Armor made from small metal plates has a long history. Starting from the 2nd-1st millennia BC. e. in Western Asia and the Middle East, plate armor (scaly and lamellar) of various types has already been formed. It should be noted that over the course of a whole millennium, starting from the Achaemenid era, in this region early lamellar armor gave way to scaly armor, and in Central and East Asia preference was given to lamellar armor.
In the 7th-9th centuries, after the appearance of nomadic tribes from Asia, the opposite process began in the Byzantine Empire and adjacent regions. Under the influence of the Avars, Khazars, Hungarians and other nomads of the steppes, lamellar armor became popular in Byzantium, where it became especially widespread in the 10th century.
Byzantine technology was an integral part of the military technology of the Eurasian space, for the study of which the study of the weapons of its neighbors is of great importance. Many researchers resort to this method and in most cases it is the only one that makes it possible to thoroughly study Byzantine military equipment.
Unfortunately, the scanty information about the Caucasian neighbors of Byzantium does not allow researchers to use this method in relation to them and introduce new data into scientific circulation. The purpose of this work is to at least partially eradicate this shortcoming and, at the same time, it contains certain considerations about the origin and stages of evolution of plate armor.
Scale armor
In the Middle East, scale armor has been common since the mid-second millennium BC and has been used for thousands of years.
Scale armor consists of metal plates attached to a base of leather or fabric in a tiled fashion. Often the plates are U-shaped. The armor plates are always (!) directed downwards, which is a characteristic feature. The rows of scale armor overlap each other by 1/3 and form a multi-layered surface similar to fish scales. The shape of the plates is appropriate - one edge is rounded and elongated, and the other is straight.
To ensure the elasticity of scale armor, boiled leather of the best quality was used. To attach the scaly plates to the leather substrate, as a rule, thin straps were used. It was also possible to attach the plate with metal rivets or with metal wire passed through the paired holes of the scale.
Due to the elasticity and originality of the design, scale armor could have long sleeves, while the more rigid lamellar armor had only short ones. The sleeves of scale armor required more rigid fastening and additional holes were made in the middle or lower part of the scales. Usually, smaller scales were sewn on the folds of the armor, and the chest, stomach and back were covered with larger ones.
Compared to lamellar, scale armor is more elastic because the plates are free on three sides. Only ring armor is more flexible than scale armor. Data from modern reenactors indicate that properly made scale armor is almost as flexible as ring armor and can have the same long sleeves and skirt.
Despite many positive qualities (flexibility, good level of protection, manufacturability), scale armor also has disadvantages. When moving, the plates of scale armor rise, making the armor vulnerable to blows from piercing weapons. For scale armor, piercing blows from below are especially dangerous. This is very important for the horseman, in relation to whom the spear of a foot warrior is always directed from bottom to top.
In the Middle Ages, scale armor, widespread back in the Scythian era, gradually gives way to lamellar, although it does not disappear and continues to exist in parallel, especially in combinations with other types of armor. Recent discoveries indicate that scale armor, even in Europe itself (where it was never particularly popular), was used in the fifteenth, and according to some sources, in the sixteenth century.
Lamellar armor.
The first bronze examples of lamellar armor were discovered in Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia and Anatolia in the second millennium BC. Lamellar was widespread in Asia, especially in the central and eastern parts, and was used until the 19th century.
Lamellar armor consists of rectangular plates that are connected to each other first in horizontal rows and then vertically using cords. Unlike scale armor, lamellar plates are not attached to one whole substrate; they are plates connected in parallel rows, and then together.
The shape of the lamellar plates, the number of holes and, based on this, the fastening methods differ from each other. Over the centuries, across the vast continent of Asia, lamellar armor has constantly developed and evolved, although the basic principle - tying the plates with cords - has remained unchanged.
To reduce the likelihood of damage, lamellar armor was tied with one or two cords so that the length of the cord on the outside was minimal. If one cord broke, the plate was held by another. With such fastening, any warrior could replace a damaged plate even in the field. The method of fastening armor plates with cords is the main, but not the only method. The plates were fastened together with metal wire or rivets. This design was more durable, but less mobile.
Compared to scales, lamellar plates are larger, elongated, each of them has more holes, which are distributed over the entire surface of the plate. These holes are characterized by a paired arrangement. Some of the lamellar plates are convex. A plate of this shape better reflected and weakened the blows of an arrow, spear or other weapon.
Making lamellar (lamellar and scaly) armor was quite labor-intensive work, but from a technological point of view it was not particularly difficult.
The weight of lamellar and scale armor is almost the same. The weight of a complete set of plate armor with a thickness of 1-1.5 mm is 14-16 kg. Its plates are arranged on an overlay and their protective properties are much superior to chain mail. Lamellar cuirass made of 1.5mm plates, weighs 5 kg. This armor resists piercing weapons quite well . Lamellar also protects well from arrows, and it is because of this that for a long time it was very popular both among the nomads of Eurasia and among their neighbors . The force of the impact weapon was “dissipated” on the armor plates and the warrior’s body remained unharmed. Rupture of cords (straps) as a result of a sword strike can cause damage to lamellar armor . The reconstructed lamellar is quite resistant to almost all types of blows and indicates the special qualities of this type of armor .
From the end of the fifteenth century in the Middle East, lamellar armor disappeared and ring-plate armor appeared.
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| Rice. 1. On the skirt of St. warrior in Timotesubani, the shadows under the plates are depicted by the master with brown lines, and on the lamellar cuirass both shadows and stripes are visible at the same time (photo by S. Sarjveladze) | Rice. 2. a) Plates of armor discovered in Berel, according to V. Radlov, b) lamellar plates of Ust-Ishim covered with skin, according to A.I. Solovyov |
Byzantine-Georgian armor
In recent years, a significant contribution to the study of Byzantine lamellar armor has been made by T. Dawson, whose essays combine theoretical knowledge with practical experience as a reenactor.
Typically, the plates of lamellar armor overlap each other horizontally. According to the observation of T. Dawson, by the end of the 10th century a new type of lamellar appeared in Byzantium, which became widespread in the 11th century. The plates of this lamellar do not overlap each other, they are only closely adjacent to each other and attached to the skin.
In Byzantine images there is a lamellar, the rows of which are separated by narrow stripes. According to T. Dawson, this is a leather strip placed between the rows of plates, which separates the plates and neutralizes the scissor effect caused by their movement, which can cut the straps. Subsequently, T. Dawson, continuing his observations, came to the conclusion that in Byzantine lamellar armor, not a narrow, but a wide leather strip was placed between the plates, with which the plate row was completely lined. This type of armor is more flexible horizontally and is easy to manufacture. Later, the manufacture of armor became even easier, thanks to rivets, which were used to attach plates instead of cords. T. Dawson believes that riveting of lamellar plates spread to Byzantium in the eleventh century.
In the 11th-12th centuries, in addition to the riveted one, an “inverted” lamellar appeared: the sleeves and skirt of the armor were equipped with “inverted” plates (directed from top to bottom). Typically, the lamellar plates overlap each other from bottom to top, since this is how they best protect the body from piercing blows, which are usually directed upward. But the blows to the limbs of the body are directed from top to bottom. On limbs protected by an “inverted” lamellar, the blow slides downward and causes less damage.
T. Dawson's ideas about the appearance of striped lamellar armor from the eleventh century are confirmed by data from Georgian scientists: images of the tenth century show ordinary lamellar armor, and from the eleventh century striped armor appears. This phenomenon did not go unnoticed among art critics in Georgia (although the explanation for this clearly went beyond their competence). Back in the 80s of the last century, T. Shevyakova wrote that narrow stripes between armor plates have appeared in Georgia since the 11th century.
