India is one of the largest countries in the world that embraces different cultures, traditions, languages and beliefs. This is a place of monuments that will undoubtedly captivate your gaze. So…
Cellular Jail, also known as Kala Pani, is a former colonial prison used by the British Empire to exile political prisoners. Located in the city of Port Blair in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India. It was built between 1896–1906. It has 693 single cells measuring 4.5x2.7 meters. Today it is a national memorial and the most famous prison in India.
Mysore Palace is a palace located in the center of the city of Mysore in the Indian southwestern state of Karnataka. It is the official residence of the former royal family of Mysore and is also India's most famous tourist attraction (after the Taj Mahal), with 2.7 million visitors annually.
In eighth place in the ranking of amazing historical monuments of India is the Victoria Memorial, built by the English architect William Emerson between 1906–1921. in memory of the British Queen Victoria (1819–1901). It is located on the banks of the Hooghly River, in the Indian city of Kolkata, West Bengal. Currently it is a museum and a city landmark. More than 30 thousand exhibits are stored here.
The Charminar is an important architectural landmark of Hyderabad, built by order of Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutub Shah in 1591 to commemorate the end of the plague in the city. It is a square building with four minarets 53 m high and 30 m wide. Each minaret has a spiral staircase with 149 steps, which allows tourists to climb to the top floor and admire the panorama of the city. Charminar is one of the most impressive examples of Islamic architecture attracting thousands of tourists and pilgrims.
Lal Qila or Red Fort is the historical citadel of the city of Delhi located along the Yamuna River, which once served as a moat (now the river bed is located at a distance of 1 km from the fort). The fortress with an area of 103.06 hectares was founded on April 16, 1639 by Shah Jahan. Its construction was completed in 1648. The Red Fort is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Delhi and also a symbol of independence in 1947.
Qutub Minar is the tallest brick minaret in the world, located in the Mehrauli district of Delhi, India. Its construction was started by the founder of the Delhi Sultanate, Qutb ad-Din Aibak, in 1193. The minaret was completed by several generations of rulers and represents historically significant monuments from different eras. Its height is 72.6 m. Inside the tower, there is a staircase with 379 steps leading to the top.
The Great Stupa of Sanchi is the oldest stone structure in India, located in the village of Sanchi, 46 km northeast of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. It was built by order of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century. BC e. and subsequently served as the prototype for all subsequent stupas located in the village. Until the 12th century, Sanchi remained the largest center of Buddhist art, but after the advent of Islam, it began to decline. Abandoned for centuries, the monuments were rediscovered and described by the British in 1818. A museum opened here in 1918.
Ajanta is a complex of 29 Buddhist temples and monasteries carved out over several centuries from the 2nd century BC. e. to the 5th century AD e. in the rocks near the Indian village of Ajanta in the state of Maharashtra. These caves are famous for their wall paintings, which illustrate Buddhist legends and myths, but essentially reveal a panorama of social life of the era. Due to the decline of Buddhism in India, the Ajanta monastery complex was abandoned. It was discovered only in 1839. It is included in the ranking of ten architectural wonders of the ancient world.
First place in the list of amazing historical monuments of India is occupied by the Gateway of India - a basalt arch built in the city of Mumbai on the Apollo Bunder embankment in honor of the visit of King George V in December 1911. However, due to the First World War, work on the construction of the 26-meter structure was delayed and Its opening ceremony took place on December 4, 1924.
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Indian culture is one of the most original and unique. Its originality lies primarily in richness and diversity of religious and philosophical teachings. The famous Swiss writer G. Hesse notes on this matter: “India is a country of a thousand religions, the Indian spirit is distinguished among other peoples by its specifically religious genius.” In this, Indian culture has no equal. That is why, already in ancient times, India was called “the land of the sages.”
The second feature of Indian culture is related to its appeal to the Universe, her immersion in the mysteries of the universe. Indian writer R. Tagore emphasized: “India has always had one unchanging ideal - merging with the Universe.”
The third important feature of Indian culture, which outwardly seems to contradict the previous one, is its orientation into the human world, self-immersion into the depths of the human soul. A striking example of this is the famous philosophy and practice of yoga.
The unique uniqueness of Indian culture also consists of its amazing musicality and danceability.
Another important feature is in the special reverence of love by Indians - sensual and physical, which they do not consider sinful.
The originality of Indian culture is largely due to the characteristics of the Indian ethnic group. Numerous multilingual tribes and nationalities took part in its formation - from local Dravidians to newcomer Aryans. In essence, the Indian people are superethnos, which includes several independent peoples.
The culture of Ancient India existed approximately from the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. and until the 6th century. AD The modern name “India” appeared only in the 19th century. In the past it was known as the “land of the Aryans”, “the land of the Brahmans”, “the land of the sages”.
The history of Ancient India falls into two large periods. The first is time Harappan civilization, formed in the Indus River valley (2500-1800 BC). Second period - Aryan - covers all subsequent Indian history and is associated with the arrival and settlement of Aryan tribes in the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers.
Harappan civilization, which had its main centers in the cities of Harappa (modern Pakistan) and Mohenjo-Daro (“Hill of the Dead”), reached a high level of development. This is evidenced by those few large cities that were distinguished by their harmonious layout and had an excellent drainage system. The Harappan civilization had its own writing and language, the origins of which remain a mystery. In artistic culture, small plastic arts developed especially successfully: small figurines, reliefs on signets. Vivid examples of this plastic art are the bust of a priest (18 cm) from Mohenjo-Daro and the torso of a dancing man (10 cm) from Harapia. Having experienced a high rise and prosperity, the Harappan culture and civilization gradually declined, caused by climate change, river floods and especially epidemics.
After the decline of the Harappan civilization, Aryan tribes came to the valleys of the Indus and Ganges rivers. The Aryans were nomads, but... Having settled on Indian soil, they became farmers and cattle breeders. They mixed with the local population and at the same time, together with new blood, seemed to breathe new life into the Indian ethnic group.
With the advent of the Aryans, a new beginning begins in Indian history and culture. Indo-Aryan period. About the main part of this period, the main source of information is created by the arias Veda(from the verb “to know”, “to know”). They are a collection of religious texts - hymns, chants and magical formulas. The main content of the Vedas is a story about the complex and painful process of self-assertion of the Aryans in a new place of life, about their struggle with local tribes.
They are written in Vedic language, the oldest form of Sanskrit. The Vedas are composed of four parts:
- Rigveda(religious hymns);
- Samaveda(chants);
- Yajurveda(sacrificial formulas):
- Ltharvaveda(magic spells and formulas).
Vedic literature also includes comments Vedas - Brahmanas and Upanishads.
