MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE, YOUTH AND SPORTS OF UKRAINE
SUMY STATE UNIVERSITY
3477 Lexico-grammatical commentary
to the introductory grammar course
Russian language
for foreign students,
Turkish speakers
Sumy
Sumy State University
2013
Lexico-grammatical commentary on the introductory grammar course of the Russian language for foreign students speaking Turkish / compiled by: T. O. Degtyareva, Orgun Yunus Emre. – Sumy: Sumy State University, 2013. – 36 p.Department of Language Training for Foreign Citizens
Lexico-grammatical commentary
to the introductory grammar course of the Russian language
| ^ Demonstrative construction with the word THIS Cumledeki bu zamiri |
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| In Turkish, as in Russian, the pronoun THIS does not change when indicating either one object or several objects or persons, regardless of their gender. | Türkçede, Rusçada olduğu gibi işaret zamiri olan is (bu) değişmemektedir.Tek bir nesnede olduğu gibi birden fazla nesne ve cisimde de kategoriye (genus) bağımsızdır. |
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| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: |
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| This is Anton. This is Anna. This is Anna and Anton. | Bu Anton. Bu Anna ve Anton. | This is Anton. This is Anna. This is Anna and Anton. |
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| ^ The structure of a general question and an affirmative answer to it Genel soru yapısı ve olumlu cevap |
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| In Russian, unlike Turkish, in a general question the word order does not change. It differs from a declarative sentence only in intonation. For an affirmative answer, the affirmative particle YES is used. The sentence structure is the same as in Turkish. | Rusça nın Türkçeden farkı genel soru ve sorularda kelime sözcük düzeni değişmemektedir. İki olayı ve durumu birbirinden ayıran tonlamadır.Olumlu cevap verirken sadece olumlu kısmı belirtiyoruz EVET! Yapısı Türkçe’de olduğu gibidir. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Is this mom? Is this Anton? | Yes, it's mom. Yes, this is Anton. | Bu Anne? Is this mom? Bu Anton? Is this Anton? | Evet, bu Anne. Yes, it's mom. Evet, bu Anton. Yes, this is Anton. |
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| ^ Noun. Gender of nouns Varlık ismi.Varlık isimlerinin cinsi | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In the Russian language, as in Turkish, there is an idea of animateness and inanimateness. Animate nouns answer the question WHO?, and inanimate nouns answer the question WHAT? | Rusçada Türkçede olduğu gibi her isim kendi sorusuna cevap verir. KİM? (WHO) NE ? (WHAT) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| For example: | Ornek: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| dad - who? Home - what? | Baba – Kim? dad - who? Ev – Ne? house - what? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unlike Turkish, which does not have a gender category, in Russian all nouns are divided into three genders: | Türkçede isimleri kategorilerine ayrılmazken Rusçada isim ve varlıklar 3 kategoriye ayrılır | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1) nouns masculine(animate and inanimate), as a rule, end in a consonant: | 1) Eril (Dişil karşıtı) tür: Ünsüz harfle biten kelimeler: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| cat Banana | erkek kedi cat Muz banana | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2) nouns feminine(animate and inanimate) usually end in vowels -A, -I: | 2) Dişil tür: Dişil türde kelimeler A ve Iünlüleri ile sona erer: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| mom A Rooms A Earth I | anne mom A Oda rooms A Toprak, kara ,yer land I | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3) nouns neuter(mostly inanimate) usually end in vowels -O,-e: | 3) Nötr tür: Nötr türde ise kelimeler o ve eünlüleri ile biter. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ph O Pestilence e | fotoğraf phot O Deniz Mor e | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nouns ending in -ь, in Russian there can be both feminine and masculine genders. For example, notebook- feminine, and dictionary- male. | Yumuşama işareti ile biten b kelimeler ise eril yada dişil türde olabilir. Ornek notebook– Defter Dişil tür, dictionary– Sözlük Eril tür. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ^ Structure of a question sentence with the question word WHO Öneri soru yapısı ve soru sözcüğü Kim
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| Pay attention to the structure of the question: | Sorunun yapısına dikkat edin. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Who is this? | Kim bu? Who is this? | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In Russian, as in Turkish, both the question and the answer do not have a linking verb in the present tense. The form of the question word WHO in Russian, as in Turkish, does not change depending on the number of persons who interest the speaker. | Rusçada soru ve cevapta gerçek zamanda fiil ve bağlam bulunmaz. Soru kelimesinin formu olan (who) Kim Rusça ve Türkçede miktara bağlı olarak değişmez. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Who is this? | This is Anton. This is Anna. This is Anna and Anton. | Kim bu? Who is this? | Bu Anton. This is Anton. Bu Anna. This is Anna. Bu Anna ve Anton. This is Anna and Anton. |
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| ^ Constructions with the question word WHO Soru yapısı KİM | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In Russian, constructions with the question word KTO are used when requesting information about a person: | Rusçada kim sorusu sorulurken,o kişi hakkında bilgi edinme tanıma anlamındarır | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Who is this? | This is my friend. | Kim bu? Who is this? | Bu benim arkadaşım. This is my friend. |
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| Who is he? | He is a student. | Kim o? Who is he? | O öğrenci. He is a student. |
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| Please note the semantic difference between these questions. Question WHO IS THIS? has a wider meaning and use. It is usually used as the original replica. The question is WHO IS HE? has a narrower meaning and is specific in nature. This question is asked when people are interested in a person’s occupation. | Sorudaki anlam farkına dikkat. (WHO IS THIS?) Kim bu sorusu geniş alam ve kullanıma sahiptir.Genel olarak konuşmaların başında kullanılır. (WHO IS HE?) Kim o sorusu böyle sorulduğu zaman dar ve somut anlamındadır. Bu soru sorulurken sorduğumuz kişinin ne ile meşgul olduğu (iş,öğrenci vs) ima edilir. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ^ Personal pronouns Şahıs zamiri | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare personal pronouns in Russian and Turkish: | Rusça’daki şahıs zamirlerini Türkçe ile karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| I | Ben | We | Biz |
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| You | Sen | you/you | Siz |
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| he/she/it | Eril-Dişil-Nötr | They | Onlar |
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| Unlike Turkish, in Russian second person pronouns have two forms: You(to denote the singular) and You(to denote the plural). Pronoun You is used not only when addressing the second person plural, but also when addressing the second person singular, as a form of polite address. Pronoun You in the singular meaning it is used in relation to older people and strangers. | Rusçada şahıs zamiri 2 yapıya sahiptir. Sen tek bir kişi için kullanılır. ‘Siz’ birden fazla kişi için kullanıldığı gibi aynı zamanda Türkçe’de olduğu gibi bizden yaşça büyük ve tanımadığımız insanlar için ve saygı anlamında kullanılır. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ^ Union A as a connecting element Öğeleri birleştirme rolü a | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Union And connects two or more similar members of a sentence. | 2 veya daha fazla öğeyi birleştirirken. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| For example: | Ornek: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| mom and dad Anna and Anton | Anne ve Baba mom and dad Anna ve Anton Anna and Anton | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Union And also connects two sentences if they contain the same information. | Birleştirilen 2 öğe de aynı anlamı taşıyorsa şu şekilde gösterilir. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| For example: | Ornek: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| This is a bag. And this is a bag. | Bu çanta. Ve bu çanta. This is a bag. And this is a bag. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Union A connects sentences in which there is opposition on some basis. | Cumleden sonraki A harfi farklı kişi ve öğeleri vurgulamak için kullanılır. Aynı öğelerde ise And kullanılır. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| This is Sumy. And this is Sumy. | Bu Sumy.Ve Bu Sumy. This is Sumy. And this is Sumy | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ^ This is Anna. And this is Anton. | Bu Anna. Bu da Anton. This is Anna. And this is Anton. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Possessive pronouns MY, MY, MY İyelik Zamirleri (Sahiplik) MY, MY, MY | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| If you want to say that something belongs to you, you must use the pronouns MY, MY, MY. | Eğer bir nesnenin size ait olduğunu söylemek istiyorsanız o zaman zamir kullanmak zorundasınız MY, MY, MY | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| For example: | Ornek | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| my home My room My photo | Benim evim my home Benim odam my room Benim fotoğrafım my photo | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Unlike Turkish, in Russian the form of these pronouns changes depending on the gender of the word to which it refers. | Rusça’da iyelik zamirlerinin farklı şekilde söylenmesinin sebebi kategorilerin olmasından dolayıdır Türkçe’de benim zamiri bütün nesne ve öğede kullanılırken ullanılır. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ^ Possessive pronouns İyelik zamirleri | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| If you want to say that this item belongs to you, you will use the pronouns MY, MY, MY: | Eğer bir nesnenin size ait olduğunu söylemek istiyorsanız İyelik zamirlerini kullanınız MY, MY, MY (Benim) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| This is my pencil. | Bu benim kalemim. This is my pencil. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Get to know other possessive pronouns: | Yeni zamirlerle tanışın: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| You | yours, yours, yours | Sen you | Senin (yours, yours, yours) |
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| We | ours, ours, ours | Biz we | Bizim (our, ours, ours) |
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| You | yours, yours, yours | Siz you | Sizin (your, yours, yours) |
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| These pronouns, like the pronoun MY, have different endings, since they agree in gender with the noun they define. In Turkish, these pronouns have one form. | Bu sahiplik zamirleri farklı şekilde bitebilir. Türkçe’de ise tek bir form bulunur. Bunun sebebi kategorilendirme olmamasıdır. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| It's you. | This is your dad. This is your room. This is your window. | Bu sen. It's you. | Bu senin baban. This is your dad. Bu senin odan. This is your room. Bu senin penceren. This is your window. |
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| Third person pronouns ( he - his, she - hers, they - theirs) do not change in gender and number, which coincides with the peculiarities of the use of possessive pronouns in the Turkish language. | Sahiplik zamirinde 3. ( he - his, she - hers, they - theirs) şahıs söz konusu ise ona ait olduğunu belirtirken değişim olmaz zamir aynı kalır. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Compare: | Karşılaştırınız: | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| This is him. | This is his friend. This is his girlfriend. This is his photo. | Bu o (eril). This is him. | Bu onun arkadaşı. This is his friend. Bu onun kız arkadaşı. This is his girlfriend. Bu onun fotoğrafı. This is his photo. |
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| This is her. | This is her brother. ^ This is her brand. This is her task. | Bu o (Dişil). This is her. | Bu onun kardeşi. This is her brother. Bu onun pulu. This is her brand. Bu onun gorevi. This is her task. |
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| This is them. | This is their home. This is their mother. This is their letter. | Bu Onlar. This is them. | Bu onların evi. This is their home. Bu onların annesi. This is their mother. Bu onların mektubu. This is their letter. |
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LEXICAL-GRAMMARICAL COMMENT
| 1. | gagner qch (unmatch) perdre qch (un pari) | win (match) lose (bet) | Tu crois que notre quipe va gagner le match, et moi je crois qu"elle va le perdre. |
| 2. | le match d"hier la leon d"aujourd"hui | yesterday's match today's newspaper | A la leon d"aujourd"hui on a beaucoup parl du match d"hier. |
| 3. | il y a un an | year ago (action happened in the past) | J"ai visit Paris il y a un an. |
| depuis un an | already year (action lasts until the moment of speech) | Je connais Jean depuis un an. |
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| pendant un an | for year (the action usually lasts or lasted in the past for a certain period) | Je ne parle pas bien anglais: je l"ai tudi pendant un an seulement. |
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| dans un an | through year | Je pars pour la France, je reviendrai dans un an. |
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| 4. | se trouver (s"arrter ) devant qch | 1. (to be) before, ahead, at, near something | Devant notre maison il y a toujours beaucoup de voitures. |
| passer devantqch | 2. (pass, pass) past, near something | Je passe souvent devant ce thtre. |
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| derrire qch | behind, behind something forsmb. | Il n"y a personne derrire cette porte. |
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| ct de qch | next to smb., smb. | Il n"y a personne ct de moi. |
LEXICAL AND GRAMMAR EXERCISES
| gagner/perdre |
| le match d"aujourd"hui / le journal d"hier |
.Answer the questions:
1. Jouez-vous aux checs? Gagnez-vous souvent? - 2. Qui aime parier dans votre groupe? Gagne-t-il d "habitude ses paris? - 3. Si vous jouez dans une quipe aimez-vous gagner ou perdre? - 4. Si votre quipe perd un match, pouvez-vous rester de bonne humeur? - 5. Lisez- vous parfois le journal d"hier ou prfrez-vous lire le journal d"aujourd"hui? - 6. Pouvez-vous dimanche prparer la leon de jeudi ou de vendredi? - 7. Le garon de dix ans, le jeune homme de dix-huit ans, l "homme de trente ans que font-ils d" habit dans la vie?.IITranslate into French:
.1Who won yesterday's match? I bet our team won and your team lost.
