content of children’s need for communication comes down to the need for the friendly attention of adults; 3) the leading motive among communication motives is the personal motive; 4) the main means of communication with other people for infants is the category of expressive (expressive-facial) movements and poses.
- · Situational business communication (develops at the end of the first half of the year, when the child masters grasping). It is characterized by: 1) communication unfolds against the background of objective manipulations that constitute a new type of activity for the child, which takes the leading position; 2) the content of children’s need for communication is enriched with a new component - the child’s desire for cooperation, for joint action with surrounding adults; this component does not cancel the previous need of children for the benevolent attention of adults, but is combined with it; 3) the leading motive among communication motives is the business motive, since children, prompted by the practical tasks of manipulative activity, are now looking for contacts with adults; 4) the main means of communication with surrounding people for infants is the category of figurative (object-active) movements and postures - objective actions transformed to function as communicative signals.
Since the emotional and first simple practical contacts that occur between children and adults within the framework of the first two forms of communication do not require the child to master speech, he does not master it.
However, verbal influences make up a large and significant part of an adult’s behavior towards a child. It is therefore fair to assume that infants develop a special relationship to sounds early on.
speech due to their inextricable connection with the figure of an adult, who constitutes for the child the center of the world at the stage of situational and personal communication and a very important part of it at the stage of situational and business communication.
We can say that in the first year of life, children exhibit so-called vocal communication - a set of verbal influences of adults in relation to the child and him, the child, pre-speech vocalizations (screams, squeals, complexes of various sounds).
There is an assumption that even in the preverbal period, the child develops a special attitude towards the sounds of speech of surrounding adults. The attitude is characterized by the predominant selection of speech sounds among other - non-speech - sounds and an increased emotional coloring of the perception of the first.
Thus, already in the first months of life, children begin to identify and record the speech influences of the people around them among sound stimuli. It can be assumed that a selective attitude towards the sounds of words in comparison with sounds from physical objects constitutes the first, initial level of selectivity of speech hearing in children.
By the end of the first year, children experience a deepening of the analysis of the speech sounds themselves: two different parameters are distinguished - timbre and tonal.
For speech sounds, the main constituents and constants are specific timbres. Speech hearing is a timbre-based hearing.
In the second half of the year, the child moves on to more complex interaction with adults, during which the child develops a need for new means of communication to achieve mutual understanding with the adult. Speech becomes such a means, initially passive (understanding), and then active (initiative statements of the child himself).
Second phase. Stage of speech emergence.
The second stage serves as a transitional stage between two eras in the child’s communication with people around him - preverbal and verbal. This stage covers the period from the end of the first year to the second half of the second year. In the case of delayed speech development, it can last for a year or a year and a half.
The main events occurring at the second stage are the emergence of understanding of the speech of surrounding adults and the appearance of the first verbalizations. Both events are closely related, and not only in time, but also in essence. They represent a two-pronged way of solving one communicative problem. The adult sets the task for the child - he requires the children to perform an action according to verbal instructions and in some cases provides for not only locomotor or object action, but also verbal action. If an adult does not provide for a verbal response and does not insist on it, then in children a gap forms between the level of development of passive and active speech with a lag in the latter. Both the understanding of an adult’s speech and the verbal response to it are carried out on the basis of active perception of the statement and its pronunciation. In this case, pronunciation acts both as a perceptual action, modeling specific speech timbres, and as a way of arbitrary articulation of the spoken word.
The concept of a communicative speech task does not imply a clear awareness by the individual of the requirements facing him or their verbal formulation. The term task denotes a problem situation that objectively faces an individual, which has a motivating force for the subject, but is conscious or verbally formulated by him in a variety of forms, or is not even realized at all.
A mandatory component of such an understanding of the task is the recognition of its motivating effect on the individual. An example of such a task, as a rule, is the situation of individual interaction between an adult and a child. Using simple methods, an adult attracts the child’s attention to an object, for which he points to the object, performs certain manipulations with it, hands it to the child, immerses himself in examining the object, etc. At the same time, the adult pronounces a word denoting an object and repeats this word repeatedly.