A careful study of Byzantine and Georgian images of lamellar armor allows us to conclude that the so-called striped And linear armor. Since the appearance of these two types of armor does not coincide in time (striped lamellar appears in the eleventh century, while linear appears repeatedly in the tenth), it is difficult to blame the difference between them entirely on the imagination and interpretation of the performers. It will be better to consider that there was a certain difference in construction between them and we will try to establish these differences. According to our assumption, one line between the plates is visible in the case when a row of plates is lined with leather only at the back, and in the case of striped armor, the reverse is lined with leather and, at the same time, the lower front part of the plates is covered (Fig. 3c).
Coming up with this method probably wasn’t particularly difficult. It combines the old method of lamellar construction, common in Asia (where the edges of the plates are covered with a leather strip), and a relatively new method (the plates are lined with leather at the back) (Fig. 3). The combination of these two methods produces a striped lamellar when the stripe is clearly visible (the edge of the skin that encircles the lower front of the top plate creates the top line of the stripe, and the top edge of the skin under the bottom plate creates the bottom line of the stripe). At this time, the belts are maximally protected from the plates, and the underarmor is not damaged; The wide leather that covers the lamellar plates and the front provides greater stability to the armor. It should be noted that the lowest row of lamellar plates, adjacent to the cremasmate, is marked with a stripe, which probably indicates a leather lining covering the front surface of the plates.
It should be noted that the study of Georgian materials provides an opportunity to observe the evolution of plate armor, its certain stages and numerous experiments, which are discussed below.
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| Rice. 3. Lamellar plate, side view: a) with leather wrapped around the edge of the plate, b) with leather lined at the back, c) with leather lined and wrapped around the front bottom of the plate | Rice. 4. St. George in a traditional lamellar cuirass in Timotesubani (photo by S. Sarjveladze) |
To illustrate the development paths of Byzantine-Georgian lamellar armor, it would be nice to present its prototype, the original design of the lamellar. The image of a holy warrior from the painting of the Timote-subani church is quite suitable for this (Fig. 4). The image shows the warrior wearing a traditional lamellar cuirass. Lamellar rows consist of plates without rivets, which are fastened with belts and overlap each other from right to left; The rows of lamellar, for their part, are connected to each other by numerous hanging cords and overlap from bottom to top. This was a typical lamellar, the design of which was changed almost simultaneously in the Byzantine Empire and Georgia.
In the tenth century in Georgia, several innovations were observed (the abandonment of horizontal overlapping plates, the appearance of leather lining and rivets), which can be considered the first steps towards the evolution of plate armor. An earlier dating of these experiments cannot be ruled out, but we can only speak with certainty about the tenth century, when they are already often depicted in works of art.
The use of leather lining under the rows of lamellar plates is clearly depicted on the armor of St. George and St. Fyodor, depicted on the triptych of Our Lady (10th century) of the Chukuli Church (Fig. 5). The plates of ordinary lamellar with lacing on a leather underlay are visible; the plates do not overlap each other horizontally, but fit tightly to each other. Lamellar made using this method is more flexible, it is easy to manufacture and 15-20% of material is saved; accordingly, the weight of the armor is reduced.
The tenth century confirms the use of rivets, which appear to have been used in both types of plate armor (scale and lamellar).
St. George and St. Fyodor on the triptych of Our Lady of the Church of Chikhareshi (Fig. 6) and two St. Fedora on the pre-altar cross of Sakdari
Icon of St. George from Nakuraleshi (Fig. 7) shows plates with two rivets (upper and lower) already in the form of lamellar armor, where the rows overlap each other from bottom to top. It can be assumed that the hanging straps of the rows are directly attached to the fastening cords located on the lower edge of the plates. Although a simpler explanation can be found if we assume that in the chased icons the plates are displayed in a slightly simplified form and they lack hanging straps. Plates of the same type are found in the 60g miniature of the Small Synaxarion by Ekvtime Mtatsmindeli, rewritten in 1030 in Constantinople (Fig. 8). Only on the plates of the armor of St. Prokofy are the central lines already visible, which can be considered hanging belts and which are probably missing in the images of chased icons.
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| Rice. 7. St. George from Nakuraleshi in a two-rivet lamellar, according to G.N. Chubinashvili | Rice. 8. St. Prokofy in a two-rivet lamellar. Manuscript A648, p. 60g, National Center of Manuscripts of Georgia |
These types of armor with rivets could be attributed to the artist’s imagination or an erroneous image, if not for one circumstance: the existence of this type of rivet plates is confirmed by material from the turn of the 1st-2nd millennium, found by Russian archaeologists in Western Siberia. It turns out that attaching armor plates to the skin with top and bottom rivets was a common method. This method was used, for example, by the Yenisei Kirghiz (Fig. 9).
Two icons that contain many signs of evolution can be considered a kind of crowning achievement of the experiments of this century. Image of St. George and St. Fedora on the Mravaldzdli icon (second half of the 10th century) (Fig. 10) and the icon of St. George of Parakheti (Fig. 11) from the late 10th century shows lamellar plates with double rivets and double pendants on a leather lining. The plates do not overlap each other, but fit tightly. All the main components of the evolution of lamellar armor are presented here in almost complete form; Only a wide strip of lamellar is not visible, which is why this armor belongs to the category of linear lamellar.
There is not much reliable data on the use of lamellar armor by the Vikings; according to geography and period, the plates found in Birka (Sweden), as well as half a dozen fragments (which, due to their small size, may have been neck protection, and not body protection) are suitable. The lamellar plates from Birka are almost the same as those found in Central Asia and the Far East. In general, lamellar armor is typical for wealthy steppe warriors. The best horsemen of the Turkic, Kyrgyz, Avar, Khazar Khaganates and the Mongol Empire were equipped with them. It gained great popularity in the Byzantine Empire and Kievan Rus.
In general, lamellar armor is a combination of small metal plates tied together with laces on the sides into ribbons, so that each plate overlaps the next one. As a rule, each lower ribbon overlapped the upper one.
The Viking did not need full steppe cavalry armor (with wide shoulders and legguards, or even just a robe) - such armor was completely contrary to the tactics of the Vikings, who can be fully considered the “marine corps” of the end of the Early Middle Ages. But a breastplate or cuirass could well have been used. Moreover, the Vikings were mercenaries of the Byzantine emperors and Russian princes, whose squads were also dressed in lamellar armor.
Examples of lamellar armor plates, the supposed lost edges are marked with a dotted line. The gray color marks the pothole. Proposed holes dotted.
The plate on the right, based on the model from armor No. 25, grave No. 2 from the Battle of Visby (Gotland, 1361), despite the fact that the battle took place much later than the Viking period, the armor itself probably simply lay in the arsenal, which is indirectly confirmed by traces of rough repairs : Extra wide plates have been added to the design.