.2Michel loves to bet and always wins, I think he will win now too.
.3I never read yesterday's newspapers, I prefer to read today's newspapers.
.4I won't be able to take them to the stadium by car. I don’t have time: I still have to prepare an assignment for tomorrow.
.5Don't bet, you might lose: tomorrow's match will be very difficult.
.6Paul is a ten-year-old boy, but he plays chess very well. He wins often.
.7What did you talk about with Pierre? - We talked to him about yesterday's lesson.
| avoir mal la tte |
.IIIConvert according to the model:
Modle: Peut-il jouer au football? Non, il a mal la jambe.(la jambe le bras, la dent, la tte, le pied, la main, l"estomac)
1. Peut-il faire cette traduction? - 2. Peut-il manger des bonbons? - 3. Peut-il marcher? - 4. Peut-il crire? - 5. Peut-il courir? - 6. Peut-il porter cette valise? - 7. Peut-il manger ces fruits?
.IVAnswer the questions:
1. Quand allez-vous chez le mdecin? - 2. Quand va-t-on chez le dentiste? - 3. Quand va-t-on chez le chirurgien? - 4. Pouvez-vous courir quand vous avez mal au pied (la jambe)? - 5. Avez-vous souvent mal la tte?.V Translate into Russian:
.1Do you have a headache? Then it's better to stay home.
.2Paul fell and hurt himself, and now his leg and arm hurt.
.3Is Sergei sick? Does his teeth hurt? - Not at all, he is in a bad mood because he answered poorly in class.
.4Does your leg hurt? Did you run a lot yesterday? - Yes, I ran for half an hour.
.5Anya refuses to eat, her stomach hurts.
.6You say your arm hurts? - Yes, yesterday I played volleyball and hurt my hand.
| il y a/dans; depuis/pendant |
.VIRead and translate, paying attention to the use of il y a, dans, depuis, pendant:
Je suis devant la maison de Paul. Il y a un quart d"heure Paul y est entr, et moi, je suis rest devant la maison. Je l"attends depuis un quart d"heure et il est toujours l. Paul n"est jamais press, il faut toujours l"attendre. Hier je l"ai attendu pendant une demi-heure. Dans 5 minutes je lui tlphonerai et, si dans 10 minutes il ne sort pas, je ne l"attendrai plus, je partirai..VIIInstead of dots, insert the expressions ‘il y a’, ‘dans’, ‘depuis’, ‘pendant’:
..... 3 ans nos sportifs ont gagn un championnat europen de rugby. Ensuite ..... 2 ans et demi nous avons perdu tous les matches internationaux. Mais..... 4 mois on a gagn de nouveau. Et.....ce match on gagne toujours. ..... une semaine nous aurons le match de rugby avec une quipe amricaine. Cette quipe est trs forte. Je me demande si nous pourrons gagner.....une semaine.
A la facult nous tudions le franais. Nous avons commenc l "apprendre ..... 4 mois. ..... 2 mois on nous a appris (we were taught) lire et prononcer. ..... 3 mois nous avons pu dire les premires phrases en franais, ..... 2 mois nous avons lu les premiers textes. ..... novembre nous lisons des textes, nous apprenons beaucoup de mots, conjuguons les verbes..... 2 mois nous parlons franais. encore trs bien, mais le professeur nous dit que ..... 2 ou 3 mois nous parlerons bien. ..... 3 ou 4 mois je pourrai crire des lettres mes amis franais et leur parler.
.VIIIAnswer the questions using the prepositions ‘il y a’ and ‘dans’:
1. Quand avez-vous termin l "cole secondaire (graduated from high school)? - 2. Quand avez-vous pass vos derniers examens? - 3. Quand avez-vous fait connaissance avec les tudiants de votre groupe? - 4. Quand avez -vous commenc lire en franais? - 5. Quand viendrez-vous chez vous aujourd"hui? - 6. Quand verrez-vous vos parents? - 7. Quand pourrez-vous partir en vacances?.IX Translate into French:
1. We met them two years ago. 2. I asked him about this two days ago. 3. He spoke to her a week ago. 4. They built the house ten years ago. 5. You will see them in an hour. 6. You will receive a letter in two days and should respond within a week. 7. The director will see you in ten minutes.
Two years ago my parents and I went to Paris. We spent twenty days there. For twenty days we admired this beautiful city. For twenty days we walked along its streets and boulevards, crossed its squares, and visited its museums. Since my arrival (l "arrive) in Moscow, I began to study French. For two years now I have been working a lot, because I love this language and want to know it well. In two years I will speak French very well and will go again to Paris.
| devant/derrire; prs de, ct de / loin de |
.XAnswer the questions:
1. Votre maison se trouve-t-elle loin du centre-ville? - 2. Qu"est-ce qui se trouve ct de votre maison? - 3. Y a-t-il un grand magasin prs de chez vous? - 4. Votre universit est-elle non loin du mtro? - 5. Qu"est -ce qui se trouve devant votre universit? - 6. Y a-t-il un jardin derrire l"universit? - 7. Quand vous allez l"universit, passez-vous devant un magasin d"antiquits? - 8. Devant quel muse passe-t-on quand on va la Place Rouge?.XI Translate into Russian:
.1This museum is located near the Place de la Concorde, next to the Champs Elysees.
.2I admire the Eiffel Tower, let's walk near it again.
.3We stopped in front of the door of this old house and thought: “Who lived behind this door 100 years ago?”
.4Behind their house is a large park, and in front of the house is a small street.
.5How far is the Sorbonne from here? - No, she is very close.
.6In front of the Opera building (le Grand Opra) there are always a lot of Parisians and tourists. It's amazing!
.XIIReplace the highlighted words and expressions with their antonyms.
1. Nos sportifs ont gagn le match d"hier. - 2. Nous habitons ctde l"Universit. - 3. Jean joue chaque jour aux checs et il perd toujours. - 4. Il y a beaucoup d'arbres devant notre maison - 5. Qu "est-ce qui se trouve derrire ce jardin? - 6. La salle de cinma se trouve loin de notre maison. - 7. Derrire ce lyce il y a une petite cour (yard)..XIII Ask questions about the highlighted words.
.1Les jeunes gens sortent de l'appartment.
.2Ils vont au stade de Colombes voir un match de rugby.
.3Le match commencera dans un quart d'heure.
.4Un clochard leur demande le chemin la Bastille.
.5Cet homme est tomb dans l"escalier.
.6Ils ont formidables.
.7Vous verrez, dans un mois, la petite scene de tout l"heure.
.8Il a commenc lire le journal d"aujourd"hui.
.XIV Fill in the blanks with prepositions or continuous articles where necessary.
.1Jean a mal ..... estomac, mais il ne veut pas aller ..... le mdecin, il dit que ce n"est pas la peine ..... y aller.
.2Je ne peux pas ..... t"attendre: je n"ai pas encore fait ..... mes devoirs ..... demain.
.3Un homme demande ..... mon ami le chemin ..... la Bastille.
- ..... aller ..... la Bastille vous devez changer ..... Chtelet et prendre la direction ..... Chteau de Vincennes, rpond mon ami ..... cet homme.
.4Le film n"est pas intressant, ce n"est pas la peine ..... aller le voir, il vaut mieux ..... lire ce livre.
.5Il ne faut pas se moquer ..... l"enfant, il ne peut pas encore rpondre ..... cette question.
.6Elle est tombe ..... la rue et elle a mal ..... la jambe.
.7Une collgue m"a invit ..... sa fte, mais je n"ai pas encore achet ..... fleurs.
.8Je sors ..... chez moi et je sais que ..... 10 minutes je serais ..... la Faculty: j"habite ..... l"Universit.