The Vedas form the basis of all subsequent spiritual culture of India: theology, philosophy and science. They contain information about all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. In particular, they report the division of Indian society into four varnas:
- brahmins (priests);
- kshatriyas (warriors);
- Vaishyas (farmers, artisans, traders);
- Shudras (slaves and prisoners of war).
These four varnas were later supplemented by numerous castes (more than two thousand), which have survived to this day.
Starting from the Vedas, a unique mosaic of religions has been formed in India. The first of them was Vedism- the religion of the Vedas themselves. It is characterized by polytheism and anthropomorphism. The main one among all the deities was Indra - the thunder god, a powerful warrior, patron of the Aryans in their struggle with local tribes. In the Rig Veda, most of the hymns are dedicated to him. He is followed by: Varuna - the god of the sky and space: Surya - the god of the sun; Vishnu - personifying the rotation of the Sun; Agni - god of fire, etc.
At the new - epic - stage (1st millennium BC) Vedism is transformed into Brahmanism. It represents a more harmonious doctrine of the world, in which the former multitude of gods is reduced to Trinity. The absolute and indefinite essence - Brahman - manifests itself in the Trimurgi, or in the triune deity: Brahma - the creator of the world; Vishnu is the protector of the world; Shiva is the destroyer of the world.
In the second half I thousand BC Brahmanism turns into Hinduism, which assimilates many Indian beliefs - from pagan to Buddhism. Hinduism is the most widespread religion in India, comprising more than 80% of believers. It exists in the form of two main directions: Vaishnavism And Saivism. At the same time, today an independent branch of Hinduism is Krishnaism. The inclusion of various cults in Hinduism is carried out through the concept of avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu. According to this concept, Vishnu descends into the world. transforming into various images. There are ten such avatars, of which the seventh, eighth and ninth are the main ones. In them, Vishnu takes the forms of Rama, Krishna and Buddha.
The sacred scripture of Hinduism is "Bhagavadgita"(The Song of the Lord) is one of the parts of the Mahabharata. The basis of Hinduism is the doctrine of the eternal transmigration of souls ( samsara), occurring in accordance with law of retribution (karma) for everything you've done in life.
In VI V. BC. appears in India Buddhism- one of the sins of world religions. Its creator was Siddhartha Gautama, who at the age of forty reached a state of enlightenment and received the name Buddha(enlightened).
In the 3rd century. BC. Buddhism achieved its greatest influence and spread, displacing Brahmanism. But from the middle of the 1st millennium AD. his influence gradually declines, and at the beginning of the millennium AD. he dissolves into Hinduism. Its further life as an independent religion takes place outside of India - in China, Japan and other countries.
The basis of Buddhism constitutes the doctrine of the “four noble truths”: there is suffering; its source is desire: salvation from suffering is possible; there is a path to salvation, to liberation from suffering. The path to salvation lies through renunciation of worldly temptations, through self-improvement, through non-resistance to evil. The highest state is nirvana and means salvation. Nirvana(extinction) is a borderline state between life and death, meaning complete detachment from the outside world, the absence of any desires, complete satisfaction, inner enlightenment. Buddhism promises salvation to all believers, regardless of belonging to a particular varna or caste.
There are two directions. The first - Hinayana (small vehicle) - involves complete entry into Nirvana. The second - Mahayana (big vehicle) - means getting as close as possible to Nirvana, but refusing to enter it for the sake of helping and saving others.
Simultaneous Buddhism in India arises Jainism, which is close to Buddhism, but survived the fight against Hinduism because it accepted the division into varnas and castes. It also contains the concept of nirvana, but the main one is principle of ahimsa - non-infliction of harm to all living things.
In the 16th century emerged from Hinduism as an independent religion Sikhism, who opposed the hierarchy of varnas and castes, for the equality of all believers before God.
The religious life of Indians is characterized by the preservation of the earliest forms of religion - fetishism and totemism, as evidenced by worship of many animals. The sacred ones include cows and bulls of the Zebu breed (which, unlike cows, are used in household work). Indians pay special attention to monkeys. They live in thousands in temples, receiving food and care from people. Cobras are even more popular.
There is a real snake cult in India. Magnificent temples are built for them, legends are formed about them and stories are written. The snake embodies perpetual motion. Indians place the snake sign on both sides of the front door of their home. Every year, at the end of July, the Snake Festival is solemnly celebrated. They are treated to milk and honey, sprinkled with pollen, and jasmine and red lotus flowers are placed in their holes. In gratitude for such attention, snakes do not bite on this day. Some animals are traditionally associated with certain gods whom they represent: the cow with Krishna, the cobra with Shiva, the goose with Brahma.
Play an important role in the life of Indians castes, of which there are more than two thousand. They were formed on the basis of four varna and have existed since the early Middle Ages. The lowest among them is the untouchable caste. Its members perform the most dirty and humiliating work. They are prohibited from entering not only the temples for the higher castes, but even the kitchen. They also cannot use the things of the higher castes.
Currently, the role of castes in political life is legally limited. However, in everyday life this role remains significant, especially in family and marital relations. As a rule, marriages are concluded within castes and most often without taking into account the opinions of future spouses. Among the upper and middle castes, weddings take place in the bride's house and are distinguished by pomp and luxury. In the lower castes, a bride price is required.
In addition, other areas of culture reached a high level in Ancient India. First of all, this applies to philosophy. Among the so-called orthodox ones, i.e. Recognizing the authority of the Vedas, there are six philosophical schools: Vaisheshika, Vedanta, Yoga, Mimamsa, Nyaya and Samkhya. Some of them are close to each other. In particular, the content Vedanta And mimansas are reflections on the ways of human liberation, problems of social life. Atomistic doctrine Vaisesikas had much in common with logic and theory of knowledge nyai. which eventually led to their merger. At the heart of dualistic philosophy sanyahya there is a problem of two opposite principles of the world - matter and spirit. The school gives preference to the spirit, exploring the possibilities and ways of liberating it.
All the philosophical concepts touched upon are closely related and intertwined with any religion. To one degree or another, the named trends take place in the philosophical thought of modern India and retain their influence. However, the most famous and famous is philosophical school of yoga, which was founded by Patanjali. Yoga is based on the idea of a deep connection between human psychophysiology and the cosmos. Its goal is to achieve the state of nirvana, liberation from the law of karma.
The means to achieve this goal is a system of special efforts and exercises - both physical and spiritual-intellectual. The first are intended for the body, they include certain exercises for mastering special poses - asanas, as well as breathing exercises. The second are aimed at bringing you into a state of self-absorption and concentration. Meditation plays an exceptional role in this.