It has proven surprisingly difficult to obtain detailed information about the plate armor from Birka (left). Therefore, this version of the original plates has been modified to make them compatible with Visby plates. Among the plates from Birka there are very short plates that are similar to the shoulder plates from the armor from Visby No. 24. Here we will describe a variant of assembling a lamellar cuirass from a combination of plates discovered mainly at the excavations of Birka and Visby, with the addition of plates from other regions, which will also be used own guesses and versions of the placement of holes and lamellar ligaments. More reliable versions of the armor will be published in due course.
| Type: | Size(mm): | Description: |
| 1 | 70 x 22 | Standard plates from Visby. Plates from the left and right sides of the originals with 7 (not 8) holes. The horizontal distance between holes is 14 mm ± 1 ½ mm, the vertical distance is 54 mm. |
| 1 A | 70 x 22 | Modeled like<1>, but without holes. holes can be punched where required. They are used, for example, as edging on shoulder straps. |
| 1 B 65 | 65 x 22 | Short version<1>, to shape stripes around the hips or shoulders. They are not part of the Visby armor no. 25, but similar forms of plates are known from other finds. |
| 1 B 60 | 60 x 22 | Short version<1> |
| 1 B 55 | 55 x 22 | Short version<1> |
| 1 B 50 | 50 x 22 | Short version<1> |
| 2 | 70 x 28 | Visby center plate used in the center of some horizontal bands. |
| 3 | 45 x 22 | Both long edges used at the narrowest ends of ribbons or at the neck. Not from Visby No. 25, but compatible with other parts. |
| 8 | 97 x 22 | Standard plates from Birka. The original solution was to place a couple of holes at the lower end horizontally, not vertically. This allows the strips to slide away from each other a little easier. The horizontal distance is 14 mm ± 1 ½ mm and the vertical distance is 81 mm. |
| 8 A | 97 x 22 | Birka plate with an additional central 13th hole. The loose cord from this hole threaded through the holes in the upper edge of the bottom band plates provides greater flexibility. |
| 8B 92 | 92 x 22 | Short version<8>, used to form bands around the hips and shoulders. Although exact lengths are approximate, these versions are based on similar ones from Birka, some of which have a 13th hole. |
| 8B 86 | 86 x 22 | Short version<8> |
| 8B 81 | 81 x 22 | Short version<8> |
| 8B 75 | 75 x 22 | Short version<8> |
Instructions for weaving and assembling lamellar cuirass
| 1 - Beat: From the back side of each plate on a wooden stump so that it bends slightly outward (a small hammer with a rounded head, up to 300 grams, is ideal for this). The convex plate holds the blow better. |
| 2 - Paint (optional): The records can be burnished with vegetable oil at high temperatures, or tanned with chemicals. Only on the inside or on both sides. In addition, they can be tinned with tin or even gilded. The simplest option: coat the inside with special. varnish on metal, and polish the outside. |
| 3 - Prepare the leather for the laces: In general, you will need between 50 and 80 m of cord. Rawhide is used (sold in strips 6 - 10 mm wide, cut into laces 3 mm wide, no less than 2 mm), silk, linen cord. The strips are cut lengthwise (or whatever you want) so that they can barely be squeezed through the holes. It is recommended to moisten the entire leather cord with vegetable oil or wax it (pass it several times over a block of hard wax). Linen can only be waxed. A certain amount of leather strips must be left for edging along the edges of the armor. |
Lamellar mantle with leather lining
The skin is shown in dark gray, with holes indicated. The width is somewhere around 100 - 110 mm. The length is arbitrary, usually 15 - 20 plates. A number of holes must be left along the edges of the leather lining to attach the edging.
| 4 - Making the mantles: This is the most inconvenient part of assembling the entire cuirass. Because the shoulders support most of the weight, they experience significant stress. For this reason, a base of a thick piece of leather is used (see above), which lies under these belts. Cut out the mandrel blank, mark it with a pencil, and then punch holes with a punch or drill with a drill. Place the plates in the center row, but not along the edges of the workpiece. Use Type<1>At each end of the leather piece, leave a gap with two rows of holes for attaching to the main part of the cuirass (see above on the right). |
| 5 - We expand the shoulders (if we want): For more reliable protection of the collarbones and shoulders, there are several ways to widen the shoulders. Gradually expanding shoulder pad every 1-2 plates<1 B 65>, <1 B 60>, <1 B 55>, <1 B 50>And<3>, see above left. Additional following tape can be freely attached. We simply use laces to add an additional row of plates to the shoulder. The additional row should lie above the base of the mantle. Below, in the leather trim, the extension of a separate strip is shown on the outer surface of the mantle. |
| 6 - shoulder edging for the neck: Two fairly long and not wide straps are used, which are laced through holes in the skin of the shoulders and plates to protect the neck from contact with the hard skin and metal of the lamellar plates. (see below). The outer part of the mantle may not be edged, but from an aesthetic point of view it is still recommended to edge them. (see paragraph 7). |
| 7 - Leather edging of the body (if desired): The edging itself consists of strips of leather with paired holes. Let's say the strip width is 20 - 25 mm wide, then the distance between parallel holes is 14 mm, the distance between pairs is 35 mm. You can also use a more complex system of double pairs of holes, which is quite easy to develop (see below). Separate pieces of leather are used for edging at the corners. |
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| 8 - Installation of lamellar tapes: Tie several pieces together in a row using pairs of holes near the center of the plates (see pictures above). Most of the laces will be under the plates due to the overlap. Starting from the center of each tape avoids excessive stretching of the lace. The lamellar tape should be tight enough, but at the same time bend around the body. Leather stretches the most, silk linen less. There are also more complex patterns of lamellar weaving and knitting than those presented above. |
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| 9 - Linking strips together: Use the paired holes at the ends of the plates to tie the strips together. The bond must be fairly loose to allow the bands to move over each other in a segmented armor fashion. Each lower lamellar tape overlaps the upper one on the outside (see below). |
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| 10 - Belt fasteners: They are attached to the outside of the plates using laces (see above). |
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| 11 - Groin and butt protection (optional): Short lamella strips can be added to the bottom of the body, shoulders or neck. The groin guard should not protrude beyond the thigh, otherwise it will restrict the movement of the leg. Legguards and hand guards can also be made, either as a whole or as separate pieces of full lamellar (but steppe) armor. Some possibilities are shown below. |
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| 12 - Caring for lamellar armor: The lamellar for lacing and edging of which leather was used can and even should be wiped from time to time with an oiled cloth. This will protect the metal from rust and the skin from drying out. Check your armor for damage and vulnerabilities as often as possible. |
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Examples of lamellar manufacturing
 The weight of such armor is only 5-6 kg |
For each mantle: 17 plates<1>type. To expand the mantle in the shape of a crescent, 2 plates of the following types were spent<1 B 65>, <1 B 60>, <1 55 B>, <1 B 50>And<3>, and 5<1>. Front of the bib consists of 3 belts, each of 1 of them has a central plate like<2>and 11 records each<1>type on each side. 6 upper outer lamellar plates are laced to the shoulders. Back of the bib also consists of 3 tapes, each of 23 type plates<1>. Also, 6 plates are laced to the mantles. Main part of the body: Fastens under the left arm with 5 buckle straps (straps attached on the outside). Consists of 5 tapes, each of them has 1 central plate<2>like, 16<1>type on the left (11 of which are placed on the chest and 5 plates under the left arm), and 50 plates<1>type to the right (11 of which overlap the chest, and 11 pass under the right arm, 23 cover the back and 5 pass under the left arm). Groin and butt protection: 2 plates of each type of plate:<1 B 65>, <1 B 60>, <1 55 B>, <1 B 50>And<3>, 4 <1>and 1 central plate<2>. |
| Record type | Quantity used |
| 1 | 513 |
| 1 B | - |
| 1 B 65 | 6 |
| 1 B 60 | 6 |
| 1 B 55 | 6 |
| 1 B 50 | 6 |
| 2 | 9 |
| 3 | 6 |
| Total: | 552 |
It is no secret that “excavations” in museum collections can often provide a lot of new information, and monuments, even those already known to researchers, can play in a completely different way. The idea of publishing this complex belongs to one of the authors, who, for several months sitting in a library in Berlin at the next table with the curator of this collection, did not even suspect that they would soon have to work together. As a result of subsequent meetings in Moscow, a research and restoration project was born, financially supported by the directorate of the State Historical Museum, the first, most preliminary results of which we present in our short article.