.XV Translate into French. (Review translation.)
.1You shouldn’t call him, he has already left home and will come to us in a quarter of an hour.
.2There are no interesting articles in today's magazine, so you shouldn't buy it.
.3– Excuse me? What did you say? – I say that you must change at this station to get to the Left Bank.
.4There's a fantastic article in today's newspaper about (sur) yesterday's rugby match. The journalist who wrote it is a twenty-year-old guy, and he already writes so well.
.5– How to get to the Louvre? – You must change trains at Place de la Concorde and go towards Wenzen Castle.
.6No need to go grocery shopping, I already bought sausages and bagels.
.7– Your favorite (prfr,-e) team lost yesterday’s and today’s matches.
-Are you laughing at me? This is not true.
- No, it’s true.
.8–Are you hurt? Does your leg hurt? - Not at all. I fell, but didn't hurt myself.
.9–Are you in a hurry? Am I making you waste time? - Not at all. Don't worry.
.10So you think that our team will win tomorrow's match, but I bet that it will lose it.
.11You were late because some kind of clochard made you lose a lot of time.
.12– Why do they go down the stairs so quickly? - Because they are late for the rugby match. The stadium is not far from home, but the match starts in 5 minutes.
Direct word order.
In French there is no declension, and the functions of a word are determined by its
place in a sentence. Therefore, the French language is characterized by a fixed word order. In a declarative sentence, the members of the sentence are usually placed in the following order:
subject + predicate + direct object.
This word order is called straight forward: Yves lit Mérimée.
2. Interrogative pronoun qui.
With an interrogative subject pronoun quiWho the verb is only possible in the 3rd person singular form:
Verbs of groups I, II and III.
French verbs are divided into three groups.
IN I group, the most numerous, includes verbs with an infinitive –er: critiquer (criticize), imiter, crier (shout), répéter, préférer (prefer), etc.
Co. II group include verbs with an infinitive –ir, taking the suffix –iss- in the plural of the present indicative mood: finir, etc.
Verbs in which the basis changes, are combined into III group: lire, dire, écrire, rire (laugh), etc.
1) In the 3rd person singular present tense, verbs of the first group have an ending –e;
2) In the 3rd person plural of the present tense, verbs I and II, as well as most verbs of group III, end in –ent, which unreadable;
3) In the imperative mood, the endings of verbs of the first group in the 2nd person singular. and plural numbers: - e, -ez: II group -is, -ez: III group most often -s, -ez.
Article and other noun determiners
In French, a noun is accompanied by an article expressing its grammatical categories: gender, number, definiteness, indefiniteness:
des– the indefinite article of the plural, masculine and feminine.
les– the definite article of the plural, masculine and feminine.
UNDEFINED the article indicates that we are talking about some unknown subject. Definite the article indicates an object already known, familiar.
Des dictées—some kind of dictations;
Les dictées are the very dictations that were discussed.
There is no article before proper names: Sylvie, Philippe.
The article is not used if the noun is preceded by:
· demonstrative adjective: ces dictées – these dictations
· possessive adjective: mes dictées – my dictations; tes dictées– your dictations; ses dictées– his/her/his dictations
· cardinal number: six dictées – six dictations
Plural of nouns and adjectives.
The plural of nouns and adjectives is usually formed with the ending –s, which is not pronounced:
les dictées difficiles.
Place of direct object in a phrase.
The direct object expressed by a noun follows immediately the verb in the indicative mood, and the direct object expressed by a pronoun is placed before him.
Philippe lit les dictées. Philippe les lit.
If the verb is in the imperative mood in the affirmative form, the direct object follows it, regardless of whether it is expressed by a noun or a pronoun, and the pronoun is written with a hyphen:
Lisez ces dictées! Lisez-les!
Adjective place
In French, the adjective is often placed after noun:
ces dictates difficiles.
Exercises
1. Read the following place names (1.2):
Nîmes, les Pyrénées, Tbilissi, Chili, Chypre
2. Read the phrases, observing linking and cohesion:
Philippe et Rémi écrivent. Ils‿écrivent vite. Ils‿écrivent ici. Cécile dit: “Finissez ces dictées!” » Ils finissent ces dictées. Ils les finissent. Yves dit: “Répétez ces dictées difficiles. Repétez-les. "Ils lisent les dictées difficiles. Ils les lisent. Sylvie imite Philippe et Rémi. Sylvie les imite.
3. Ask questions to the subject using the following example:Cécile lit. Qui lit?
Yves dîne. _____________________________________________________________________
Philippe imite Sylvie. ___________________________________________________________
Virginie lite. _______________________________________________________________
Yves critique Virginie. __________________________________________________________
Lily et Cécile critiquent Sylvie. ___________________________________________________
Philippe écrit vite. ______________________________________________________________
Lily et Rémi écrivent ces dictées. ___________________________________________________
Yves et Philippe lisent ces livres._________________________________________________________
4. Read the following pairs of verb forms:
il dîne - ils dînent, il critique - ils critiquent, il cite - ils citent, il imite - ils imitent, il dicte - ils dictent, il félicite - ils félicitent, il plie - ils plient, il lie - ils lient; il finit – ils finissent, il réfléchit – ils réfléchissent; il dit – ils disent; il lit – ils lisent, il écrit – ils écrivent, il rit – ils rient.
5. Replace the noun object with a pronoun object. Pay attention to the place of the direct object pronoun:
Example: Ils lisent ces dictées. – Ils les lisent.
Philippe finit les dictées. ______________________________________________________________
Philippe et Cécile finissent les dictées. ___________________________________________
Rémi et Yves lisent ces ideas. ___________________________________________________
Rémi écrit ses idees. ______________________________________________________________
6. Replace the noun complement with a pronoun complement:
Example: Lisez ces dictées! – Lisez-les!
Finissez ces dictées! ______________________________________________________________
Repétez ces dictées difficiles! _________________________________________________
Imitez Philippe et Cécile! _____________________________________________________
Lesson 2
[ε] – a clear front vowel sound, open, unrounded. This sound is more open and wider than [e]. The tip of the tongue rests on the lower front teeth; the edges of the tongue touch the upper back molars. The mouth is wide open.
This sound is wider than [ε] in the Russian words “these”, “chain”, “target”, but narrower than in the words “it”, “tsel”, “Bella”.
Reading rules
1. Letter f at the end of the words it reads: chef [ʃεf].
2. In most cases the letter l at the end of the words it reads: Michel.
3. Letter With at the end of words after consonants and pure vowels it is read as [k]: sec.
Phonetic commentary
If a word ends with a pronounced consonant or group of consonants, and the word that follows begins with a vowel, then the final pronounced consonant of the previous word forms a syllable with the initial vowel of the following word (clutch):
Elle ͡ est belle. Elle ͡ aime.
Reading exercise:
| [ε] | [ε] | [ε:] |
| mais lait chèque ère cèpe béret près très | belle sec chef ferme cette bête baie sel | mère serre chère faire chaise terre beige seize |
Reading exercise:
| [i] -- [e] | [e] -- [ε] | ||
| dit mie lit si épi qui | des mes les ses épée quai | nez mes les ses thé été | naît mais lait sait taie était |
Words to text
Listen to the words and expressions for the text, repeat them during the pause after the speaker (2.1):
| Elise-- Eliza | grec, grecque – Greek, -aya |
| elle vit – she ( personal pronoun of the 3rd person singular feminine) lives | celte – Celtic, -aya |
| elle aime - she loves, she likes | rêver – to dream, to daydream |
| cette-- this ( decree adjective singular feminine) | elle déteste – she can’t stand it, can’t stand it |
| ville f-- city | film m-- movie |
| élevé m,f- student, pupil, student | triste – sad, -aya, sad, -aya |
| belle – beautiful, wonderful | Emilie --Emilia |
| gai,e – cheerful, -aya | pessimist m,f- pessimist, -ka |
| set – this ( decree adjective singular masculine) | dessiner-- draw |
| eté m-- summer | iris m-- iris |
| mythe m-- myth | epi m--ear |
| elle préfère – she prefers |
Listen to the text, pay attention to the sound[ɛ] (2.1). Read the text yourself and translate it.
Elise et Emilie
C'est Elise. Elle vit ici. Elle aime cette ville. Elise est éleve. Elle est belle. Elle est gaie. Elle aime lire. Elle lit vite. Cet été elle lit des mythes. Elle préfère les mythes grecs et celtes. Elle les aime.Elle aime rêver. Elle déteste les films tristes.
C'est Emilie. Elle est triste. Elle est pessimiste. Elle aime dessiner. Elle dessine des iris et des épis.
1. Revision. Conjugation of verbs of groups I, II, III in the present indicative mood.
Present tense of verbs Group I formed using endings
-e, -es, -e, -ons, -ez, -ent, added to the stem of the verb.
Question form
Question form
Se laver
Question form
| Turnover est-ce que | Inversion |
| Est-ce que je finis? Est-ce que tu finis? Est-ce qu'il, elle, on finis? Est-ce que nous finissons? Est-ce que vous finissez? Est-ce qu'ils, elles finissent? | - Finis-tu? Finit–il, elle, on ? Finissons-nous? Finissez-vous? Finissent-ils, elles? |
Verbs Group III do not have a single type of conjugation. Among the verbs of group III, the following are distinguished: subgroups:
a) verbs –tir, -mir, -vir(partir, dormir, servir etc.);
b) verbs ending in – endre, -ondre(descendre, repondre etc.);
c) verbs ending in – frir, -vrir(ouvrir, offrir etc.);
d) verbs like prendre(comprendre, apprendre etc.);
e) verbs like venir, tenir(revenir, soutenir etc.);
e) verbs ending in – aître(connaître, paraître etc.);
g) verbs - uire(traduire, produire etc.);
h) verbs like recevoir;
i) verbs ending in – aindre, -oindre, -eindre(craindre, joindre, éteindre etc.).
The conjugation table for these verbs is given in the appendix.
2. Turnover c’est in the plural it has the form ce sont. The interrogative form of ce sont is formed with est-ce que.
Est-ce que ce sont des livres français? -Are these books French?
Possessive adjectives
a) are used only together with a noun and, like an article, determine the gender and number of the noun to which they relate;
b) agree in gender and number with the possessed object and in person and number with the owner.