Thus, the child is presented with two main elements of the task: the object and its verbal designation - in connection with each other. In addition, the adult creates a practical need for the child to internalize this connection and learn to actualize it. For this purpose, the adult either asks the child to name the indicated object, or names it himself and waits to see if the child finds the desired object among a group of others. The child’s successful action is rewarded by giving him an object for the game, which sometimes includes an adult.
This situation exactly reproduces the situation of developing conditioned reflexes from the category of so-called voluntary movements, described by Pavlov. It is not surprising, therefore, that the decisive condition for success is the level of need that motivates the child to do the enormous nervous work necessary to close the nervous connection.
For children acquiring speech, the situation is immeasurably more complicated. It can be assumed that children’s assimilation of passive speech and their utterance of the first active words depends to a decisive extent on the communicative factor. Since by the end of the 1st year the child has already mastered two forms of communication and has accumulated a relatively rich experience of interacting with various people, this communicative factor should be a rather complex formation in which three sides can be distinguished, each of which is the result of what has been established over many months contacts of the child with surrounding adults: a) emotional contacts, b) contacts during joint actions and c) vocal contacts.
Emotional contacts. Many early childhood researchers point to delays in the speech development of a child growing up in conditions of hospitalization or spending a significant part of his time in a children's institution, where much attention is paid to the physical care of children, where there are many toys and many talking adults serving the child, but the child lacks close, personal contacts.
It has been suggested that children who lack personal, emotionally charged contact when communicating with adults experience a lag in speech development. The same thing happens when there are any defects in this contact.
By two months, the emotional connection between an adult and a child develops into complex activities, the main content of which is the exchange of expressions of mutual pleasure and interest. The importance of emotional contacts remains at all levels of the form of situational business communication.
It can be assumed that in the presence of a person to whom the child feels affection and affection, children will feel more at ease, will become free to navigate their surroundings, will be able to promptly switch attention from one element of the situation to another, and therefore will be more likely to be able to connect the type of object and its the name is as required by the task put forward by the adult.
Further, the experience of a close relationship with an adult helps the child quickly identify a communicative speech task and find means to solve it. Children look more boldly into the face of a close adult, are more likely to detect the movement of a person’s lips when he articulates a word, and more quickly adopt this movement by examining and feeling with his hand. Facts of this kind make it possible to imagine the ways in which emotional contact with adults influences the formation of visual-auditory connections in children. Affective disposition toward adults enhances young children's tendency to imitate. It is logical to think that the same tendency may appear in relation to the movement of the speech organs. This means that articulating the name of an object will cause a child’s tendency to repeat the words spoken by adults and, therefore, will contribute to children’s acceptance of the communicative speech task and will give it an incentive effect.
Thus, it is natural to assume that emotional contacts with an adult can have a stimulating effect on the development of verbal function due to the fact that they make the child want to speak as an adult speaks. Added to this is the growing focus of the child’s orienting-exploratory activity on the speaking adult and the correlation of this with the objective elements of the situation.
Contacts during joint activities at the beginning of the stage of speech formation also constitute a significant part of the child’s social experience.
Practical cooperation with an adult in conditions where elders organize children’s activities, help carry them out and control the process of its implementation, leads to the child forming the position of a younger partner, guided by an adult. If the objective activity of children, starting from the second half of the year, is formed autonomously, without the participation of an adult, then in this case the activity of communication remains at a lower level and does not go beyond the limits of situational and personal communication.
In this case, a child who has no practical experience of cooperation with an adult knows how to manipulate objects and works well alone with toys, but if an adult approaches him, the child does not engage in joint activities, wanting to receive only affection from the adult. Such a child quickly loses an object handed to him by an adult; he does not experience interest in toys in the presence of adults; Absorbed in the contemplation of an adult, the child often does not seem to see the object and can look “through” it at the person for a long time.
The most important significance of situational business communication lies in the fact that the child learns to perceive an adult as an older partner cooperating with him and does not so much seek his affection as naturally includes him as the most important component in the problematic situation in which he himself finds himself. Further, his attention is focused precisely on the actions of the adult - on his manipulations with the object and on his articulation of the name of the toy. And finally, the child tends to associate the encouragement of an adult with his own actions; he seeks approval of his attempts and is therefore able to quickly discard incorrect acts (for example, shouting to give him an object or stubborn attempts to silently reach for an object) and consolidate acts leading to the goal ( studying the articulatory movements of an adult, attempts to actively repeat a word spoken by an adult).