In 1891, Professor Yu.A. Kulakovsky excavated a unique steam catacomb on Hospital Street in Kerch. Somewhat later, he published a detailed description of the burial and provided drawings of three finds - plaques from an inlaid belt and a bronze stand for a lamp. Currently, most of the inventory from this complex is stored in the funds of the State Historical Museum, and individual items are stored in the State Hermitage (Fig. 7).
We present below an excerpt from the OAK report, due to the fact that it is of significant interest. “Material finds, not devoid of interest and even importance, were made in four catacombs. Two of them were uncovered on Gospitalnaya Street, near the estate of G. Korobka, on which, last year, a Christian catacomb of 491 was found. This excavation presented some difficulties, both in its location and in the depth to which it was located bring. The entrance to the catacomb turned out to be at a depth of three fathoms below street level. This depth slowed down the work and, due to the fact that the excavation was carried out directly on the street, necessitated the need for careful guarding of the site day and night. When, after three days of work, the well was cleared, the large stone that covered the entrance was rolled away and broken, and it was possible to climb down the rope into the catacomb, it turned out that it was all filled with earth, wet from spring water. A clay amphora and fragments of a large glass vessel were found on one of the floating beds. A hole was discovered in one of the walls of the catacomb, through which one could get into another adjacent catacomb, located next to the first and slightly lower than the first. It was also filled with earth, but not in such abundance, and not so damp. Since cleaning both catacombs would take too much time, Prof. Kulakovsky limited himself to carefully sorting out the earth on site. The earth was moved into the second catacomb, where there was less of it and it was possible to throw it from the central space onto the beds. At the same time, several small gold fragments were found, two of which probably served as plaques that decorated the coffin. Another clay amphora was also found here. The next day, work began on sorting out the earth that filled the first catacomb. Since the second one lay somewhat lower, it was possible to throw earth there through a hole in the wall. This work continued for more than two days, but it turned out to be far from fruitless. All the objects found lay on the floor of the cave, near the entrance to it. From this it could be concluded that the robbers dumped all the corpses from both catacombs to the entrance they had opened, through which the light came in, and then searched them on the floor. But, probably looking only for expensive things, they left everything iron in place. This circumstance allows us to assume that these catacombs were robbed back in ancient times, when robbers were only interested in gold and precious things, and judging by the remains, there was once a lot of them here.
In addition to the two amphorae mentioned above, the following were found here: pieces of gold-woven clothing or cover, two gold leaves from a coffin or funeral wreath, a gold carnation, a small gold crescent attached to something with three gold studs, gold ends of a belt or clasp with an embossed ornament, small silver fragments, four beads and a copper, Byzantine coin of Emperor Leo (457-473)...; fragments of bone and glass objects, two iron daggers, two dozen iron arrowheads, two iron swords (one of them with the remains of a leather cover and a wooden scabbard); a round bronze mirror and the same round light bulb stand on three legs, a beautiful sample and good workmanship..., various bronze fragments, two iron helmets, one in fragments, the other solid with an iron mesh stuck to it and bent inward, covering the neck. .., an iron spear tip, a large number of fragments of iron armor, shoulder pads and weapons in general. The abundance of iron and whole things, moreover, indicates, as Prof. believes. Kulakovsky, that the corpses were disturbed for exclusively mercenary purposes and in a very long time... The few bones, scattered and badly decayed, found in the catacomb could not give any indication about the people who once rested here, but in any case there was buried in each catacomb several people each."
Among the weapons in the burial, as already noted, the remains of one, and possibly two shells, two helmets, one of which with a chain mail aventail, fragments of two swords, three-bladed arrowheads, and a spear tip were found. A short article by V. Arendt, published in German in a small-circulation magazine and which became practically the only source of information for other researchers, is devoted to the weapons from the Kerch burial. It is this article that most European and domestic researchers refer to [Gorelik 1993, fig. 7, 23; 12.1]. In addition to the fact that the author did not carry out restoration and reconstruction of the armor prior to publication, the article did not attempt to fully publish the inventory, and also contains a number of inaccuracies in the design features of the protective armor (types of plates, helmet design, etc.). In this regard, it seems necessary to completely process and introduce into scientific circulation the materials from this burial.
Researchers from the State Historical Museum (Moscow) and the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Novosibirsk), as part of a joint project, have begun work on the comprehensive processing of materials from this burial and, above all, on the restoration and reconstruction of protective armor. In particular, it was possible to establish that the shell was composed of seven types of plates, which are distinguished by shape, size, number of holes and their arrangement:
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| Rice. 1. Types of armor plates: 1.2-1 type; 3.4 - type II; 5 - III type; 6.7 - IV type; 8.9 - V type; 10-12 -VI type; 13-VII type. | Rice. 2. Details of the shell: 1 - type I; 2-3 - type VI |
Type I. Rectangular plates with rounded edges (Fig. 1, 1,2). Dimensions: length - 10.6 cm, width - 2.1-2.3 cm, thickness - 0.2 cm. They have cutouts in the central part on both the left and right sides. Equipped with 10 holes.
Type I. Rectangular plates with rounded edges (Fig. 1, 3,4). Dimensions: length - 9.3-9.5 cm, width - 2.3 cm, thickness - 0.2 cm. They have cutouts in the central part on both the left and right sides. Equipped with 12 holes.
Type III. The plates are rectangular in shape with rounded edges (Fig. 1, 5). Dimensions: length - 7.3 cm, width - 2 cm, thickness - 0.2-0.3 cm. The plates have a left-side cutout in the center. Equipped with 10 holes.
Type IV. The plates are also rectangular in shape with rounded edges (Fig. 1, 6,7; 3, 1). However, they have a cutout at the bottom and a beveled side of the base relative to the cutout. Dimensions: length - 7.9-8 cm, width -2.1-2.3 cm, thickness - 0.2-0.3 cm. They have cutouts on both the left and right sides. Equipped with 7 holes.
Type V. Rectangular plates with rounded edges (Fig. 1, 8,9; 4, 1). Dimensions: length - 9 cm, width - 2.2 cm, thickness - 0.2-0.3 cm. They have cutouts in the central part on both the left and right sides. Equipped with 10 holes. They are distinguished from all other plates by their S-shaped cross-section.
Type VI. The plates are rectangular in shape with rounded edges (Fig. 1.10-12). Dimensions: length - 6.4-6.5 cm, maximum width - 1.8 cm, thickness - 0.2 cm. The following types of plates are available: cutouts in the upper part on both the left and right sides (Fig. 1 , 11,12), as well as cutouts in the upper part on both sides (Fig. 1, 10). Equipped with 6 holes.
Type VII. Rhombic plates (Fig. 1, 13). Dimensions: length - 6.2 cm, maximum width - 1.8 cm, thickness - 0.2 cm. Equipped with 6 holes.
Plates of all types are overlapped, overlapping each other by 0.6-0.9 cm, which, with a total width of each plate of a maximum of 2.3 cm, represents a very tight connection. Rows of plates of all types were edged around the perimeter with a strip of leather - on each side up to 0.7 cm wide. On the reverse side, to more tightly fasten the plates and so that the leather strap did not fray, two leather strips with a width of 1.6 cm were placed on the paired side holes -1.8 cm. They run parallel across the entire row, and on top of these stripes there is a leather strap holding the plates together. This fastening system was used for all types of plates (Fig. 2, 1-3; 3, 1-3; 4, 1).