Possessive adjectives mon, ton, son used with masculine nouns, as well as with feminine nouns beginning with a vowel or h silent.
livre m: mon livre -- my book; ton livre - your book; son livre – his, her book.
école f: mon école - my school; ton école - your school; son école - his, her school.
Exercises
1. Read, keeping in mind the reading rules:
1. bombe, tombe, pompe, honte, conte, ronde, songe, longue, Londres, bomber, songer, pomper, longer, plomber, long, fond, don, bon, monde, salon, avion, Avignon, aggression;
2. nous dessinons, nous téléphonons, nous trouvons, nous bavardons, nous mettons, nous aimons, nous habitons, nous étudions, nous écoutons, nous écrivons, nous ouvrons;
3. nom - nommer, ton - tonner, pardon - pardonner, prison - prisonnier, raison - raisonnable, don - donner, son - sonner, garçon - garçonne, poumon, monter, monnaie;
4. banc – bond, sang – son, gang – gond, lent – long, dent – dont, vent – vont, temps – thon, rance – ronce, range – ronge, bande – bonde, fente – fonte, ambre – ombre.
2. Read and listen to the following place names (11.2):
La Hongrie, la Pologne, la Mongolie, le Japon, le Gabon, la Bourgogne, Montréal, Monté-Carlo, Mont-Blanc, Londres, Lyon, la Provence.
3. Read the following phrases several times, paying attention to the sounds:
a)[ɔ̃]
Quel est ton nom et ton prénom, mon garçon?
Mon nom est Dupont, mon prénom est Gaston.
b)[ɔ̃], [α̃]
Sur le pont d'Avignon on chante et on danse tout en rond.
Les bonbons de tonton Simon sont très bons: ils fondent sur les langues des enfants.
4. Say the following phrases, trying to keep your articulation as clear and intense as possible:
Si ton tonton tond mon mouton, ton tonton sera tondu.
Ton thé t'a-t-il ôté ta toux?
5. Insert verbs and prepositions. Translate the sentences:
Verbs for substitution: arriver, avoir, écouter, parler, prendre, préparer, regarder, rentrer, travailler, vouloir.
1. Je .......... tard ..... la maison.
2. Ils .........anglais ..... les cours.
3. Nous ......... beaucoup ..... apprendre cette langue étrangère.
4. Elle ......... son petit déjeuner ..... 7 heures.
5. Les élèves .......... tôt ..... l’Université.
6. Vous ......... un film ..... français.
7. Tu ......... tes devoirs..... français.
8. Les étudiants .......... les explanations ..... professeur.
9. Ce soir, ils .......... aller ..... cinéma.
10. Nous ......... beaucoup ..... amis ..... Portugal.
6. Open the brackets, insert prepositions; translate the text:
1. Nous (être) étudiants ..... première année. 2. Nous (avoir) le cours..... français deux fois..... semaine. 3. ..... le cours, nous (écouter) les enregistrements, nous (écrire) ..... nos cahiers et ..... tableau, nous (lire) ..... français.4. Chaque jour, on (apprendre) beaucoup ..... nouveau. 5. On (dire) que nous (faire) des progrès. 6. Je (être) toujours prêt ..... ma leçon ..... français. 7. Je (comprendre) déjà les Français quand ils (ne pas parler) vite mais je (devoir) travailler ferme ..... perfectionner mon français. 8. Je (être content) ...... aller ..... France ..... faire un stage ..... trois mois.
7. Put the following phrases in negative and interrogative form:
Je prends mon petit déjeuner à huit heures. Avant le cours, nous avons le temps de descendre au café. Le professeur arrive avant la sonnerie.Vous entrez en classe et vous saluez vos collègues. Ils sont contents de notre prononciation. Aujourd'hui nous écoutons le magnétophone. On parle français en classe. Les étudiants se préparent aux cours à la bibliothèque.
8. Pluralize phrases:
C'est mon professeur. C'est la serviette de mon collègue. C'est une nouvelle française. C'est le magnétophone de notre camarade. C'est une question difficile. C'est une maison.
9. Put questions to the following phrases and answer them in the negative:
Modèle: Ce sont mes manuels.
Est-ce que ce sont vos manuels?
- Non, ce ne sont pas mes manuals.
Ce sont les parents de Françoise. Ce sont des leçons de français. Ce sont des enegistrements pour les élèves de première année. Ce sont leurs enfants. Ce sont les lettres d'André. Ce sont nos cours video.
10. Replace the adverbseulement restrictive turnoverne...que :
Modèle: J'apprends seulement l'arabe.
Je n' apprends que l'arabe.
J'apprends seulement le français. Vous avez seulement une sour. Vous lisez seulement des nouvelles françaises. Vous arrivez seulement avec la sonnerie. Notre leçon commencement à 9 heures. Mon collègue a seulement le temps de descendre au café. Vous avez seulement deux enfants. Il travaille seulement à la maison.
11. Translate:
We study French twice a week. Usually students arrive before the teacher. They enter the audience and take their seats (prendre sa place). The teacher arrives exactly at 9 o'clock and classes begin.
The teacher explains the new rules (règle f), students listen carefully (attentivement), write in their notebooks, and ask questions to the teacher. He answers their questions, helps students complete exercises, and translate (traduire) the text.
The teacher is happy with his students. He says they are doing well and making progress.
The class ends at 10.30. The teacher gives the task for the next (suivant) lesson and everyone leaves the classroom. During recess, students go to the cantine f), drinking coffee, talking. Everyone says that French is difficult, you need to learn a lot of rules. But they are ready to study hard so that they can go on an internship to France in the summer.
Lesson 12
[ε̃] – front nasal vowel, open unrounded. This is a nasalized [ε].
The position of all speech organs is the same as with [ε]. The tongue should rest against the lower incisors, otherwise the sound will be similar to [α̃]. The velum is lowered and turns on the nasal resonator.
| Phonetic exercise: | , , , , , , , , , , , , , . |
Graphic representation of sound [ε̃]
| Sound | Writing | Examples |
| [ε̃] | in im ain aim ein yn ym ien | matin simple écrivain faim plein syntaxe symphonie bien |
Note:
1. If after letter combinations in, im, ain, aim, ein, eim, en, yn, ym followed by a vowel or second consonant m or n, no nasalization : jardin - jardinier, hymne.
2. Letter combination ien presents particular difficulty in pronunciation. Typically in the suffix –ien, in monosyllabic words and their derivatives it reads like : Parisien, bien, lien, bientôt. In other cases, the letter combination ien reads like : science, oriental, recipient.
Reading exercise:
[œ̃] – front nasal vowel, open, rounded. The position of all speech organs is the same as with [œ], only the velum palatine is lowered and the nasal resonator is turned on.
Phonetic exercise:
| [œ] – [œ̃] | [ε] -- [œ] -- [œ̃] | ||
| – – – – – – – |
Graphic representation of sound [œ̃]
| Sound | Writing | Examples |
| [œ̃] | un um | tribun parfum |
Reading exercise:
| [œ̃] -- | |||
| un brun chacun quelqu'un lundi parfum | une brune chacune quelqu'une lune parfume | un maire un livre un page un élève un ami un camarade | une mer une livre une page une élève une amie une camarade |
Listen and repeat the text (12.2):
Le brun cherche la brune.
Chacun sa chacune.
L'un est dans la lune,
L'autre se parfume.
Un et un font deux.
Un et une font une histoire
D'amoureux au clair de lune.
Words to text
Listen to the words and expressions for the text and repeat them during the pause after the speaker (12.3).
| architecture f– architecture | explanation f– explanation |
| excursion f- excursion | celebre – famous |
| partir en excursion – go on an excursion | raconter qch à qn – tell sth. to smb. |
| Reims – Reims | impression f- impression |
| la ville de Reims – city of Reims | route f nationale – motorway |
| intéressant, -e – interesting, -aya | en route! - on the road! |
| lundi m- Monday | rouler – to roll, to go |
| matin m- morning | vers - towards..., towards... |
| detail m- detail | chef-lieu [ʃεfljø] m– administrative center, main city |
| car m– bus (tourist, service | ancien, -ne – former, -aya; old; ancient, -aya; old |
| stopper - stop | province f– province |
| devant – at, near, before (pretext) | Champagne f– Champagne |
| hotel m– hotel | la province de Champagne – province of Champagne |
| s’installer – to sit down, settle down | vin m– wine |
| par – by, through ( pretext) | monde m- world |
| route f- road | le monde entier - the whole world |
| chemin m- road | loin de... - far from... |
| à mi-chemin – halfway | tout – everything ( indefinite pronoun) |
| restaurantm - restaurant | jusqu’à – up to, up to ( pretext) |
| enfin - finally | magazine m- shop |
| touriste m– tourist | gobelin m– tapestry |
| faim f- hunger | ruelle f- street |
| avoir faim - to be hungry | étroit, -e – narrow, -aya |
| commander qch à qn – order something. to smb. | marché m- market |
| coq-au-vin m- rooster in wine | souvenir m– souvenir |
| chef m- chief, senior manager | repartir – go back (back) |
| reprendre qch – take again | cinq – five |
| reprendre la route - take the road again, continue the journey | soir m– evening |
| y- there; there | impressionnant, -e– making an impression, impressive |
| guide m– guide | apprendre qch – building. find out sth. |
| entrer - building. come in | chose f- thing |
| bien - good | beaucoup de choses interiors – a lot of interesting things |
| visiter qch, qn – inspect, visit |
Excursion in Reims
Nicolas Smirnov est architecte. Il parle bien français. Il est en France. Il étudie l "architecture française. Il vient de visiter Reims. Il vient de voir la célèbre cathédrale de Reims et il raconte ses impressions dans une lettre à ses amis. Il écrit: “Tout va très bien. Je viens de faire une excursion très interior et je vais vous raconter mon voyage dans tous ses détails.