Along with philosophy, ancient India successfully developed the science. Indians achieved the most significant successes in mathematics, astronomy, medicine and linguistics. Indian mathematicians the value of pi was known, they created a decimal number system using zero. The well-known Arabic numerals were most likely invented by the Indians. The mathematical terms “digit”, “sine”, “root” are also of Indian origin. Indian astronomers made a guess about the rotation of the Earth around its axis. Indian has reached a high level medicine, who created the science of longevity (Ayurveda). Indian surgeons performed 300 types of operations using about 120 surgical instruments. Linguistics owes its birth primarily to Indian scientists.
Artistic culture of ancient India
Artistic culture has reached an equally high level, where a special place is occupied by literature. The most ancient literary monument is the Vedas. The beginning of their creation dates back to the 2nd millennium BC. Somewhat later, in the 1st millennium BC, two more great literary monuments appeared - the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The main content of the first is a dispute over power between the brothers Kauravas and Pandavas, which ended in a multi-day battle between them, in which the Pandavas won. The main characters of the events are Arjuna and his charioteer and mentor Krishna, whose teachings form a separate part of the monument - the Bhagavad Gita.
Of the later literary monuments, the Panchatantra (Pentateuch, III-IV centuries AD) deserves special mention - a collection of fairy tales, fables, parables and moralizing stories. The work of the poet and playwright Kalidasa also deserves special mention. The drama “I Pakuntala”, as well as the poems “The Messenger Cloud” and “The Birth of Kumara” brought him worldwide fame.
As for ancient Indian architecture, then its development has some peculiarities. The fact is that no monuments of the material culture of Ancient India, including architectural ones, that existed before the 3rd century. BC, have not survived and have not survived to this day. This is explained by this. that at that time the main building material was wood, which did not stand the test of time. Only in the 3rd century. BC. The use of stone began in construction, and since that time many architectural structures have been preserved. Since the dominant religion during this period was Buddhism, the main monuments are Buddhist buildings: stupas, stambhas, cave temples.
Buddhist stupas are round brick structures with a diameter of 36 m and a height of 16 m. According to legend, relics of Buddha were kept in the stupas. The most famous of them was “Great Stupa No. 1”, surrounded by a fence with a gate. Stambhas are monolithic columns about 15 m high, on top of which there is a figure of a sacred animal, and the surface is covered with inscriptions of Buddhist content.
Cave temples were usually part of a complex of buildings along with monasteries. The most famous temple is the complex in Ajanta, which unites 29 caves. This temple is also interesting because it contains beautiful examples of ancient Indian painting. The Ajanta paintings depict scenes from the life of Buddha, mythological scenes, as well as scenes from secular life: dance, royal hunt, etc.
Indian culture cannot be imagined without music, dance and theater, which are organically fused with each other. Vocalmusic Indians understand it as the beginning and end of all arts. The ancient treatise “Natyashastra” is devoted to the peculiarities of music, canons and dance techniques. It says: “Music is the tree of nature itself, its flowering is dance.” Origins dance and theater are found in the cult rituals and games of ancient Indian tribes. The creator of dance is considered to be Shiva, who is called Nataraja (king of dance). Krishna is also known as a dancer, although to a lesser extent. However, most classical and folk dances are dedicated specifically to Krishna and Rama.
The culture of Ancient India occupies an exceptional place in world culture. Being Eastern, it had a huge influence on Western culture. Many of its monuments and achievements form an organic part of other cultures.
From: Ionina"Veda"
The oldest literary monuments of India are the Vedas. They are a collection of prayer chants - hymns and magic spells addressed to gods, sages, heavenly bodies, divine drink, time, sleep, illnesses, etc. There are four Vedic collections - Samhita: “Rig Veda” (Veda of hymns), “Samaveda” (veda of songs, chants), “Yajurveda” (veda of sacrificial formulas; and “Atharvaveda” (veda of spells and incantations), Each of the four collections has its own commentary literature: ritual - Brahmanas and philosophical - Aranyakas and Upanishads. Samhits and commentaries on them are called Vedic literature.
Vedic works were created in the northwestern part of Hindustan. Their birthplace is considered to be the territory between the Kabul and Indus rivers and part of Punjab. The dating of Vedic collections and their components, like most monuments of ancient Indian literature, is largely arbitrary. There is a lot of controversy surrounding the dating of the Vedas. As a rule, European scientists attribute them to a later time, Indian scientists to an earlier time. However, most scholars agree that the earliest Vedic hymns can be dated to approximately the 2nd millennium BC. e. The discrepancies in this dating are explained by the multi-layered nature of the Vedic collections. This multi-layered nature is the result of the fact that Vedic hymns were born as works of oral literature and then were kept in tradition for a long time, passed down from generation to generation orally. The recording of Vedic monuments presumably dates back to the first centuries of our era. Only very late manuscripts have reached us, separated in turn by several centuries from the original recording.
The hymns of the Vedas were formed during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system. Tribes, divided into many clans, were engaged in hunting, cattle breeding and agriculture at that time. They waged endless wars among themselves for livestock, people and land. The beliefs and cults of the ancient Indians were primitive. The functions of the priest in the tribe were performed by the tribal leader, in the clan - by the head of the clan, and in the family - by the head of the family. Gradually, property and social inequality appears, and class division arises. Priests become the highest classes - brahmins and the military aristocracy - kshatriyas. These phenomena, representing the evolution of the life of the ancient Indians, are reflected in the Vedic collections.
Hindu tradition considers the Samhitas of the Vedas to be a revelation of the supreme god Brahma, who allegedly conveyed his word to the ancient sages, among whom was the poet Vyasa. But the very etymology of the word “vyasa” (literally: “one who decomposed, distributed [into cycles] texts”, “collector”) is a serious refutation of this tradition. However, in the legend one can find a “rational grain” of truth. Vedic collections and commentaries on them constitute “shruti,” which literally means “that which is heard,” i.e., here, apparently, the oral origin and oral existence of the Vedic hymns is indicated.
Vedic hymns appear in the Samhitas under the names of ancient sages. The creation of the first part of the Rig Veda is attributed to fifteen legendary authors. In fact, the authors of the hymns, both the first part of the Rig Veda and other Vedic collections, were many generations of rishis, singers and poets of the tribe. They were inspired hymn-makers. Sometimes the noeti-singers say that they “found hymns”, sometimes they attribute the birth of a hymn to a state of ecstasy caused by a divine drink, sometimes they compare the composition of hymns to the work of a carpenter, weaver or rower.