To date, it has been possible to glue two complete parts of the shell - strips made from type II plates. One of them is 15.7 cm long, made up of 15 plates, one end is bent. The last plate in the row is straight, without a cutout. There is leather edging along the entire perimeter of the strip; the system of fastening the plates with leather straps is quite clearly visible. Another detail of the shell is a straight strip, also composed of 15 plates of the second type. Its length is 21 cm. The last plate in the row is straight, without a cutout.
Two folding strips 22-23 cm long were glued together from type I plates (see, for example, Fig. 2, 1). However, their restoration is not complete, and their length should be longer. The curvature of the stripes is not accidental and was given to them to tightly fit the body in the side part. Type VI plates were fastened in a fan-shaped manner, using the upper holes. As a consequence of this, a number of plates of this type have leather edging only on the top. As a result of restoration work, it was possible to glue together a small monolith of 3 rows folded like an accordion. The length of the first row was 31 cm and is not final (Fig. 2, 2-3; 3, 2-4). It has been established that almost all types of plates (1.11, IV-VI) have multidirectional cutouts. Strips of plates of the same types were fastened together by cutouts in one direction. In the center of the shell, these strips were fastened together in such a way that the cutouts of the plates were directed towards each other. These strips were fastened by one straight plate, which was placed under them (see, for example, Fig. 4, 4). Two small parts, also made from plates, have survived from the armor (Fig. 4.2-3). Their purpose is yet to be determined.
Not all of the types we have identified match the plates drawn by W. Arendt. As part of the project, entire parts of the armor were glued together, and new information was obtained about the design features of the armor. Despite the fact that the work on the restoration and reconstruction of Kerch armor has not yet been completed, it is already possible to come to certain preliminary conclusions regarding its cultural and chronological affiliation and outline a circle of analogies.
The closest find should be considered a complete shell from mound 1, burial 12 of the East Malayan burial ground, examined by N.Yu. Limberis in 1986 and, unfortunately, has not yet been introduced into scientific circulation (Archive of the Institute of Archives of the Russian Academy of Sciences PI - 12828-30). The plates have cutouts, and the system of their holes is close to the Kerch plates. The rows of plates in the shell converged in the center and were covered by one plate.
In the Caucasus, in the Tsibilium fortress (near the village of Tsebelda), known from historical sources of the 6th century. (Procopius of Caesarea, Agathius of Myrene) as the Apsilean fortress of Tzibila-Tibelia, numerous armor plates were discovered [Voronov, Bgazhba 1985, p. 25.28-29.92,94,95]. The construction of the Cibilium was determined by the early Justinian period (529-542), but the layer of the fire from which the finds of armored plates originate supposedly dates back to 550 [Voronov, Bgazhba 1985, p. 25]. The finds include both individual armor plates and pieces of chain mail, as well as large clusters - up to hundreds of fragments. The shape of the plates is very different, and almost all of them have cutouts. In terms of size, shape and system of holes, the plates presented here correspond to the types I, IV, VI we have identified [Voronov, Bgazhba 1985, p. 92, 94, 95].
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| Rice. 3. Details of the shell: 1- type IV; 2-4 - type VI. | Rice. 4. Shell details: 1-type V; 2-3 - whole and separate parts of armor; 4 is an example of fastening strips with multidirectional cuts with one straight plate. |
In Eastern and Central Europe, the protective armor of the Avar circle is closest to the Kerch shell. These include the originally complete and most famous among specialists shell from the burial of Niederstotzingen, item 12a, item 12b/c - Germany. The shell and helmet were disturbed by a robber's hole, but the upper part of the shell (to the middle) was preserved. It was composed of 6 different types of plates and consisted of a breastplate and a “skirt” reaching to the middle of the shin. The shape, dimensions, and hole system of most types of plates are almost identical to those from Kerch. They also have multi-directional cutouts and the rows of plates were assembled taking into account the cutout - towards each other. According to the reconstruction, the helmet was made up of 52 fairly long (17-18 cm) shaped plates, 25 of which were directed to the left and 25 to the right. There was also a pommel, a forehead plate and ears. Structurally, this helmet is close to one of the military heads from the Kerch burial. The burial from Niederstotzingen is dated around 610.
Significant shell fragments have been found at 2589 from Gellep, dating to around 540, and at Kirchheim/Ries in Germany. The armor plates are also extremely close to the Kerch ones - with cutouts, as is the system of their fastening - the direction of the rows of cutouts towards each other and at the point of their connection they are fastened from the inside with a straight plate. In Italy, similar armor plates are known in the castle of Trosino (Oasteil Trosino), item 79,119 and in the Lombard burial ground of Nocera Umbra, item 6.
A very representative series of finds comes from Avar monuments from the territory of the predominantly Carpathian Basin. As a rule, these are single plates that were not used for their intended purpose, or represent a symbolic replacement for an entire shell. Thus, armor plates were found in 52 burials from 21 necropolises, as well as the remains of chain mail from 28 graves [see. summary: Csallany 1972; 1982]. Among the finds there are plates with identical dimensions, shape and hole system to those in question.
On the territory of Central Asia - early medieval Sogd - a significant number of finds of armor plates with cutouts are known. Let's list some of them. During excavations of the Jartepa castle-temple, armor plates were found [Berdimuradov, Samibaev 1999, p. 46]. There are three types, but the most interesting are the long plates (17.6 cm) with one figured edge. In our opinion, they are components of the helmet. Another find from another Sogdian temple complex of the 6th - early 7th centuries. are the remains of several pieces of armor in the Kanka settlement - more than 1500 pieces. whole plates and their fragments, as well as pieces of chain mail [Bogomolov 1997]. Relatively large (30x12 cm) fragments of shell made from sintered plates have been preserved. Apparently, just like in Jartepa, the armor was hung on one of the walls of the temple and represented gifts or trophies. According to the author, there are 12 types of plates, among which there are specimens with a cut edge.
In general, it should be noted that the overwhelming number of images of shells, which contain plates with a cut-out edge, are found in Central Asia, East Turkestan and the northern border regions of China. This may well indicate a possible region of origin for shells of this type. Single images of such shells and archaeological finds of plates with a carved edge are also known in Southern Siberia and Central Asia.
There is no consensus among researchers regarding the purpose of the cutouts on the armor plates. According to D. Challani, the cutouts on the plates had not only a decorative purpose, but also determined the location of the plates in the shell, and most importantly, softened the force of the arrow strike. The latter, in our opinion, is only an assumption and can only be confirmed experimentally. V. Arendt believes that the cutouts on the plates served to lighten the shell. This point of view was supported by M.V. Gorelik [Gorelik 1993, p. 172]. In our opinion, it is difficult to prove the functional purpose of the cutouts, although such an interpretation is not excluded. Basically, they performed a decorative function.
According to M.V. Gorelik, the carved design of the edges of the armor plates is an epoch-making phenomenon that characterizes the transitional era between the first (“Hun-Syanbi”) and second (“Turkic”) periods and chronologically corresponds to the V-VI centuries. [Gorelik 1993, p. 170]. However, in our opinion, certain ethno-differentiating features in the design of protective armor are not completely excluded - in this case, the cut out edges of the plates. We should agree with the opinion of most researchers that for the first time in the early Middle Ages, this type of defensive weapon was brought to Europe by the Avars. And this, in turn, is linked to their Central or Central Asian origin. It is in this cultural and historical context that the Kerch shell should be considered and attributed to the Vl-early 7th centuries.