Lundi matin à 11 heures, un car blanc et bleu stoppe devant notre hôtel. On part en excursion à 11 h. 30. Tout le monde s"installe dans le car où il y a 59 places et, par une des routes nationales, le car roule vers Reims. La ville de Reims est le chef-lieu de l"ancienne province de Champagne, pays des vins , célèbres dans le monde entier. Ce n"est pas loin de Paris. Mais à mi-chemin, le car s"arrête devant un petit restaurant. "Enfin! » Disent les tourists. "On a faim". On commande un bon repas français. On vient de manger un coq-au-vin, et, déjà, le chef du groupe dit: “En route!” " Le car reprend la route de Reims; à deux heures on y arrive enfin. On entre dans la cathédrale de Reims. Un guide parle aux tourists de la celebre cathédrale. L "impression est grande. On pose au guide beaucoup de questions. Le guide donne des explanations très interiors.
Les tourists visitent toute la ville. Tout y est ancien jusqu"aux magasins des Gobelins. Ils admirent ses ruelles étroites, la place du marché avec ses petits magasins. Ils entrent dans ces magasins et y achètent des souvenirs.
On repart à cinq heures et on rentre à Paris à 7 heures du soir. Tout le monde est content de cette belle excursion impressionnante. On vient d"apprendre beaucoup de choses interiors sur Reims."
Remember the expressions:
tout va(très) bien – everything is (very) good
partir en excursion – to go on an excursion
une route nationale - motorway
un chef-lieu – administrative center, main city
le monde entier - the whole world
ce n"est pas loin (de) - it’s not far (from)
avoir faim - want to eat, be hungry
avoir soif – want to drink, feel thirsty
avoir chaud - to feel warmth, heat
avoir froid – to freeze, to feel cold
apprendre beaucoup de choses interiors (sur) – learn a lot of interesting things (about)
Introduction
Chapter 1. The word as a functioning unit of language
1.1 The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of speech
1.2 Parts of speech in modern Russian
Chapter 2. Lexico-grammatical groups of words in store names
2.1 Significant parts of speech in store names
2.2 Functional parts of speech in store names
Conclusion
References
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Introduction
Language, which serves as a tool for thinking and communication, is a formation of extreme complexity. Since ancient times, it has distinguished two main groups of elements with their own specific characteristics: vocabulary and grammatical structure. The vocabulary includes all those names of concepts that are expressed in the words of a given language. The vocabulary of a language is studied in the section of vocabulary, which focuses on the individual properties of individual words, primarily on the meanings belonging to each individual word, in contrast to the meanings of other words. The grammatical structure covers those properties and patterns of words and their various combinations that belong not to individual words, but to their entire groups or groups of their combinations; they are the basis for the very grouping of linguistic elements into general categories, classes, and linguistic categories. In some cases, lexical and grammatical elements jointly find a place in individual words and can usually be easily isolated. In other cases, grammatical elements can be highlighted only in combinations of words (usually in sentences).
The relevance of the topic lies in the fact that the city streets are full of various store signs. The names of the stores amaze our imagination. By the name of the store we can determine what is sold there. Most often the name is a noun.
The object of research in the course work is the morphology of the modern Russian language.
The subject of the study is lexical and grammatical groups of words in store names. The names of stores will be analyzed from the point of view of referring to one or another part of speech.
The purpose of the course work is to analyze the names of stores in the city of Tolyatti.
To achieve the goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Characterize the word from a lexical and grammatical point of view;
Describe the parts of speech in modern Russian;
Identify lexical and grammatical groups of words in store names.
The course work consists of a table of contents, introduction, first and second chapters, conclusion, bibliography and four appendices.
Chapter 1. The word as a functioning unit of language
1.1 The word as a lexical and grammatical unit of speech
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, its correlation with an object or phenomenon of reality.
The lexical meaning of a word, being an element of the general language system, nevertheless has sufficient independence. It has actually semantic, i.e., specific properties inherent only to it, for example, different ways of nominating objects, concepts, phenomena, signs according to the nature of the correlation with reality (direct - indirect, or figurative), according to the degree of motivation (non-derivative - derivative), according to the methods and possibilities of lexical compatibility (free - non-free), according to the nature of the functions performed (nominative - expressive-synonymous).
Entry into a particular lexical class connects a word with other members of this class by a common component of lexical meaning and - through the level of lexical community - in many cases also by similarity in syntactic behavior and the ability to combine with other words. As a member of the grammatical, word-formative, and lexical classes, the word is subject to the laws of existence of these classes and reflects the processes occurring in them. At the same time, the word itself is a living and actively functioning unit of language: it itself can directly react to a variety of linguistic and extra-linguistic phenomena, acquiring new shades of meaning, new evaluations and new connections. However, in all such cases, the class controls the behavior of the word, accepts some of this behavior and rejects some; This is the determining influence of the system on the existence of its constituent units. The word is a unit capable of giving life to new words. Based on certain word-formation patterns, a word unites around itself its derivatives (motivated by it) words, organized into word-formation chains and nests.
Thus, the word itself creates for itself the closest related environment in which its existence takes place. The word production capabilities of words are very diverse: they are regulated by their belonging to a certain class, their internal structure, their grammatical and lexical meanings. In the sphere of word formation, the internal potential that lies in the word as a naming unit of language: the lexical composition of the language and its grammatical structure is directly manifested with the greatest clarity.
The word participates in the formation of a sentence, entering a specially designed syntactic pattern (sentence type), as part of this pattern and together with it creates a given, specific message.
The relationship of words to such patterns is twofold: they can either freely, without any restrictions, enter into such a pattern, or approach it selectively.
There are many types of sentences that are not open to all lexical classes, and sometimes only to some, small groups of words. In other words, in many cases, certain words in their syntactic functioning are associated with a certain type of sentence, with its given grammatical organization and semantic structure.
As part of a sentence, words act as components of a message that are capable of distributing main and secondary roles among themselves. By means of word choice, their arrangement and intonation emphasis, the speaker highlights the most important in his message, contrasting it with the secondary or already known. The choice of words and the nature of their arrangement in a coherent text determines the stylistic and expressive coloring of the message and speech as a whole.
Having been clothed with a certain intonation, a word (in one form or another) under the conditions of an appropriate situation easily becomes a relatively complete message, i.e. forms a statement. For such a transformation of a word in a language, there are no restrictions - neither grammatical nor lexical. In colloquial, everyday speech, in dialogue, this form of communication is more common than the exchange of complete, grammatically fully formed sentences.
In the flow of speech - oral or written, in a coherent text, words perform the function of fastening units. Coherent speech (text) is built not from separate, fragmentary sentences, but from statements, denials, questions, and often omissions arising from one another, united by the unity of the topic or the general purpose of the information. Such segments of speech are closely related to each other, first of all, meaningfully, and the role of semantic connectives is played by words - repeating, close in meaning, or indicating. Coherent speech thus has a single verbally consolidated basis.
1.2 Parts of speech in modern Russian
The modern classification of parts of speech in the Russian language is basically traditional and is based on the doctrine of eight parts of speech in ancient grammars.
Depending on the lexical meaning, the nature of the morphological features and syntactic function, all words of the Russian language are divided into certain lexical and grammatical categories, called parts of speech. The structural-semantic classification of parts of speech proposed by V.V. has become widespread. Vinogradov: 1) parts of speech, 2) particles of speech, 3) modal words, 4) interjections. The largest structural-semantic categories - parts of speech and particles of speech - are each further subdivided into a number of groups. To the parts of speech of V.V. Vinogradov classifies names, highlighting in them a noun, an adjective and a numeral, pronouns, a verb, adverbs, and a state category. Particles of speech include prepositions, conjunctions, actual particles and connectives. Particular attention is paid to modal words and interjections.
Most of the modern textbooks and teaching aids on the Russian language are based on the teachings of V.V. Vinogradov about parts of speech.
Parts of speech are categories of the most general nature. Nouns have a general meaning of objectivity, adjectives - quality, verbs - actions, etc. All these meanings (objectivity, quality, action) are among the general lexico-grammatical meanings, while the actual lexical meanings of words are different, and the same basis can become the source of the formation of words with different grammatical characteristics, i.e. different parts of speech. For example, from the fundamentals that have a general meaning of objectivity - stone, wood, nouns can also be formed stone, tree, and adjectives stone, wooden, and verbs turn to stone, become stiff; from the basics having a general meaning of quality - white-, deaf-, Not only adjectives can be formed white, deaf or verbs turn white, stun, but also nouns whiteness, deafness. The lexical meanings of stems, even within the same part of speech, can be different and differ markedly from the grammatical meanings. For example, adjectives along with the meaning of quality - white, thin may be associated with the meaning of objectivity - gold, brick, process of action - evasive, free-flowing etc. However, these meanings (objectivity or action) in adjectives are not leading, as they are in nouns or verbs. Adjectives express objectivity and the process of action not abstractly, but only as a sign of an object or phenomenon of reality (gold bracelet, brick house, evasive answer, bulk material), as belonging to an object or phenomenon, while nouns that have the meaning of quality (whiteness, deafness) or actions (running around, uprooting), denote independent (independent) concepts and may have adjectives defining them: pleasant whiteness, severe deafness, constant running around, fresh uprooting etc. .
The morphological characteristics of different parts of speech are different. For example, nouns have the categories of gender, case and number. Adjectives also have the grammatical categories of gender, number and case. But if gender, number and case of nouns are grammatically independent categories, then for adjectives they depend entirely on the noun to which the adjective refers. Verbs have the categories of person, tense, mood, aspect, voice, number. Moreover, the categories of tense, mood, aspect, voice are inherent only to the verb. And the category of number covers different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs), the category of person is also inherent in pronouns.
Parts of speech differ in the nature of morphological changes: nouns change by case and number (inflected), but not by gender; adjectives change not only by cases and numbers, but also by gender; verbs - according to persons, numbers, tenses and moods (conjugated), and adverbs and impersonal predicative words (state category) are distinguished by their immutability.
In some variable parts of speech, words that are not subject to morphological changes are highlighted. This includes, for example, borrowed nouns (coat, metro etc.), which do not change either by case or by number; adjectives borrowed type beige, burgundy[ibid., P.146].
Depending on the role of which parts of a sentence a particular part of speech is used, as well as on what words it is combined with in a sentence, the various syntactic functions of parts of speech are determined.
For example, nouns that have the basic meaning of objectivity most often act as subjects and objects in a sentence. Adjectives that mean quality serve as definitions. Verbs, having a basic meaning of action or state, act primarily as a predicate.
Parts of speech also differ in their compatibility with other words: a noun is combined with an adjective that defines it (gray cloak, clear mind), the verb is most often combined with an adverb (mows well, goes slowly).