Rishis composed hymns on every solemn or generally important occasion (before the start of a military campaign, at the end of this campaign, etc.) addressed to the deity for help or support. It can be assumed that the rishis were the most gifted people of the tribe and at that distant time they expressed the hopes, aspirations, joys and sorrows of all members of the tribe. Thus, in the broad sense of the word, the creator of the hymns was the entire tribe (or all the tribes of the northwestern part of Hindustan), and the Vedas contain the poetry of the collective. The main content of Vedic poetry is, therefore, collective feelings and ideas, and not the feelings and ideas of an individual. In all likelihood, the best of the hymns were preserved in the Vedic collections, etched in people's memory as examples of artistic creativity.
Each new singer, in an act of improvisation, added something to the creations of his predecessors and discarded something. This process can be conditionally called “natural” or “spontaneous” selection. However, class selection played an equally important role (and perhaps a greater one!) in the preservation of some hymns and the disappearance of others over time. The hymns were processed by the Brahmin priests. Various layers that are found in the Vedas show that the era of the creation of hymns must have spanned several centuries. Hymns talk about “old” songs that have existed since time immemorial. A certain part of the samhita consists of repetitions. This means that poets of relatively later times borrowed lines from their predecessors, that there were “wandering lines” or “common passages” that the new poet included in the creation. Many generations of rishis probably passed before the verses included in the Vedic collections were cast into a definite form.
A long time passed between the appearance of hymns and the compilation of collections of these hymns. The era of creating hymns and compiling them into collections is called the “Samhita era,” which is divided into two parts. In the first, hymns were created, in the second, they were collected, combined, systematized and arranged in the sequence in which they are currently known. In other words, the arrangement of hymns in the Samhitas does not reflect the chronological sequence of their composition. The systematizers and editors were again priests - brahmans.
A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
In addition to mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The true encyclopedias of Indian life are the two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, and the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.
Among these concepts, the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads, acquires the main importance among these concepts in the epic. True, these teachings are presented differently in different parts of the Mahabharata, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and independent of it and the pure spirit unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
One of the books that is of greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is the Bhagavad Gita (divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are respectively black, red and white, the colors that define people’s lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one's duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and inauthentic knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
Writing and Scribes in Ancient India
A.A. Vigasin
The article discusses the question of the time of the appearance of writing in India and the status of scribes. The Vedic tradition was focused on memorizing and preserving texts orally. The first written monuments of India are the inscriptions of Ashoka in the 3rd century. BC BC, they use four types of script: Aramaic, Greek, Kharosthi and Brahmi. Aramaic appeared in Gandhara from the end of the 6th century. BC e., Greek - after Alexander’s campaign. Kharosthi arose, most likely, on the basis of Aramaic in the V-IV centuries. BC e., brahmi - later. The inventors of kharostha and brahmi were, obviously, learned brahmanas who were in the royal service. The scribe's status remained high in subsequent centuries. Writing spread widely after the Mauryans, as evidenced by epigraphy. At the turn of the century e. The Buddhist canon and epic poems were written down. In the shastras of the beginning of the century. e. (from the Arthashastra to the Narada Smriti), written documentation is often spoken of and there is reason to believe that the foundations of diplomacy had already been formed. Sanskrit texts of late antiquity and the Middle Ages show an extremely negative attitude towards kayastha scribes, which can be explained by their active participation in collecting taxes.
Key words: India, antiquity, writing, scribes, Brahmi, Kharosthi.
the central word (Vac). Vach in the Rigveda (X.125) appears as a sovereign goddess, a giver of benefits and the embodiment of creativity. But this word is oral and does not imply written recording.
In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. the so-called vedangi appeared - auxiliary “parts of the Veda”, or Vedic sciences. This
The Vedic religion attached great importance to sa-
phonetics, etymology, grammar, metrics, that is, disciplines of the philological cycle1, focused mainly on the careful preservation and reproduction of the sacred word. Even works such as Panini's famous Sanskrit grammar were designed for oral instruction - their very form is associated with school tradition. The text of this grammar is a collection of rules (sutras), set out with extreme laconicism and replete with special terminology. Vedic sutras are often difficult to interpret, since they offer only a certain summary, almost a table of contents, and the interpretation of the content could be given by a mentor-guru.
Vedic textbooks, also called sutra (lit. "thread"), apparently assumed rote memorization - syllable by syllable, word by word. A characteristic feature of at least some of them is the double division of the text: on the one hand, into substantive sections, on the other, into “lessons” or “readings” (a^uaua)2. The latter could tear apart not only a thought, but even a phrase. For example, in one of the most archaic dharmasutras (“Apastamba” 1.3.45-1.4.1), the last sutra of the “lesson” reads: “By feeding him” (meaning the teacher). And the end of the phrase makes up the first sutra of the next lesson: “He (that is, the student - A.V.) can eat the rest himself.”
If we turn to non-Vedic religious traditions, we will see that here, too, the original form of existence of texts was oral. The canonical monuments of Buddhism were recorded by joint recitation (samglti) of learned monks, and they were written down only in the 1st century. BC e. The rules of behavior (vinaya) and stories associated with the daily life of the monastery do not imply either the presence of writing instruments or reading and writing as the activities of a monk3. The very form of canonical texts, with their monotonous repetitions and stringing of synonyms in a sequence dictated by rhythm, indicates their oral origin and existence4.
The stylistic features of monuments are also imitated in the era when literature becomes written. As an analogy, we can recall how, during the construction of cave temples, details were reproduced that had a constructive meaning only in wooden architecture. "Arthashastra Kau-
tily", compiled at the beginning of the century. e., preserves the double division of the text5. The author of “Vishnu-smriti” in the middle of the 1st millennium tries to present his work in the form of an ancient sutra. The sacred books of Hinduism, no longer associated with the Vedic schools (shastras, puranas), are presented in verses that make it easier to memorize. And the prologue to the story is often the story of how the ancient sage dictated this shastra to his students.
Indologists have no inscriptions earlier than the 3rd century. BC e.6 And even such a supporter of the deep antiquity of writing in India as Georg Bühler admitted that not a single literary monument mentioning written documents can be confidently dated to the pre-Aurian era7. The word lipi itself, which in the ancient Indo-Aryan languages meant writing or inscription, is undoubtedly borrowed from Iran. It comes from Persian dipi (in Achaemenid inscriptions), and then, in turn, from Elamite tippi/tuppi (Akkadian tuppu, from Sumerian dub - “tablet”)8. This borrowing could have occurred no earlier than the end of the 6th century. BC e., when two Persian satrapies appeared in northwestern India - Gandara (Gandhara) and Hindu (Sindhu, Sind).