Thus, we can say that the practical contacts of a child with an adult in the course of joint actions organize the child’s orientation, help him identify the key components of the situation and highlight the main points in the task set by the adult.
At the same time, the use of voice contacts has a special meaning, separate from situational and personal communication in general. The fact is that the use of vocal sounds as communicative signals prepares the child for mastering speech, directing his attention to that, so to speak, matter in which the information sent to the partner can be clothed. If a child is not presented with vocal sound as a carrier of communicative information, he does not independently discover the possibilities that are hidden in this sound for communication activities.
It is known that if a child, due to special circumstances, finds himself outside the human environment and does not hear the speech of adults at an early age, he does not develop his own speech (“Mowgli children”). This connection is also evidenced by the development of deafness in normally hearing children raised by deaf-mute parents and isolated from the wider social environment. True, some experts emphasize the innate nature of the child’s ability to speak. But they also consider audible speech as sound material from which the child later constructs speech.
It is known that when the norm of audible speech falls below a certain limit, a state of speech sensory deprivation occurs, which inhibits the verbal development of children. These facts are observed in children raised in the first months of life in a closed children's institution. Many researchers believe that speech that is sonically monotonous, not colored with vivid emotions, and not directly addressed to the child also has a negative impact on verbal development. On this basis, the concept of a speech nutrient environment that is conducive to the development of speech in children is put forward. In such an environment, children develop a need to understand speech, without which the highest saturation of the child’s experience with verbal impressions turns out to be useless. On the contrary, children’s observation of speaking adults and adults’ close attention to children’s vocalizations, adults’ joy in response to the child’s vocal manifestations, and adults’ encouragement of each new vocal sound lead to the consolidation and progressive restructuring of pre-speech vocalizations with their gradual approach to the speech of surrounding adults.
The connection between pre-speech vocalizations and speech is indicated by a number of their features. Thus, according to careful research by R.V. Tonkova-Yampolskaya, pre-speech vocalizations are a way of modeling the intonation pattern of audible speech. Using electroacoustic methods, the presence of an intonation pattern was discovered already in the cry of a baby. Subsequently, along with the formation of vocal activity, the formation of intonation occurs: the older the child, the more complex intonations are contained in his vocalizations. V. Manova-Tomova showed that children model speech sounds presented to them for listening under special conditions in cases where in the surrounding conversational environment these sounds are rare or absent altogether.
It is important to note that during vocal communication, children develop sound complexes, which later begin to be used by the child as their first words. These are babbling formations such as “ma-ma”, “pa-pa”, “dya-dya”, “na”, etc. Adults readily pick up these babbling formations, repeatedly return them to the child (“Say: ma-ma”) and thereby record them in the repertoire of children’s vocalizations. Adults consciously associate individual sound complexes of children with objects or actions (“That’s right, it’s dad!”), thereby facilitating children’s assimilation of the nominative function of speech. Consequently, adults constantly process the vocal production of children, which undoubtedly favors the development of speech in the child.
Thus, a child’s vocal contacts with adults can have a positive effect on the development of verbal function due to the fact that they direct children’s attention to that sound matter, which then becomes a carrier of information transmitted from one partner to another. At the same time, babbling vocalizations provide children with the first ready-made form to fill with conceptual content, displacing the purely expressive load that these vocalizations had before. However, it can also be assumed that the speech influences of adults heard by children can have a positive effect on the development of verbal function in children only if these influences are included in the process of communication between the child and an adult, so that understanding the speech of surrounding people and constructing one’s own active utterance becomes important importance for the child’s contacts with adults.
Third stage. Stage of development of speech communication.
The third stage of development of speech communication covers the period from the appearance of the first words to the end of preschool age. During this time, the child, having traveled a long way, gradually masters the word and learns to use it for communication.
There are two main lines along which verbal communication develops in early and preschool age: firstly, a change in the content of communication and the development of the corresponding functions of speech as a means of communication; secondly, mastering voluntary regulation by speech means.