In the process of language development, words from one lexical and grammatical category can move to another.
If a word belonging to a certain part of speech loses (or changes) its basic lexical meaning and morphological features inherent in a given series of words, it acquires the features of another part of speech, and in accordance with this its syntactic functions change. For example: The working quarter was very lively in the mornings. - The worker took his place at the machine, where, depending on belonging to different parts of speech, the role of the word in the sentence changes. In the first sentence the word worker denotes a characteristic of an object and is an adjective, acting as a definition. In the second sentence, the same word received an independent meaning of objectivity, i.e. has passed into the category of nouns, with it a definition is possible (old worker, regular worker, auxiliary worker etc.), it is used as a subject.
The transition from one part of speech to another occurs constantly in the language, so the distribution of words among different parts of speech is not constant. However, not all parts of speech can move equally freely into others. For example, adjectives often turn into nouns, participles into adjectives (exquisite food, brilliant victory). Nouns can take on the meaning of pronouns: Regular classes soon began. Case ( those. this) was in September. Often nouns are involved in the formation of prepositions, conjunctions, particles, for example: throughout the year, for improvement purposes; while, since; Is it a joke? or something etc. Adverbs can become prepositions, for example: about, around; gerunds - in adverbs and prepositions, for example: silently, sitting, standing; thanks despite.
In modern Russian, parts of speech are distinguished between independent and auxiliary parts. A special group of words includes modal words, interjections and onomatopoeic words.
Independent (or significant) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings; in a sentence they act as main or secondary members of the sentence.
Independent parts of speech include 7 categories of words: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb, impersonal predicative words (state category).
Among significant words, nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs and pronouns have a variety of forms.
Adverbs and impersonal predicative words (such as glad, sorry, no time) are deprived of formative means (except for the degrees of comparison of qualitative adverbs and impersonal predicative words formed from them).
Function words (function words include prepositions, conjunctions, particles) are deprived of a nominative (nominal) function. They are a kind of grammatical means for expressing relationships and connections between words and sentences (prepositions, conjunctions), as well as for conveying certain semantic and emotional shades of meaning expressed by independent parts of speech (particles). Modal words allocated to a special group, like auxiliary parts of speech, do not have a nominative function. They express the speaker’s assessment of his statement from the point of view of the relationship of what is being communicated to objective reality ( definitely, unfortunately etc.). Interjections also lack the function of naming. They are expressors of certain feelings (oh! chu! fu! alas!) and expressions of will (out! stop! shh!). Like modal words, interjections are not inflected and are usually not parts of a sentence, although intonationally they are always associated with the sentence to which they adjoin.
Onomatopoeic words are, in their sound design, a reproduction of exclamations, sounds, screams, etc. (quack-quack, ku-ku, moo, ding-ding etc.). In their syntactic functions they are similar to interjections, but unlike the latter, they do not express any feelings or expressions of will.
Firstly, the word as a functioning unit of language is studied from a phonetic, word-formative, lexical and grammatical point of view.
Secondly, according to the presence of certain lexical and grammatical features, all words of the modern Russian language are divided into lexical and grammatical groups, i.e. parts of speech.
Thirdly, in the modern Russian language there are 13 parts of speech, which are divided into significant and functional.
Significant words include those parts of speech that name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings; in a sentence they act as main or secondary members of the sentence.
Function words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Function words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words.
There are also separate groups of words - modal words. These words, like auxiliary parts of speech, do not have a nominative function. They express the speaker’s assessment of his statement from the point of view of the relationship of what is being communicated to objective reality ( definitely, unfortunately etc.).
Identifying different types of lexical meanings, lexico-grammatical categories (parts of speech), and morphological features helps to gain a deeper understanding of the semantic structure of a word and makes it possible to understand the nature of systemic and intraword connections.
Chapter 2. Lexico-grammatical groups of words in store names
2.1 Significant parts of speech in store names
In modern Russian, parts of speech are distinguished between independent and auxiliary parts. Independent (or significant) parts of speech either name objects, qualities or properties, quantity, action or state, or indicate them. They have independent lexical and grammatical meanings; in a sentence they act as main or secondary members of the sentence.
According to its internal properties, a word is a unit that strives to connect with other similar units, i.e. to syntactic connections. Different words contain different possibilities for realizing such connections. To a greater extent, this potential lies in significant words, and to a lesser extent - in service words.
A significant word predetermines its connection with another word by the entire complex of its meanings: lexical, grammatical, word-formative. On this basis, the language builds an extensive system of so-called word-by-word connections, which are unique to words of each part of speech - noun, adjective, verb, adverb, and within these classes also to words of individual lexical-grammatical groups or simply individual words.
Store names, of course, should attract the buyer with their own name, but not everyone can afford such luxury - it must correspond to the product being sold. Let's look at the names of stores and companies located in Tolyatti.
The main task of a company or store name is to attract the buyer’s attention, interest and even amaze him. That is, the name is entrusted with an informational and explanatory function, and it must convince the buyer, instill in him the main idea of \u200b\u200bthe purchase. A word can be attached to an object as its designation or as information about its existence. This is precisely the function of words in the names of works of thought, art, in informative inscriptions, in the names of a wide variety of realities, on signs, labels, in the names of goods, etc. These are pointer words signaling that “this is something ", "this is called so-and-so", "here is such-and-such." This indicative function of a word or phrase is essentially close to a message, since it carries certain information. Nouns and adjectives are more often used to name stores, for example:
"Wine"(see Appendix 3 card 1). A substantivized adjective is used as a name.
"Shoes"(see Appendix 3 card 2). A noun is used as a name.
"Plumbing"(see Appendix 3 card 3). A noun is used as a name.
"Shade"(see Appendix 3 card 4). A noun is used as a name.
"Cheboksary knitwear"(see Appendix 4 card 5). An adjective and a noun are used as names.
"Sewing machines"(see Appendix 4 card 6). An adjective and a noun are used as names.
There are one-part and two-part store names. Monocomponent names are those consisting of one word such as "Entertainer"(see Appendix 3 card 7) a noun is used as a name - indicates an assortment of goods for handicrafts, "Smoke"(see Appendix 3 card 8) the noun is used as the name - sale of tobacco products.
As a result of the implementation of verbal connections, two-part names are formed, consisting of two or more words (parts of speech), they have their own structure and their own linguistic meanings and are successfully used for the names of stores: "Tobacconist's"(see Appendix 4, card 9) is used by him as a name. adjective and noun , "The Snow Queen" an adjective and a noun are used as a name, "Trading house "Nikolaevsky"(trading adjective, house noun, “Nikolaevsky” substantivized adjective), "Chairs chairs"(see Appendix 4 card 10) two nouns are used as names.
The phrase is thus the realization of the syntactic potential of the significant word. In the development and establishment of such meanings, the role of context is very significant, which determines the realization of the potential semantic capabilities of the word. (Note that the choice of the lexical environment, the correct assessment of the potential lexical-semantic shades of a word is one of the most important conditions for the work of translators, managers, journalists, and editors.)
Nowadays, a number of combinations of words corresponding to the range of goods sold can be used. In most cases, real nouns are used (denoting chemical elements and compounds, agricultural crops, food products, building materials, etc.) for example:
"Bread"(see Appendix 3 card 11). A noun is used as a name.
"Household chemicals"(see Appendix 4 card 12). An adjective or a noun is used as a name.
"Stationery"(see Appendix 3 card 13). A noun is used as a name.
"Windows"(see Appendix 3 card 14). A noun is used as a name.
"Seal"(see Appendix 3 card 15). A noun is used as a name.
In any city you can find more than a dozen stores with similar names - there is no originality, just a clear definition of whether the store belongs to a certain type of product. And often, with such grammatical correspondence, the buyer will not be surprised or shocked, because he clearly imagined what could be lying on store shelves in this case.
Grammatical meaning is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular tense, person, number, gender, etc. Lexical and grammatical meanings are closely related. A change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in the grammatical meaning. For example: "Women's clothing"(adj. relative) and "Women's Gaze"(qualitative adjective, has a degree of comparison, short form); "Gostiny Dvor"- a store selling food products, (Gostiny - adjective) - "Literary Lounge"- a bookstore (living room - noun).
Very often, the geographical principle, or simply reference to the area, is used for store names: “South Service”, “Eighth Quarter”, “Verkhnie Prudy”, “Southern”, usually these are grocery stores with basic goods and a small selection, although there may be a huge shopping center under a modest sign.
Boutiques selling brands of famous couturiers emphasize their affiliation with the original with registered family trademarks "Svetlana Frantsuzova", "Giorgio Armani", "Hugo Boss", if this is not a counterfeit Chinese shop on the Cherkizovsky market, then this is a salon in the best place in the city or shopping center. It should also be noted that there is a growing tendency to use foreign borrowed words in combinations “Park House”, “Gold Kitchens”, “Disney Land”, “Second Hand”, “Golden Group”.
Words fill the syntactic pattern with content, i.e. ensure the implementation of information. No matter how rich and developed the syntactic structure of a language is, without vocabulary syntactic structures are dead: only in interaction with words, filling them, do such patterns provide the implementation of the message and carry useful and necessary information. Collocation "Shop of 1000 little things"(see Appendix 4 card 16) offers to buy everything from a needle to a lawnmower; the use of the number 1000 gives a big meaning to the name.
The desire to attract attention to the store leads to the fact that names can consist of a phrase when the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in its grammatical meaning. For example, store names - "Carriage House"(see Appendix 4 card 17) , "Gostiny Dvor".
In names, as a rule, the most concise, extremely laconic phrases are used, in which all semantically minor elements are omitted. But in order to ensure maximum clarity, only commonly used vocabulary and simple grammatical means are used to construct names.
Shop names have developed a special naming style, a characteristic feature of which is the extreme expressiveness of lexical and grammatical means, for example:
"Sport Master"(see Appendix 4 card 18). Two nouns are used as the name.
"Teplodar"(see Appendix 3 card 19). A noun is used as a name.
"Energy"(see Appendix 3 card 20). A noun is used as a name.
To attract the buyer's attention to the store, pronouns and prepositions are usually omitted from the names. Abbreviations and compound words are widely used, abbreviations are widely used, most often letter ones, for example: “ Peter Lada", "Rospechat"(see Appendix 3 card 21) , "Lada LTD", "AvtoLada", "Windows SOK"(see Appendix 4 card 22).