The arrows from the complex belong to different variants of stalked three-feathered arrows, differing in the outline of the feather. Rhombic, elongated subtriangular and subtriangular tips are distinguished (Fig. 5-6). Many of them have preserved fragments of shafts with traces of the winding that secured the tip. If the arrowheads with a rhombic feather belong to the specimens widely known in the Hunnic and post-Hunnic times, then the elongated subtriangular arrowheads are close in their characteristics to the arrowheads from the “Tsar’s Mound” in the Kuban region (in the complex of which, by the way, there is an armored plate), from the Kat catacomb . 29 Klin-Yara 1II from the excavations of V.S. Flerov [Flerov 2000, fig. 39] and from materials of later studies of this monument. In general, the tendency to lengthen the tips is characteristic of monuments of a later time (Glodosy, Voznesenka) [Ambroz 1981, p. 16].
The sword or fragments of two swords in the collection were preserved in incomplete form, so studying their morphology is difficult, which can also be said about the spear tip (Fig. 5, 1). In the future, it is planned to conduct a metallographic study of them. Let us note only one curious fact - one of the swords was bent and placed in the grave in this form.
The restoration of the helmets has not yet been completed. However, today we can already talk about a number of design differences between the helmets from the burial compared to the reconstruction published by W. Arendt. In this regard, it should be noted that until a complete scientific restoration of the helmets is completed, any conclusions seem premature. Among some of the analogies to Kerch helmets that we have already mentioned, we should also point out the find in Ilyichevka [Nikolaeva 1986, p. 183-188, fig. 1.1].
Of great importance for the interpretation of this burial complex are two gold pressed items - an oval-shaped plaque and the tip of a pendant belt, preserved in the complex and representing decorations of a belt set, possibly a waist belt.
1. The oval plaque (Fig. 7.1) is decorated with three concentric circles made up of hemispherical convexities, of which the central one is made up of larger ones. Thus, rows of small convexities create a belt into which a row consisting of larger ones is inscribed. In the center there is a figure made up of small convexities in the form of an “infinity sign”, in the rings of which individual convexities are inscribed, as well as on the sides.
2. The tip of the belt is subrectangular, with a rounded lower end (Fig. 7, 2). The edge is decorated with a corrugated roller, to which is adjacent a belt of a series of large hemispherical convexities running along the perimeter; further to the center there is a smaller ribbed roller running along the perimeter, which surrounds a wicker figure made up of a double ribbed roller. This image also resembles the so-called. endless knot.
These findings have already been reviewed by researchers. A.I. Aibabin classifies them as the second version of stamped products and believes that the decor of the plaques imitates graining. He also points to the tip of a hanging belt, similar to the items in question, found in point 109 of the Suuk-Su burial ground. A similar plaque was also found as part of the inventory of item 63 of the same burial ground. In the same grave there was a lyre-shaped buckle of the second version according to A.I. Aibabin, dating back to the second half of the 7th century. [Repnikov 1906, table. V, 8; 1907, tab. XIII, 4]. A.K. Ambrose compared burials with belt items of this style with antiquities of the 1st Avar group, which also indicates the second half of the 7th century. A.I. Aibabin classifies burials with analogues from Suuk-Su as the eighth group of burials in Crimean necropolises [Ambroz 1971, p. 123; 1973, p. 88, 90, 91; 1994, p. 49; Aibabin 1990, p. 57, 231, fig. 52; 1999, p. 318, tab. XXXI, 84]. Researchers point to the Byzantine or Danube origin of these items [Ambrose 1992, p. 83; Aibabin 1999, p. 141-142]. One of the authors of this article admits the South Siberian or Central Asian origin of belt items made in the heraldic style [Kubarev 2002]. Numerous Central Asian and Far Eastern analogies to the protective armor from Kerch are quite consistent with this. In addition, ornamentation in the form of braiding and imitation grain is also represented in the nomadic antiquities of Southern Siberia.
Things with similar decoration are known in Avar monuments. It is worth pointing out the finds of belt tips decorated with braiding from Felnak, Gatera -p. 11, Adon et al. [see for example: Gavritukhin, Oblomsky 1996, fig. 75, 39, 58, 62, 66]. They are close in design to the examples under consideration, but the manner in which they are made is somewhat different.
Almost complete analogues are contained in the richest set of belt accessories from catacomb 360 of the Klin-Yar III burial ground (information kindly provided by A.E. Belinsky and G. Harke). These plates are inserts into fairly massive metal parts of heraldic headsets, which explains their production from thin gold plates. Findings in combination with them of products with grain from the Pereshchepinsky horizon convince us that this is a kind of imitation of grain products. It is curious that this burial also contains fragments of armor, albeit chain mail.
Items made in the same style come from the Lower Kuban region: burial 5 of mound 4 near the Krupskaya farm, burial 1 of mound 8 near the village of Nizhnesteblievskaya [Atavin 1996, table. 2.9-11, 14-16; 25, 1.4]. Similar finds come from Kamunta. Things of this circle are known in the Lower and Middle Dnieper - Vinogradnoe, Vasilyevka, Khatski and others [Orlov, Rassamakin 1996, fig. 3, 24; 4, 2; Korzukhina 1996, tab. 21.10-12]. They were also found on the northern edge of the steppe, in the Ryazan region and come from a nomadic burial near the village. Artsybashevo [Mongayt 1961, fig. 35, 7, 9-11].
Speaking about the chronology of this burial, first of all it should be noted that the author of the excavations attributed it to Roman times. “The elegant ornament of the gold plaques suggests that the burial was no later than the 2nd century AD. The copper coin of Emperor Leo, found right there, badly worn and with a hole punched in it, cannot, according to prof. Kulakovsky, serve as the date of the complete burial, and was lost here, as he believes, by ancient robbers of gold, of which there was probably a lot of gold on the soldiers buried here.” V. Arendt dated the Kerch burial to the 6th century. and attributed it to the ancient Turks, pointing to the Far Eastern origin of this kind of armor, as well as the waist set. Without going into chronological research now, which we expect to make public in the near future, we will only note that the burial can be dated within the 6th-7th centuries. AD
A.I. Aibabin suggests that the complex of this burial could belong to one of the representatives of the local nobility, associated with the Byzantine army [Aibabin 1999, p. 141-142]. At the same time, the very design of the burial structure, as well as individual finds, in particular, pieces of gold-woven fabric, allow us not to exclude the possibility that the burial could belong to a representative not of the Bosporus, but of the nomadic nobility.
Clothes embroidered with gold were given by the Byzantine court to kings and leaders of “barbarian” peoples. So, for example, Agathius of Mirinea describes the clothes of the Laz king Tsata - an ally of Byzantium - “... only white is allowed, however, not ordinary. In the middle, on both sides, it shines with gold embroidery...” [Agathios of Myrinea, On the reign of Justinian, book. III, 15].
This publication, as noted above, is only preliminary. Further restoration work is needed with the materials of the Kerch burial and, first of all, with fragments of protective armor, its graphic reconstruction, as well as a full introduction of the entire inventory into scientific circulation and clarification of the chronology of the complex. The authors of the publication, realizing the importance of this work, intend to implement the project within the shortest possible time. By presenting the preliminary publication of this complex to experts, we are waiting for critical comments and responses that may allow us to improve the above-presented interpretation of one of the most mysterious Kerch burial complexes of the early Middle Ages.