Research indicates a change in three forms of communication during the third stage. The first of them is situational business communication, which we already mentioned earlier. True, in children older than l 1/2 -2 years, this form of communication changes significantly: it ceases to be preverbal and now occurs using speech. However, maintaining the same content of the need for communication (this is the need for cooperation with an adult) and the leading motive (this motive remains business) leaves an imprint on the speech serving this activity. At first, after its emergence, speech, like other means of communication, remains situational: the child uses a word to designate the elements of a given visual situation (objects, actions with them), the word becomes a kind of conventional vocal indicating gesture. The child catches the adult’s demand, understands that something should be said, but initially does not pay attention to what exactly he needs to articulate. Therefore, the child says either a word that he has already learned earlier, or some syllable and even a sound that has received the approval of an adult. Here the situational nature of the first words in the mouth of a child, their gestural (indicative) nature and convention are revealed in their naked form.
Only very gradually the underwater part of the word is filled with conceptual content and opens up the opportunity for children to break the bonds of one particular situation and enter the space of broad cognitive activity. The appearance in children of the first questions about the hidden properties of things, as well as about objects and phenomena that are absent at a given time or place (not sensually presented), marks the child’s transition from early situational forms of communication to more developed extra-situational forms.
The first of them, and the third in the general genetic order, is the form of extra-situational cognitive communication. The main parameters of extra-situational cognitive communication are as follows: 1) within the framework of this form, contacts of children with adults are associated with their cognition and active analysis of objects and phenomena of the physical world, or the “world of objects”, in the terminology of D.B. Elkonina; 2) the content of children’s need for communication is their need for respect from an adult; 3) among the various motives of communication, the leading position is occupied by cognitive ones, embodied for the child in the erudition and awareness of an adult; 4) the main means of communication here is speech, since only the word allows children to overcome the framework of a private situation and go beyond the immediate time and place.
Satisfying children's cognitive interests leads to a deepening of their acquaintance with the environment and to the involvement of the world of people - objects and processes of the social world - in the sphere of their attention. At the same time, the form of children’s communication is also restructured - it becomes non-situational and personal. Its distinctive features: 1) extra-situational personal communication takes place against the background of play as a leading activity, but often takes the form of separate, independent episodes; 2) the content of children’s need for communication is their need for mutual understanding and empathy from an adult, since the coincidence of the child’s opinions and assessments with the views of elders serves as a criterion for children for the correctness of these assessments; 3) among the motives of communication, the leading place is occupied by personal ones, personified in an adult as a subject who has his own special moral qualities, moral virtues, and a comprehensive rich individuality; 4) the main means of communication, as at the level of the third form, are speech operations. Thus, the first line of development of speech means of communication is expressed in the fact that these operations gradually lose their situational nature, are filled with truly conceptual content and give children the opportunity to go beyond the current situation into the wide world of things and people. It can be assumed that in this regard, preschoolers experience changes in the very matter of speech, the nature of the vocabulary used by children, the construction of sentences, and the general expressiveness of speech.
Mastery of voluntary regulation of speech activity. At an early age, it is not easy to get a child to pronounce even those words that he has mastered well. But gradually the difficulty with which children pronounce words passes, completely disappearing during school years.
At an early age, many factors inhibit a child’s speech, preventing it from being controlled by either an adult or, sometimes, even the child himself. Embarrassment at the sight of a stranger very often becomes one of the factors that inhibits children's speech. At the same time, the child becomes very timid, speaks in a whisper or is completely silent, and his speech is greatly impoverished.
This means that when talking with close adults, children are less situational, more trusting, and show more developed interests than when talking with strangers, when the child seems to go down one or two steps lower in all his manifestations.
However, with age, children increasingly master the voluntary regulation of speech, and this is an indispensable condition for their education in kindergarten and, in particular, their preparation for school.
Thus, the essence of the third stage is that children completely master the conceptual content of the word and learn, with its help, to convey to their partner all the more complex and abstract information in content. At the same time, the verbal function turns into an independent type of activity, since the child learns to regulate it voluntarily. Speech activity can then develop further in relative independence from the direct process of live communication between the child and a specific adult.