The situation changed in the 4th century. BC e. Nearchus, the naval commander of Alexander the Great, first reports about the writing of the Indians (Strab. XV. 1.67): according to him, they write on pieces of thin fabric. Since we are talking about the territory of Punjab, it is quite possible that the Greek saw documents in the Aramaic language, which spread here from the end of the 6th century. BC e., during the time of the Achaemenids. But it is possible that they were referring to documents written in the so-called “Arameo-Indian” script. This is how J. Filliosa9 called the Kharoshthi script, which arose on the basis of Aramaic and adapted to the phonetics of the Indo-Aryan languages.
There is similar information in Quintus Curtius Rufus (VIII.9.15) - that the Indians write on bast wood, like on papyrus. Obviously, this refers to documents on birch bark (such birch bark documents are known in Kashmir of a later time). But since Curtius does not give any reference to the source of his information, perhaps this information does not go back to the era of Alexander, but to the 1st century, when his History of Alexander was compiled. The same fragment by Curtius refers to precious
stones that are found on the sea coast of India - an undoubted echo of the literature of the beginning of the century. e., when the Greeks sailed to Western and Southern India.
Ancient Indian writing, of course, was invented for practical needs - after all, the Brahmins did not need writing to record sacred texts in Sanskrit10. And for several centuries, starting from Ashoka, inscriptions were compiled only in spoken languages - Prakrit. Only at the beginning of the century e. Sanskrit epigraphy also appeared.
The principles of Kharoshtha and the Brahmi script that appeared later11 reveal familiarity with the discipline developed in the Vedic schools - phonetics112. Therefore, one should think that writing was invented not only by people familiar with Aramaic, but also by those who received a Brahman education. We are obviously talking about those who served at court. Nearchus (81hab. XV. 1.66) distinguishes two categories of brahmanas: some, according to him, indulged in what belongs to nature, while others were engaged in state affairs, accompanying the kings as advisers. Sanskrit texts use the word asShua to designate the king's servants and advisors. According to the Pali texts, the social status of these hereditary atasses is so different from ordinary brahmins that they constitute a kind of caste13. This forced Megasthenes to see in the “advisers and companions of the king” a very special category of the Indian population - along with the “philosophers”-brahmans ^gab. XV. 1.49). The royal servants (including, apparently, scribes) acted not as representatives of the priestly varna, but as educated administrators. And they needed writing not for reading the Vedas (learned by heart in childhood), but for state activities14.
The earliest inscriptions in Indian languages were carved by order of the Magadha king Ashoka in the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. In the northwestern territories of his state these were inscriptions in Kharosthi, and in all other areas - in Brahmi. The text of the royal edicts, naturally, was prepared in the capital, Patali Putra. Then the royal people (taIatShta) delivered it to the provinces. Local authorities were asked to carve the words of the Sovereign (devanampiya) on rocks, on stone slabs or columns in order to preserve them forever (VII Column Edict). From provincial
centers, the king’s “decrees on righteousness” were distributed to small towns and fortresses (Small Rock Edict). They were periodically, on calendar holidays, to be read at a gathering of people (Special Rock Edicts). The minted formulations of what exactly the dharma consists of are often distinguished by a special rhythm - they were undoubtedly designed for recitation.
We cannot recreate with certainty the process of disseminating the “edicts of dharma” (LashtapshaiY). A careful study of the inscriptions showed that groups of words are separated by intervals that reflect pauses made when dictating to a scribe. Sometimes the vowel sounds that complete such fragments acquire longitudes that have no linguistic justification - the scribe probably carefully reproduced the chanting style15. We cannot exclude the hypothesis that sometimes the royal envoy did not have the written text of the decree with him at all, but read it to the scribe by heart. However, in most cases there was still a written original. The fact is that in a number of inscriptions the decree itself is preceded by some kind of introduction indicating the addressee of the message and good wishes to him. Sometimes this appeal is not on behalf of the king, but from an intermediate authority - the provincial governor (a number of versions of the Small Rock Edict). We are dealing with an accompanying “envelope” that was not at all intended to be reproduced in stone and passed on to future generations. But the administration of one or another town, without understanding it, ordered everything that was received from the authorities to be carved into the rock. In such cases, it becomes obvious that if there was an “envelope” or accompanying message, then the royal decree existed in written form.
Local authorities were sometimes quite clueless. For example, three versions of the Small Rock Decree (MNE) contain words of greeting to the leaders of the town of Isila. Of course, only one of these three points could bear the name Isila, but those who received a copy of the message in the other two places mechanically reproduced the entire text, including those words that were not related to them16.
A number of circumstances make us think that translations into colloquial dialects were usually prepared not locally, but directly in the royal office. Apparently, at the court in Pata-
Liputra worked with scribes who knew the spoken languages of those regions of the state where it was planned to send messengers with edicts. We can also see in later Sanskrit literature the requirement for the scribe to know the languages of different regions and peoples (desabhäsäprabhedavid - “Shukra-nitisara” II.173). Sometimes the knowledge of dialects was not impeccable, and then alien forms characteristic of the scribe’s native language penetrated into the translations.
They wrote from dictation in the Brahmi script, which is common throughout India except the northwestern territories. During recording, errors occurred related to the perception of the text by ear. If it was then rewritten in a different script (kharosthi), errors could appear due to incorrect reading of the Brahmi written sign17. It is worth noting in passing that the Greek-Aramaic bilingual found in Kandahar does not apparently go back to the same original. Judging by the fact that the king's name is rendered in Greek as nioSaccfj, the translator had at his disposal the same version as we see in eastern India (Prakrit piyadasi). Meanwhile, the Aramaic translation was apparently made from the same text as we find in the Kharoshthi inscriptions from northwestern India: the Prakrit priyadrasi is rendered in Aramaic by Prydars. But it is quite possible that both scribes were not in Kandahar at all, but in the same royal office in Pataliputra - only the Greek translator used the original of the edict, and for Aramaic it was easier to work with the text in Kharosthi and the Gandhari dialect.
The royal envoy brought a separate copy of the decree to each region, from which copies were then made for further distribution. For this reason, even obvious errors in the original could be replicated: for example, in Mansehra and Shahbazgarhi there is the same typo: dhamangala instead of dhammamangala. W. Schneider18 made an attempt to determine the relationship between the versions of the Great Rock Edicts (GRE) by building their “family tree” (Stammbaum). This should supposedly contribute to the reconstruction of the structure of the administration of the Mauryan state. But the methodology of such constructions raises serious doubts. If the translations were prepared in Pataliputra, then the relationship between the versions is not related to the structure of the state, but to a purely clerical procedure.