The presence of figurative elements is noted, for example: "City of Flowers"(see Appendix 4 card 23) , "Home Cellar"(see Appendix 4 card 24) .
2.2 Functional parts of speech in store names
Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not names of objects, features, processes, but serve to express the relationships between phenomena of reality, which are called significant words.
Because of this, function words are used in names only in conjunction with significant words. Not having a nominative function, function words are not members of a sentence, but are used as formal grammatical means of the language: prepositions appear in subordinate phrases, conjunctions - with homogeneous members and in complex sentences, particles - with individual words and in interrogative and exclamatory sentences (indicative However, even such words as conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections tend to become fouled, to form combinations of varying degrees of stability on their basis) for example:
"Office furniture" - there is a preposition in this name For indicates the purpose of the furniture - office furniture.
"Kitchens from Linda" - pretext from indicates a specific kitchen manufacturer.
"Furniture and interior"(see Appendix 4 card 26). Union And states that in addition to furniture, interior products are also on sale .
"Deli on Zhukova" - pretext on indicates the location of the store.
"Windows by the Pit" -(see Appendix 4 card 25). Pretext at indicates the window manufacturer.
“From Valentin Yudashkin” -(see Appendix 4 card 27). The preposition from indicates a brand .
It can be noted that the auxiliary parts of speech help to create a grammatically organized combination of words, which has a certain semantic and intonation completeness.
As a result of the work done, it was possible to analyze and determine the specifics and features of the use of lexical and grammatical groups, phrases and words using examples of store names.
As we can see, store names consisting of phrases reveal a number of features and are not always clear and predictable. Very often they resort to incorrect word formation, abbreviation of words and choice of phrases; one-part and two-part store names are often accompanied by contextual additions and explanations. Most often, a noun is used as a name. Less common are adjectives and functional parts of speech.
Conclusion
As a result of studying the theoretical material, we see that words in the modern Russian language do not exist separately, but are connected with each other. Based on lexico-grammatical features, words are combined into lexico-grammatical categories. All the richness of the lexical and grammatical level of the language, reflected in the described dictionaries and literature, is used to: avoid inaccuracies in the choice of words (names of your company or store); the richest synonymous means of the language are used more actively; Antonymous words and phrases are chosen more accurately; words that have a similar sound (paronymous) are used correctly.
Mastering the genetic foundations of the lexical-phraseological system will make it possible to activate the original vocabulary and at the same time comprehend the processes of the appropriate entry into the language of many borrowings. This will be facilitated by a deep understanding of the distribution of the prepared texts (or oral messages), as well as their stylistic affiliation.
Such a conscious, diverse attitude to lexical and phraseological reserves will allow, if necessary, to carry out various lexical-semantic, semantic-phraseological, functional-style and stylistic transformations. The first are associated with the processes of compression and expansion of texts; choice of words, their meanings or their replacement; searching for equivalent synonymous means or variant units; possibilities of differentiation or specification of the content plan by means of expression, etc.
The latter are caused by the need to translate text from one style to another by selecting pronounced style-forming language units; widespread use of adequate replacements of speech samples; metaphorization of non-figurative means or demetaphorization of actually metaphorical ones, i.e. increasing or decreasing the emotional and expressive coloring of the text; the possibility of interspersing other types of tropes and stylistic figures or, conversely, eliminating them, taking into account the ideological, thematic, and logical foundations of the transformed texts.
As a result of practical work, we can conclude that currently in store names the proportion of one-part (12 names) and two-part (15 names) is almost equal, significant words are found in all examples. Nouns are present in all names; adjectives are used only as an addition to denote a constant attribute of an object and quality.
The use of prepositions and conjunctions (functional words) is rarely noted, since they serve to express the relationships between phenomena of reality, which are called significant words.
References
1. Adamchik N.V. The most complete Russian language course. – Minsk: “Harvest”, 2007. – 848 p.
2. Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language. - M.: “Logos”, 2002. – 528 p.
3. Golovin B. N. How to speak correctly: Notes on the culture of Russian speech. - M.: “Omega”, 2005. – 412 p.
4. Zhukov V.P. Russian phraseology. - M.: “Enlightenment”, 1986. - 654 p.
5. Zemskaya E. A. Russian colloquial speech: Linguistic analysis and problems of teaching. - M.; “Higher School”, 1979. – 360 p.
6. Kuznetsova E.V. Lexicology of the Russian language. - M.: “Onyx”, 1989. – 534 p.
7. Lekant P.A., Dibrova E.I., Kasatkin L.L. Modern Russian language. – 2nd ed. – M.: “Drofa”, 2001. – 462 p.
8. Lekant P.A., Goltsova N.G., Zhukova V.P. Modern Russian language. - 5th ed. M.: “Higher School”, 2001. – 448 p.
9. Maksimov V.I. Russian language and speech culture. – M.: “Onyx”, 2005. – 522 p.
10. Ozhegov S.I. Lexicology. Speech culture. – M.: “Enlightenment”, 1974. - 742 p.
11. Rosenthal D.E. Russian language. – M.: “Onyx”, 2005. – 752 p.
12. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. Modern Russian language. Textbook for universities. – M.: “Rolf”, 1997. – 386 p.
13. Shansky N.M. Lexicology of the modern Russian language. – M.: “Enlightenment”, 1972. – 286 p.
Appendix 1
General definitions of the term “word”
Without words there is no linguistic communication. The role of the word in the formation of a message is ambiguous. We can name several important functions that belong to the word as a unit directly involved in the formation of a message. In modern Russian, the word is studied in the following sections: vocabulary, phraseology, phonetics, morphology, syntax, word formation.
A word is a naming unit of language, concentrating within itself a whole complex of diverse meanings and functions. In the system of language, the word occupies a central position. This is determined by the very nature of the word.
A word is a significant independent unit of language. The function of a word is denominative, or nominative; in contrast to a sentence, the word is non-communicative, although it can act as a sentence.
A word (according to N.M. Shansky’s definition) is a linguistic unit that in its original form has one main stress and meaning, which has lexical-grammatical relevance and impenetrability.
The word is intended to name (name, signify - individually and in aggregates - everything that exists in the world and in the minds of people, to serve as a sign of a concept and, through the level of a concept, as a sign of an object, phenomenon, attribute, state, action, relationship. the lexical meaning of the word directly corresponds to its purpose, i.e. its meaning (substantive side), which relates it specifically to this concept and makes it a sign of this concept. So, for example, the main lexical meaning of the word father is “a man in relation to his own.” for children”; the lexical meaning of the word white is “the color of snow”; the word growl is “to make dull and threatening sounds.” The lexical meaning of the word arises and is formed on the basis of the ability of the word to correlate with a certain class of objects, the lexical meaning of the word is very often associated with evaluation. called - positive, negative, playful, ironic; let us compare the different assessments of the same thing contained in the words in such cases as lying and lying, asking and begging, young man and youth, average and mediocre (to do something) and the like. The long life of a word in a language very often makes it lexically ambiguous; for example, the word go in the Russian language has more than 20 lexical meanings, the word language has more than 10 meanings, the gradual divergence of which led to the formation of homonyms (i.e., separate, independent words that coincide in their original form and are completely different in their lexical meanings, compatibility with other words and, in many cases, also by systems of forms).
As a result of the analysis of the above, we can conclude that the word as a unit of language does not exist on its own, not in isolation, but as part of a whole set of units somewhat close to it, i.e. as part of the class - lexical, grammatical, word educational. Being a member of a grammatical class, a word concentrates in itself the corresponding characteristics: it owns all the properties of the class and those grammatical categories that make up the membership of this class as a whole. So, for example, the adjective white has the class meaning of a non-processual attribute, as well as grammatical categorical meanings of gender, number, case, degree of comparison.
Being carriers of general grammatical meanings, all words of one or another grammatical class turn out to be closely related to each other precisely as members of a given grammatical community. These connections operate along many lines: along the development of the system of lexical meanings of a word, the possibilities of word production, the rules of functioning as part of a phrase and sentence.
Appendix 2
Characteristics of parts of speech
1. Noun
Words that serve as the name of an object in a broad sense, i.e. have the meaning of objectivity and are called nouns.
Morphological features of nouns are their variability by case, as well as the presence of grammatical categories of gender, number, animation and inanimateness. Thus, the significance of the objectivity of nouns is expressed in the fact that nouns belong to one of three genders: masculine (moan, horse), female (game, song) or average (business, field), that a noun can have either a singular form to denote a separate object, phenomenon or concept (chair, thought, parameter), or plural forms having the meaning of set (pillars, pencils, doubts). The meaning of objectivity is also expressed in the presence of a certain case.
The noun, depending on the functions it performs in the sentence, changes according to cases. Case is a grammatical category that shows the syntactic role of a noun and its relationship with other words in a sentence. Changing the same word according to cases and numbers is called declension. There are six cases in modern Russian: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and prepositional.
Nouns can be common and proper. Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects, actions, states (spruce, tree, running, redness). They are contrasted with a relatively small group of proper nouns, which serve to name individual objects, individuals, animals in order to distinguish them from a number of others that are similar to them (“Mermaid”; Cairo; Petrov).
All nouns are divided into animate and inanimate. Animate nouns include names of people, animals, insects, etc., i.e. living beings. Inanimate nouns are the names of objects, phenomena of reality that are not classified as living beings.
2. Adjective
Words that denote a constant attribute of objects are called adjectives.
The semantic basis of an adjective is the designation of quality, attribute, belonging of objects as a relatively constant property. Their semantics is very diverse and covers various thematic ranges. The adjective is the most important exponent of the exact defining characteristics of objects and phenomena of objective reality.
The morphological feature of adjectives is their variability by gender, number and case. Unlike nouns, the gender, number and case forms of adjectives are not an independent means of expressing lexical and grammatical meanings, since they completely depend on the gender, number and case of those nouns with which these adjectives are agreed.
Depending on how and what feature is denoted by the adjective, as well as on what grammatical properties the adjective has, all adjectives are divided into the following main groups: qualitative, relative, possessive.