Literature
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Ambroz A.K. "Nomadic antiquities of Eastern Europe and Central Asia V-VIII centuries // Steppes of Eurasia in the Middle Ages. Archeology of the USSR. M., 1981. Ambroz A.K. Bosporus. Chronology of early medieval antiquities // Bosporus collection. I . M., 1992.
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The lamellar usually existed either in the form of a corset-cuirass, often with a long hem acting as a legguard, or in the form of a knee-length lamellar robe, with slits in the front and back; in both cases, it was usually supplemented with shoulder guards in the form of sheets of lamellar fabric, and sometimes with protection for the neck and groin. The size of the lamellar plates could be very different, from very small ones, the blade of which was close to ringed in mobility, to large ones, almost the length of an adult’s palm, which made up a relatively inactive but strong armor.
Specific forms of lamellar armor, derived from a design common to the entire Far East, represented classic samurai armor - in contrast to later samurai armor, among which both laminar and splint construction of elements were often found.
Through the peoples of the Great Steppe, the lamellar design of armor also penetrated into Byzantium and Rus'. Excavations of the Gomel armor workshop, discovered in 1987, helped identify more than 600 armor plates, most of which, according to archaeologists, were tied into lamellar armor. Blanks of plates were found, and in addition - several defective ones, cracked when holes were punched in them for lacing. Today the Gomel workshop is the largest of the famous assembly shops of Medieval Rus'. It was destroyed by fire during the Mongol pogrom in the city in 1239. Individual finds of plates that can be identified as belonging to the lamellar are also found in the archaeological record of Western Europe. For example, one of the warriors who died at the Battle of Visby wore a short lamellar armor cut like a corset-cuirass.
At the moment, there is no scientific confirmation of the hypothesis about the existence outside of Japan of lamellar armor made of several layers of glued leather, which, according to some versions, was worn by low-income warriors in Rus' and Scandinavia. As history teaches, professional warriors (the main consumers of professional equipment) have always been a wealthy social stratum. The warriors of the senior squads of the Russian principalities were called boyars, the bulk of the Russian noble families are their descendants. In addition, having raw materials in the form of sheets of leather, there is no practical point in doing the labor-intensive work of cutting out individual plates from them - it is much easier to assemble laminar armor from large strips of the same material. Small plates made sense in the case of iron, since, for example, the level of metallurgy of the nomadic tribes of Eurasia did not allow it to be obtained in large quantities; Often small iron objects obtained by exchange or robbery were processed into shells, which, due to the small size and simple shape of the plates, could be done by any tribal blacksmith.
- in Japan, metal plates were necessarily covered with leather and varnished (to avoid corrosion in a humid climate).
- In Siberia and America, there were lamellars made of bone (including whalebone, deer antlers and walrus tusks) and even wooden plates, designed to protect against bone-tipped arrows, which were worn by those who could not afford a lamellar made of metal plates (made of metal , received from Russian settlers in the 17th-19th centuries).
Also, lamellar armor, judging by archaeological finds, was used in Ancient Rome, but their plates were connected with metal brackets rather than with a cord.
See also
Sources
- Nosov K. S. Armament of the samurai.
- Nefedkin A.K. Military affairs of the Chukchi. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2003. P. 352. ISBN 5-85803-244-3
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An excerpt characterizing Lamellar armor
But Pierre considered it necessary to ask:-How is your health...
He hesitated, not knowing whether it was proper to call a dying man a count; he was ashamed to call him father.
– Il a eu encore un coup, il y a une demi heure. There was another blow. Courage, mon ami... [Half an hour ago he had another stroke. Don't be discouraged, my friend...]
Pierre was in such a state of confusion of thought that when he heard the word “blow,” he imagined the blow of some body. He looked at Prince Vasily, perplexed, and only then realized that a blow was a disease. Prince Vasily said a few words to Lorren as he walked and walked through the door on tiptoe. He could not walk on tiptoes and awkwardly bounced his whole body. The eldest princess followed him, then the clergy and clerks passed, and people (servants) also walked through the door. Movement was heard behind this door, and finally, with the same pale, but firm face in the performance of duty, Anna Mikhailovna ran out and, touching Pierre’s hand, said:
– La bonte divine est inepuisable. C"est la ceremonie de l"extreme onction qui va commencer. Venez. [God's mercy is inexhaustible. The unction will begin now. Let's go.]
Pierre walked through the door, stepping on the soft carpet, and noticed that the adjutant, and the unfamiliar lady, and some other servant, all followed him, as if now there was no need to ask permission to enter this room.
Pierre knew well this large room, divided by columns and an arch, all upholstered in Persian carpets. The part of the room behind the columns, where on one side stood a high mahogany bed under silk curtains, and on the other a huge icon case with images, was red and brightly lit, as churches are lit during evening services. Under the illuminated vestments of the icon case there stood a long Voltaire chair, and on the chair, covered at the top with snow-white, apparently uncrumpled, pillows, covered to the waist with a bright green blanket, lay the majestic figure of his father, Count Bezukhy, familiar to Pierre, with the same a gray mane of hair, reminiscent of a lion, above a wide forehead and with the same characteristically noble large wrinkles on a beautiful red-yellow face. He lay directly under the images; both of his thick, large hands were pulled out from under the blanket and lay on him. In the right hand, which lay palm down, between the thumb and forefinger, a wax candle was inserted, which, bending over from behind the chair, was held in it by an old servant. Above the chair stood the clergy in their majestic shiny robes, with their long hair hanging out, with lighted candles in their hands, and slowly solemnly served. A little behind them stood two younger princesses, with a scarf in their hands and near their eyes, and in front of them was the eldest, Katish, with an angry and decisive look, never taking her eyes off the icons for a moment, as if she was telling everyone that she was not responsible for herself if looks back. Anna Mikhailovna, with meek sadness and forgiveness on her face, and the unknown lady stood at the door. Prince Vasily stood on the other side of the door, close to the chair, behind a carved velvet chair, which he turned back to himself, and, leaning his left hand with a candle on it, crossed himself with his right, each time raising his eyes upward when he put his fingers to his forehead. His face expressed calm piety and devotion to the will of God. “If you don’t understand these feelings, then so much the worse for you,” his face seemed to say.
Behind him stood the adjutant, doctors and male servants; as if in a church, men and women were separated. Everything was silent, people were crossing themselves, the only things that could be heard were church readings, restrained, thick bass singing and, in moments of silence, the rearrangement of feet and sighs. Anna Mikhailovna, with that significant look that showed that she knew what she was doing, walked across the room to Pierre and handed him a candle. He lit it and, amused by his observations of those around him, began to cross himself with the same hand in which the candle was.
The younger, rosy-cheeked and laughing Princess Sophie, with a mole, looked at him. She smiled, hid her face in her handkerchief and did not open it for a long time; but, looking at Pierre, she laughed again. She apparently felt unable to look at him without laughing, but she could not resist looking at him, and in order to avoid temptation she quietly moved behind the column. In the middle of the service, the voices of the clergy suddenly fell silent; the clergy said something to each other in a whisper; the old servant, who was holding the count's hand, rose and addressed the ladies. Anna Mikhailovna stepped forward and, bending over the patient, beckoned Lorren to her from behind her with her finger. The French doctor, standing without a lit candle, leaning against a column, in that respectful pose of a foreigner, which shows that, despite the difference of faith, he understands the full importance of the ritual being performed and even approves of it, with the silent steps of a man with all the strength of his age, approached the patient, took his free hand from the green blanket with his white thin fingers and, turning away, began to feel his pulse and thought. They gave the sick man something to drink, they stirred around him, then again they parted ways, and the service resumed. During this break, Pierre noticed that Prince Vasily came out from behind his chair and, with the same look that showed that he knew what he was doing, and that it was all the worse for others if they did not understand him, did not approach the patient , and, passing by him, he joined the eldest princess and together with her headed deeper into the bedroom, to a high bed under silk curtains. The prince and princess both disappeared from the bed through the back door, but before the end of the service, one after the other they returned to their places. Pierre paid no more attention to this circumstance than he did to all the others, having once and for all decided in his mind that everything that happened before him that evening was so necessary.