Three local versions of the II MNE (from Brahmagiri, Siddapur and Jatinga-Rameshwar) contain the scribe's signature. It is fully preserved in the inscription from Brahmagiri: “written by Chapada scribe (Hr1kaga).” By “scribe,” of course, we do not mean the artisan19 who carved the inscription on the stone (he, most likely, was illiterate). A scribe is a person who wrote down a text from dictation20 with paint or chalk, so that the stone carver could then begin his work. The assumption that the scribe only copied the received message with utmost accuracy (even respecting the width of the intervals between groups of words in the original) does not seem convincing. It is well known that the text was often shortened locally. Even Ashoka himself knew about this, pointing out in the XIV BNE: “what is not written in full - this happens due to the location or (other) reason or due to the scribe’s oversight.”
The only question is who this Chapada was - the man who wrote from dictation on stone, or the scribe who produced the original decree in Pataliputra. In the first case, one would have to assume that the royal envoy was accompanied on his trip around the country by the same scribe, who left his signature in three places. G. Falk21 claims that the scribe’s handwriting in all three cases is completely different - therefore, the scribes were different and, most likely, local. But then we can only think that Chapada signed the original message sent from the capital. By the way, the presence at the end of the letter of an indication of the name of the copyist is fully consistent with later practice and the requirements of medieval scribes22. In all other places (except for the three indicated) where there are versions of the MNE, the authorities did not consider it necessary to reproduce the signature of the scribe - just as the address accompanying them was omitted.
Particularly interesting is the fact that the word “scribe” in all three local versions is written in the Kharosthi script, while the entire inscription is in Brahmi. The Kharostha script was widespread only in northwestern India. On this basis, it is usually assumed that the scribe Chapada himself was a native of Gandhara. The written tradition in the North-West had deeper roots than in Magadha, and the use of Gandharan scribes in the service of Pataliputra would have been quite natural. Is it true,
K.R. Norman23 doubts this interpretation, noting that in the Kharosthi inscriptions from northwestern India the word “scribe” has a different, closer Persian, form - dipikara. However, the use of kharostha in the signature under the edict in Brahmagiri did not at all oblige Chapada to switch to his native Gandhari dialect in his vocabulary.
In recent decades, it has been hypothesized24 that the Brahmi script was invented under Ashoka specifically for recording his edicts in stone. In our opinion, this point of view contradicts the degree of spread of literacy in the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. In order to write edicts in different parts of the vast country, a certain number of scribes were required, as well as readers who knew the Brahmi script. People who read the king’s edicts to local residents on holidays could obviously be found even in small settlements25. In order for literacy to be mastered throughout the country by at least a very narrow layer of people associated with government, of course, time was required26.
After the 3rd century. BC e. the number of inscriptions increases sharply, and many of them were private (dedicatory, dedicatory, etc.). From the 2nd century BC e. inscriptions in Brahmi and Kharosthi also appear on coins (not without Hellenistic influence). Literacy becomes prestigious as a form of knowledge. Thus, King Kharavela (1st century BC, Orissa) boasts that from a young age he mastered literacy and numeracy (lekharüpagananä). In the inscriptions of the turn of the century. e. names of scribes or members of the scribe's family are found who visit holy places and bring donations to the Buddhist community27.
The later parts of the Pali canon contain references to writing (although the canon itself had not yet been written down). The activity of a scribe is considered one of the “noble crafts” (ukkattham sippam - Vinaya IV.7.128). At the turn of the century e. or at the beginning of the century e. The most important literary monuments in Pali and Sanskrit, such as the Tipitaka, Mahabharata and Ramayana, were written down. Author's works (for example, Sanskrit poems and dramas of Ashvaghosa) are created in written form. The Kushan era was the heyday of cities whose culture was largely associated with writing. And it’s not without reason that, speaking about the bearer of urban culture,
ry (nagaraka - lit. “city dweller”), the Kama Sutra mentions that there must certainly be “some kind of book” on the table by his bed (D4.4). Kalidasa (“Raghuvamsha” Sh.28) likens knowledge to the “verbal ocean” ^apshauash samudram), the path to which is opened by the possession of literacy (Pro. In the period of late antiquity, culture and knowledge could already be associated with the book.
One of the later books of the Mahabharata (XIII.24.70) contains the following phrase: “Those who write down the Vedas will go to hell.” Two conclusions can be drawn from this. Firstly, already at the end of antiquity there were recordings of Vedic texts. Secondly, the attitude of the orthodox Brahmins, editors of the didactic parts of the epic, towards the procedure of writing down sacred texts (but only them!28) and in the first centuries A.D. e. remained sharply negative. We see a similar situation later. An aphorism is attributed to Chanakya (“Vriddha-Chanakya” XVII.!), according to which true knowledge can only be obtained from the lips of a mentor. Knowledge gained from books is compared to an illegitimate child conceived by a lover. This comparison is quite understandable: a self-taught person lacks the main thing - a living connection with a mentor-guru, involvement in a continuous line of teachers. And in the 11th century. Abu Reikhan Biruni29 noted that Indians “do not consider it permissible to write down the Vedas.”
The attitude towards book knowledge among Buddhists was much less severe. Buddhism sought to spread, and the rewriting of manuscripts contributed to the increase in the number of its adherents. Buddhist authors projected the situation of their time onto the era when the founder of the teaching lived. Therefore, in “La-litavistara” (125.19), for example, it is said that the Buddha knew 64 types of writing (the number, of course, is conventional and sacred). Proponents of the early origin of Brahmi and Kharostha30 are very fond of referring to this passage. However, in the list of types of writing (just as in a similar list in “Mahavastu” - N35) there are obvious anachronisms. Along with Brahmi and Kharosthi, one can find here Greek writing31, and Chinese (which Indians could have become acquainted with no earlier than the 2nd century BC), and even the writing of the Huns (which appeared in India only in the middle of the 1st millennium AD). )32.
A sharply negative attitude towards the recording of the Vedas did not in the least hinder the widespread spread of literacy and the use
writing for other, non-sacral purposes. This is evidenced by the Brahmanical books - shastras. In the Arthashastra, in accordance with the theme of the entire treatise, we mainly talk about official documents. There is also a special chapter (II. 10) on the rules for drawing up decrees (^ala)33. It is assumed that the royal office does not use spoken dialects (Prakrits) as a language, but Sanskrit. This means that Sanskrit experts - learned brahmins - should have taken the most active part in drawing up decrees and royal correspondence. This is also indicated by the widespread use in this chapter of the treatise of the special terminology of traditional grammar and logic - subjects that formed the basis of Brahmin education.
In the ancient dharmasutras that told about the judicial procedure (“Apastamba”, “Baudhayana”), documents were not mentioned at all - they only talked about the oral testimony of witnesses. But in the dharmashastras of the mid-1st millennium (“Yajnavalkya”, “Narada”, “Vishnu”, fragments of “Brihaspati” and “Katyayana”) we see the widest use of business documentation. The shastras list numerous types of documents: agreements on debt, pledge, sale, slavery or other dependence, etc. (“Nara-da”, Introduction P.38, etc.). It is documents, and not oral testimony of witnesses, that become the most important method of evidence in court (Narada G66, etc.). The authors pay great attention to ways to verify the authenticity of the submitted document (by handwriting, signatures, compliance with the form, etc.). The mention in this regard of “handwritten receipts” indicates the spread of literacy.
The document was drawn up by a scribe (lekbaka), whose name had to be indicated - just like the names of the witnesses to the transaction. Strictly speaking, Iekbaka could not have been a professional, but simply a competent person (Nrupa), who was brought in to formalize the transaction (“Narada”, P.146; “Vishnu”, VII.4). However, the need to adhere to the form suggests that he was usually a professional scribe. If we are talking about various transactions carried out in rural areas, the documents were obviously drawn up by the one who is called the word grāma1ekhaka - “village scribe” or grāmakayastha (“Rajatarangini”, U175). “Every village and every city must have a scribe,” as stated in Shukra-
nitisare" P.220. In the Middle Ages and in modern times, “village scribes” participated in the collection of taxes. In the 19th century, in different regions of India, their position was not the same: in some places they were government officials, in other places they were considered as employees of the village community itself34. It is quite natural that the spread of literacy contributed to the fact that representatives of increasingly lower social strata gained access to it. Among the scribes in the Middle Ages, we sometimes meet Brahmins, but, of course, the majority of village literates did not belong to high castes.
Letter books have been preserved from the Middle Ages, containing samples of both official documents of various kinds, and private letters addressed to relatives or friends. And although we are talking in this case about a literary genre that requires some convention, it is difficult to doubt that the basis of these texts was genuine act material. Scribes could pursue practical purposes - to serve as a guide for scribes (as well as for judges who determined the authenticity of documents). The most famous of them, “Lekhapadchati,” dates back to the 13th-15th centuries. Some texts of this kind are known only from mentions in Sanskrit literature - for example, “Trishastilekhaprakara-na” (“Sixty-three types of documents”) by Kalyanabhatta. It is worth noting that the author of the last treatise was a learned Brahmin - it was he who edited Asahai’s commentary on the Narada Smriti, one of the most important monuments of Hindu law.
We do not have at our disposal such manuals that date back to ancient times. But the rules for drawing up decrees that are contained in the Arthashastra allow one to assume the existence of such benefits already at the beginning of the century. e.35 The requirements set out in the dharmashastras of Yajnavalkya and Vishnu for the execution of deeds of gift for land are fully consistent with the practice of issuing such documents on copper plates, known since the Gupta era. Therefore, we can say with confidence that even then the foundations of diplomacy were developed in India.
Classical Sanskrit drama of late antiquity depicts several figures of a scribe. They are usually referred to by the term kaua8Sha (as in the inscription from Damodarpur of the mid-6th century, cf. “Vishnu” VII.3). In one of the scenes of “The Clay Cart” Shudraki the scribe ass.
reports to the judge together with the merchant foreman (shresthi), - he draws up a protocol of interrogation. The original text of this protocol was probably written with chalk on a board lying on the ground, because the participant in the process who let it slip tried to quietly erase the recording with his foot. The scribe has the official status of a member of the judiciary (Ykagapa), although he speaks not Sanskrit, but the prestigious Shauraseni dialect.
In Visakhadatta's drama “The Ring of Rakshasa,” the scribe Shakata Dasa is a person especially close to the main adviser of the deposed king. True, the brahman Chanakya speaks of him somewhat disparagingly: the bird is small, he says, but is just a scribe (kayastha Sh ^bu! ta^a)37. However, he takes Shakatadasa very seriously as an opponent to be reckoned with. In the same play we see that only professional scribes were trusted with the design of letters. After all, as Chanakya asserts, learned brahmanas write indistinctly (zgoShuakvagash pgayatnalikhitanyapi niyatamasphutani byauapi)38.
Mentions of k^a^Ia in Sanskrit texts of the 1st millennium are often accompanied by extremely harsh reviews about them. This is perhaps the earliest formulated in Yajnavalkya's dharmashastra: the king is advised to protect his people from all kinds of rapists and robbers, but mainly from kayast:ha (P.336). This aphorism became popular, it was repeated in various texts39 for several centuries, and slight variations indicate that it was usually quoted by heart. In the synonymous dictionary "Amarakosha" the scribe was associated with the king: the word Nr1kaga - as well as ambassador and purohita (household priest) - was considered in the section on kshatriya. Its main function was to collect taxes40. Often the scribe is referred to as the royal favorite, which makes him especially dangerous for the population of the country41. This is a representative of the all-powerful bureaucracy, the “jug’s snout,” as our writer puts it. The medieval Sanskrit chronicler Kalhana (“Rajata-rangini”, V. 180) calls the scribes the word “son of a slave” (^TrShha - this expression roughly corresponds to our “son of a bitch”). He says that the whole earth came under the rule of the Kayasthas (U181). The scribes are trying to take everything away from decent people, leaving them only air (U185, cf. IV.629-630). An artificial etymology was attributed to the ancient sage Ushanas42, in a typically Indian spirit.
the words kaua81ba from kaka - uata - yaray. She was supposed to reveal the very essence of the scribe: he is greedy, like a crow, and ruthless, like the god of death himself.
Since the 9th century. we can talk about scribal castes. The position of representatives of these castes is often contradictory43. They could be associated with the court and administration (especially if this administration is foreign). However, their occupations themselves were considered as a service, serving labor, similar to craft professions44. In later Sanskrit texts, a disgusted attitude towards “ink souls”45 on the part of learned Brahmins46 is evident. The status of Kayasthas in the caste hierarchy has been the subject of fierce debate in traditional society47. In Bihar and Uttar-pradesh in the century before last they were considered as twice-born, and in Bengal they were considered sudras.
Notes
H. Scharfe emphasizes the difference in this regard between India and classical Greece, in which the leading science was geometry (Scharfe H. Education in Ancient India. Leiden: Brill, 2002. P. 60). See Renou L. Les divisions dans les texts sanskrits // Renou L. Choix d "études indiennes. Tome II. P.: École Française d "Extrême-Orient, 1997. Rhys Davids T. W., Oldenberg H. Introduction // Sacred Books of the East. Vol. XIII (Vinaya Texts). Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880. P. XXXI-XXXII. Hinüber O. von. Der Beginn der Schrift und frühe Schriftlichkeit in Indien. Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, 1989. S. 31; Idem. Untersuchungen zur Mündlichkeit früher mittelindischer Texte der Buddhisten. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994.