The lamellar usually existed either in the form of a corset-cuirass, often with a long hem acting as a legguard, or in the form of a knee-length lamellar robe, with slits in the front and back; in both cases, it was usually supplemented with shoulder guards in the form of sheets of lamellar fabric, and sometimes with protection for the neck and groin. The size of the lamellar plates could be very different, from very small ones, the blade of which was close to ringed in mobility, to large ones, almost the length of an adult’s palm, which made up a relatively inactive but strong armor.
Specific forms of lamellar armor, derived from a design common to the entire Far East, represented classic samurai armor - in contrast to later samurai armor, among which both laminar and splint construction of elements were often found.
Through the peoples of the Great Steppe, the lamellar design of armor also penetrated into Byzantium and Rus'. Excavations of the Gomel armor workshop, discovered in 1987, helped identify more than 600 armor plates, most of which, according to archaeologists, were tied into lamellar armor. Blanks of plates were found, and in addition - several defective ones, cracked when holes were punched in them for lacing. Today the Gomel workshop is the largest of the famous assembly shops of Medieval Rus'. It was destroyed by fire during the Mongol pogrom in the city in 1239. Individual finds of plates that can be identified as belonging to the lamellar are also found in the archaeological record of Western Europe. For example, one of the warriors who died at the Battle of Visby wore a short lamellar armor cut like a corset-cuirass.
At the moment, there is no scientific confirmation of the hypothesis about the existence outside of Japan of lamellar armor made of several layers of glued leather, which, according to some versions, was worn by low-income warriors in Rus' and Scandinavia. As history teaches, professional warriors (the main consumers of professional equipment) have always been a wealthy social stratum. The warriors of the senior squads of the Russian principalities were called boyars, the bulk of the Russian noble families are their descendants. In addition, having raw materials in the form of sheets of leather, there is no practical point in doing the labor-intensive work of cutting out individual plates from them - it is much easier to assemble laminar armor from large strips of the same material. Small plates made sense in the case of iron, since, for example, the level of metallurgy of the nomadic tribes of Eurasia did not allow it to be obtained in large quantities; Often small iron objects obtained by exchange or robbery were processed into shells, which, due to the small size and simple shape of the plates, could be done by any tribal blacksmith.
- in Japan, metal plates were necessarily covered with leather and varnished (to avoid corrosion in a humid climate).
- In Siberia and America, there were lamellars made of bone (including whalebone, deer antlers and walrus tusks) and even wooden plates, designed to protect against bone-tipped arrows, which were worn by those who could not afford a lamellar made of metal plates (made of metal , received from Russian settlers in the 17th-19th centuries).
Also, lamellar armor, judging by archaeological finds, was used in Ancient Rome, but their plates were connected with metal brackets rather than with a cord.
See also
Sources
- Nosov K. S. Armament of the samurai.
- Nefedkin A.K. Military affairs of the Chukchi. - St. Petersburg: Petersburg Oriental Studies, 2003. P. 352. ISBN 5-85803-244-3
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An excerpt characterizing Lamellar armor
“You should have thought about this at the beginning,” I answered.Then suddenly it was as if some kind of door opened in my memory - I remembered what I knew about these neighbors...
It was quite a “famous” house for its oddities (which, in my opinion, only I believed in in our entire district) house. There were rumors among the neighbors that the owner was apparently not completely normal, since she constantly told some “wild” stories with objects flying in the air, writing pens, ghosts, etc. etc... (similar things are shown very well in the film "Ghost", which I saw many years later).
The neighbor was a very pleasant woman of about forty-five, whose husband actually died about ten years ago. And from then on, all these incredible miracles began in her house. I visited her several times, eager to find out what was going on there, but, unfortunately, I was never able to get my reticent neighbor to talk. Therefore, now I completely shared the impatience of her strange husband and hurried to enter as quickly as possible, anticipating in advance what, according to my ideas, was supposed to happen there.
“My name is Vlad,” my former neighbor croaked.
I looked at him in surprise and realized that he was very afraid... But I decided not to pay attention to it and entered the house. A neighbor was sitting by the fireplace embroidering a pillow. I said hello and was about to explain why I came here, when she suddenly said quickly:
- Please, honey, leave quickly! It can be dangerous here.
The poor woman was scared half to death, and I suddenly understood what she was so afraid of... She apparently always felt the presence of her husband when he came to her!.. And all the poltergeist manifestations that had happened to her before apparently occurred through his fault. Therefore, again feeling his presence, the poor woman just wanted to “protect” me from possible shock... I gently took her hands and said as softly as possible:
– I know what you are afraid of. Please listen to what I have to say and this will all end forever.
I tried to explain to her as best I could about the souls coming to me and how I was trying to help them all. I saw that she believed me, but for some reason she was afraid to show it to me.
“Your husband is with me, Milya, and if you want, you can talk to him,” I said carefully.
To my surprise, she was silent for a long time, and then quietly said:
“Leave me alone, Vlad, you’ve tormented me long enough.” Leave.
I was completely shocked by how much anguish there was in this woman’s voice!.. And, as it turned out, it shocked not only me, the answer also stunned her strange husband, but only in a different way. I felt a wild whirlwind of alien energy next to me, which literally tore everything around me. Books, flowers, a tea cup - everything that was lying on the table flew down with a roar. The neighbor turned white as a sheet and hastily began to push me out. But such “effects” as throwing cups have not frightened me for a very long time. Therefore, I gently pulled away the poor shaking woman and firmly said:
- If you don’t stop scaring your wife so vilely, I’m leaving, and look for someone else for the same number of years...
But the man did not pay any attention to me. Apparently, all these long years, he was just waiting for someone to eventually find someone who could help him “get” his poor wife and his ten-year “sacrifice” would not be in vain. And now, when it finally really happened, he completely lost control of himself...
– Mile, Milenka, I’ve been wanting to say for so long... come with me, dear... let’s go. I can’t do it alone... I can’t live without you for so many years... come with me.
He mumbled something incoherently, repeating the same words all the time. And then it only dawned on me what this man really wanted!!! He asked his living, beautiful wife to leave with him in a place that simply meant dying... At this point I couldn’t stand it any longer.
- Listen to me! You're just crazy! – I mentally screamed. “I won’t say these vile words to her!” Get away to where you should have been long ago!.. This is exactly your place.
I was simply sick with indignation!.. Could this really happen?! I didn’t yet know what I would do, but I knew one thing for sure: I would never give him this woman for anything in the world.
He was infuriated that I did not repeat to her what he said. He shouted at me, yelled at her, cursed in words that I had never heard... He cried, if you can call it crying... And I realized that now he could truly become dangerous, but I still didn’t understand how can this happen. Everything in the house moved furiously, window panes shattered. Milia stood in a stupor in horror, unable to utter a word. She was very scared, because, unlike me, she did not see anything that was happening in that “other” reality that was closed to her, but saw only inanimate objects “dancing” in front of her in some kind of crazy dance ...and slowly went crazy...