See Renou L. Les divisions... P. 20; Scharfe H. Investigations in Kautalyas's Manual of Political Science. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1993. P. 16 f. True, a number of archaeologists claim that they discovered objects with Brahmi writing signs in layers of the 4th century during excavations in Anuradhapura in Lanka. BC (Salomon R. Indian Epigraphy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. P. 12). Mayrhofer M. Kurzgefasstes etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen. III. Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1976. S. 103. From lipi “letter”
(in Prakrit livi) the word “scribe” (lipika - livika) also originates, see Divyävadäna, 293, 5; 9.
Filliozat J. Paléographie // L"Inde classique. Tome II. P.: EFEO, 1996. P. 670.
Janert K.L. About the Scribes and their Achievements in Asoka's India // German Scholars on India. Vol. I. Varanasi: Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series Office, 1973. P. 141.
Voigt R. Die Entwicklung der aramäischen zur Kharosthl- und Brähml-Schrift // ZDMG. Bd. 155. 2005. S. 48. Bühler G. Indian Paleography. P. 18, 33.
Fick R. Die sociale Gliederung im nordöstlichen Indien zu Buddhas Zeit. Graz: Akademische Druck- und Verlags-Anstalt, 1974. S. 93-94, 164. The fact that the inventors of Indian writing were experienced phoneticians was noted long ago. In our opinion, this contradicts the assumption that traders traveling to Western Asia could have played a significant role in the creation of writing. The Vaishya traders were hardly people versed in the science of phonetics.
Janert K.L. Abstände und Schlussvokalverzeichnungen in Asoka-Inschriften Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1972.
Schneider U. Zum Stammbaum der grossen Felseninschriften Asokas // Indologen-Tagung 1971. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1973; Idem. Die grossen Felsen-Edikte Asokas. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1978. S. 18. For criticism of these constructions, see: Fussman G. Central and Provincial Administration in Ancient India: the Problem of the Mauryan Empire // IHR. Vol. XIV No. 1-2. 1987-1988.
Upasak (Upasak C.S. History and Palaeography of Mauryan Brähml Script. Varanasi: Siddhartha Prakashan, 1960. P. 27) believes that it was an engraver.
SalomonR. Indian Epigraphy. P. 65; Sircar D.C. Indian Epigraphical Glossary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1966. P. 171.
Falk H. Asokan Sites and Artefacts. Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2006. P. 58. “Yajnavalkya” II.88: etanmayä likhitam hyamukeneti... lekhako "nte tato likhet (“Let the scribe write at the end: this was written by me, so and so”) Norman K.R. Middle Indo-Aryan Studies X // Norman K. R. Collected Papers. Vol. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1990. P 161-162. Hinüber O. von. S. 59-60; . Falk: Falk H. Schrift im alten Indien: Günter.
Narr, 1993; see also Goyal S.R. Ancient Indian Inscriptions. Recent Finds and New Interpretations. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Book World, 2005. Perhaps sometimes these were officials who migrated from Magadha - in any case, the inscriptions from the southern borders of the state are written in the same eastern dialect (and the population there was completely Dravidian).
K.L. rightly draws attention to this circumstance. Yanert. See JanertK.L. Abstände... S. 19.
Lüders H. A List of Brahmi Inscriptions. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1912. No. 209, 1037, 1045, 1138, 1148, 1149, 1291. In the Puranas (Shabdakalpadruma II.93) one can find the following statement: “The scribe has the right to write down whatever he wants with a pen ink (masya saha lekhanya) - but not the Vedic text (vaidikam).” Biruni A. India // Biruni A. Selected works. T. II. Tashkent: Publishing house. Academy of Sciences of the UzSSR, 1963. P. 141.
Dieringer D. Alphabet. M.: Publishing house. foreign literature, 1963. P. 388. Yavanl.
Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya claims that the text dates back to the turn of the century. e., which is difficult to reconcile with the mention of the Huns (Vorobyeva-Desyatovskaya M.I. Manuscript book in the culture of the peoples of the East. Book 2. M.: Nauka, 1988. P. 23).
Stein O. Versuch einer Analyse des Sasanadhikara // Stein O. Kleine Schriften. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1985.
Wilson H. A Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms. London: W.H. Allen and Company, 1855, p. 406.
Strauch I. Die Lekhapaddhati-Lekhapancasika. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 2002. S. 17.
Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings (CII, Vol. III). Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1981. P. 360.
Visakhadatta. Mudraraksasa. Poona: Royal Book Stall, 1948. P. 20. Ibid. P. 24.
“Parasara-smriti” XII.25; "Vishnudharmottara Purana" II.61.28; Agni Purana 223.11, cf. "Nitisara" V.81; "Manasollasa" II.155-156; "Yogayatra" I.18.
Already in the Mahabharata it is said (II.5.62) that “scribes and accountants” (ganakalekhaka) are used in matters of “receipt and expense” (ayavyaya) at the royal court. Apararka explains the word kayastha in Yajnavalkya II.336: "tax officials" (karadhikrta). In a similar sloka "Manu" there is simply "the king's servant" (bhrtya). At least after the 11th century. some kayasthas received villages with dependent farmers (Thapar R. Social Mobility in Ancient India
with Special Reference to Elite Groups // Indian Society: Historical Probings. Delhi: People's Publishing House, 1974. P. 112). See EI. XVIII.243: vallabha from kayasthavamsa “feudal lord from the family of scribes,” cf. Vijnanesvara’s commentary on “Yajnavalkya” II.336 about royal scribes “ favorites" or feudal lords (rajavallabha).
Kane P. V. History of Dharmasastra. Vol. II. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1974. P. 76.
Baines A. Ethnography (Castes and Tribes). Strassburg: K.J. Trubner. 1912. P. 38-39; ThaparR. Cultural Pasts. Essays in Early Indian History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. P. 202. See Angavijja. Banaras: Prakrit Text Society, 1957. P. 160; Wed Kane P.V. History. P- 76 (quote from Veda-Vyasa-smriti, according to which scribes are associated with barbers, potters and other sudras). Food from a scribe should no more be accepted than from a goldsmith or a libertine. masisaka - lit. "wielding ink."
See Sabdakalpadruma. Vol. II. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1961 for a selection of derogatory characteristics of scribes (kayastha, lipikaraka), who are said to be the Sudra caste: they come from the feet of Prajapati and are supposed to be servants of brahmanas (viprasevaka ). Kane P. V. History. P. 75-77.