Qualitative adjectives are those adjectives that denote the signs, properties and qualities of objects that we perceive primarily directly, i.e. are direct names of features. The lexical meanings of qualitative adjectives are varied. They represent colors (white, crimson, light brown, brown, gray), spatial concepts (straight, left, wide), quality (sour, salty, hot, heavy, strong), character traits (responsive, stingy, welcoming), external, physical or bodily, qualities of people and animals (curly, thick) and other signs.
Relative adjectives are those adjectives that denote a characteristic not directly, but through its relationship to another object, phenomenon or action, i.e. indirectly. They denote an attitude towards a person (human weaknesses, children's fun), to action (crushing machine, washing machine), to time and place (morning hour, city transport, local resident), to the number (triple somersault), to an abstract concept (religious views, idealistic delusions) etc.
Qualitative and relative adjectives in modern Russian are not closed groups. The grammatical boundary between them is fluid, since the semantic features that make it possible to distinguish one category of adjectives from another undergo changes.
Possessive adjectives denote that an object belongs to a specific person or (less often) to an animal ( fathers, sisters, Lizin, cat). The semantic basis of possessive adjectives is an indication of the owner - the individual.
As a rule, possessive adjectives are formed from nouns denoting animate objects using suffixes -in, -nisch -n-y, -ov, -ev, -sk-y. For example: Lisa - Lysin; brother - brother; daughter - daughter, daughter; father- fathers; Vladislav - Vladislavlev; Pushkin - Pushkinsky (Pushkin apartment)
3. Numeral noun
Numeral - a category of words that serve as names of abstract numbers (two plus three - five), or a certain number of similar objects, expressed in whole or fractional numbers (two rubles, three-fifths of a ton), or the order of items by count (third floor).
From the semantic side, a numeral is the name of an abstract number, not complicated by any other meanings.
From the morphological side, the numeral is characterized by the following properties: 1) almost all numerals lack the category of number, 2) most numerals do not have the category of gender (numerals have gender one, two, both, one and a half, thousand, million etc.), 3) many numerals differ in their declension.
From the syntactic side, numerals differ in the following features: 1) are combined only with nouns; such phrases are syntactically indecomposable and act as one member of a sentence (two days, two nights, two days); 2) cannot be defined by an adjective.
According to the semantic features, grammatical properties and nature of use, the following categories of numerals are distinguished: 1) quantitative, 2) collective, 3) fractional, 4) indefinite-quantitative, 5) ordinal. The first four digits of numerals denote an abstract quantity, the last row - the order of objects by counting.
The morphological features of cardinal numbers are associated with their lexical meaning. Cardinal numerals are not characterized by the category of number, since they lexically express the meaning of a number; The category of gender is also absent from cardinal numerals, since they are devoid of objective meaning. Due to the absence of the categories of gender and number, cardinal numerals are morphologically different from nouns.
4. Pronoun
Pronouns include words that, without naming objects or signs, indicate them. The specific lexical meaning of a pronoun is obtained only in context. For example, the pronoun You either indicates the person to whom the speech is addressed, or acquires a generalized personal meaning, i.e. indicates not a specific person, but a person in general.
According to their semantic and morphological characteristics, pronouns correlate with nouns, adjectives and numerals. Based on their correlation with the named parts of speech, the following groups of pronouns are distinguished:
1) pronouns correlated with nouns (generalized subject): I, we, you, you, he (she, it), they, who, what, no one, nothing, someone, something, someone, something and others;
2) pronouns correlated with adjectives (generalized qualitative): my, yours, yours, ours, yours, which, which, whose, that, this, most, every, every and others;
3) pronouns correlated with numerals (generalized quantitative): as much as.
According to their meaning, as well as according to their syntactic role, all pronouns are divided into the following categories:
1. Personal pronouns me, we(1 person); you, you(2nd person); he (she, it), they(3rd person), which are demonstrative pronouns in origin.
Pronoun I indicates the person speaking, and the pronoun You - either on the person to whom the speech is addressed, or on a person in general (acquires a generalized personal meaning).
These pronouns do not have grammatical gender or plural forms (pronouns We And You have the meaning: “me and someone else”, “you and someone else”).
2. Reflexive pronoun myself indicates the attitude towards the actor (i.e. the producer of the action). Morphologically it is characterized by the fact that it does not have gender and number forms. It is declined according to the type of pronoun You, however, it does not have a nominative case form, which is due to its syntactic role: in a sentence, this pronoun always acts as a complement, and therefore can only be used in indirect cases.
3. Possessive pronouns my, our, yours, yours form a group of personal possessives; pronoun mine is reflexive possessive. Pronouns my, our indicate belonging to the first person, pronouns yours, yours - to belong to the second person, pronoun mine- to belong to all three persons.
Morphologically, possessive pronouns are characterized by having gender and number forms.
4. Demonstrative pronouns this, that, such, such, so much and outdated this, this, this, this have a general meaning of indicating one object from a number of homogeneous ones. Colloquial pronouns what a And kind of have options what, what And kind of, used with an exclamatory connotation.
Semantically pronouns That And this differ in that That indicates a more distant object, already mentioned in speech, and this one - on a very close subject.
The morphological features of demonstrative pronouns include the presence of gender forms (this, this, this; that, that, that) and numbers ( these, those).
5. Interrogative-relative pronouns who, what, which, which, whose, how many are characterized by semantic and grammatical diversity, since they can act both as question words and as relative (conjunctive) words. In the first case, they do not indicate an object, person or sign, but only contain a question about them.
6. Determinative pronouns himself, most, all, every, each, other differ from each other.
Pronoun myself means “on your own, without anyone’s help”: He drew it all himself. This pronoun is most often used with nouns denoting animate objects or with personal pronouns. It has gender and number forms.
7. Negative pronouns no one, nothing, no way, no one's, no one, nothing have a general negative meaning. They are formed from interrogative relative pronouns using negative particles Not And neither.
8. Indefinite pronouns someone, something, some, some, several, someone, something, some, someone's, some, something, some, anyone, anything, any, someone's, anyone, anything, any, anyone's have the meaning of an approximate indication of an object or sign.
Indefinite pronouns are formed from interrogative-relative pronouns using a prefix particle Not- and undefined postfix particles (or, -that, -something) and prefix particles (something).
A verb is a category of words that denote an action or state of an object as a process.
The word “process” in this usage has a broad meaning; this word means labor activity, movement, activity of the senses, thinking, physical and mental state, change of state (build, walk, hear, think, sleep, yearn).
The morphological features of a verb are closely related to its semantics and are expressed in the forms of person, mood, tense, aspect and voice.
The main syntactic role of the verb is to express the predicate.
Changing the verb by mood, and within the mood by tense (only in the indicative mood), by person (in the indicative and partially in the imperative mood) and by number, as well as by gender (in the singular past tense and subjunctive mood) is called broad conjugation sense. The forms formed during this change are called conjugated. In addition to conjugated forms, the system of verb forms also includes non-conjugated forms: indefinite form, participle and gerund.
Conjugated and non-conjugated forms are combined into a single system of verb forms, since they have a number of common features, namely: 1) commonality of lexical meaning, 2) commonality of aspectual and voice formations; 3) generality of control and 4) general ability to be explained by an adverb.
All verb forms, with the exception of the future complex and subjunctive mood, are formed by means of formative suffixes and endings attached to the stem. By formation, verb forms fall into two groups depending on the formative stem, which can appear in two versions: as the basis of an indefinite form and as the basis of the present tense.
A participle is an unconjugated form of a verb that defines an object like an adjective. It denotes a feature of an object that occurs in time, as an action that the object produces, or as an action to which it is subjected by another object. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb and an adjective. As a form of a verb, the participle has the grammatical meanings of the verb, such as transitivity and intransitivity of action, voice, aspect, tense, control characteristic of the original verb, and compatibility with an adverb. Being an inconjugated form, the participle is devoid of the category of mood and person. The category of voice is expressed through suffixes in the participles of the active and passive voice.
As an adjective, the participle denotes a feature of an object (with the difference in meaning already noted); changes in gender, number and case, consistent with the defined noun; when inflected, it has the same system of case endings as the adjective and performs in the sentence the syntactic functions characteristic of the adjective, acting as a determiner and predicate.
A gerund is an unconjugated form of a verb that combines the grammatical properties of a verb and an adverb. The participle is combined with the verb with a common lexical meaning (rattle - rattle, sparkle - sparkle), generality of the form ( sparkle, sparkle - imperfect look, sparkle, sparkle- perfect form), real and average repayable pledge (with –xia)(rewrite, rewrite - active voice; correspond, correspond - average returnable pledge), the same control, in particular the accusative case (to love freedom is to love freedom), the ability to be defined by an adverb (to understand correctly is to understand incorrectly). The gerunds do not have a passive voice. Like adverbs, gerunds do not change: they do not agree, do not control, but adjoin.
6. Adverb
Adverbs include unchangeable words denoting a sign of an action, state, quality of an object or other feature. Adverbs suddenly And hastily indicate signs of actions named by verbs squeezed And got it.
An adverb, referring to a verb, adjective, adverb and noun, formalizes its connection with them by adjacency.
Morphological features of adverbs:
1. Immutability (absence of forms of change in cases and numbers). Degrees of comparison are found only in adverbs -o, -e, formed from qualitative adjectives (fast - faster, decomposition quickly, boldly- bolder, decomposition bolder).
2. The presence of special word-forming suffixes (some of them form adverbs together with the prefix po-): -o, -e (fun, sincerely), -and (enemy, friendly), -y (wolf-like, human-like),
3. Lexical and word-formation correlation with other parts of speech. In form, meaning and origin, adverbs correlate with various case forms of nouns (day, summer, gallop; alternately, sideways), with adjectives (hard-boiled, at random; to the left; studentishly), with pronouns (in your opinion) with verbs (silently, lying down, hummingly); the oldest adverbs in formation, related in origin to pronouns in the modern Russian language, act as non-derivatives (where, where, here, there).
The main role of adverbs in a sentence is to designate various circumstances. As an adverbial word, an adverb most often adjoins a predicate-verb.
According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into two groups - attributive adverbs and adverbial adverbs.
Determinative adverbs characterize an action or attribute in terms of its quality, quantity and method of execution. Determinative quantitative adverbs denote the measure and degree of quality, the intensity of action. For example: very, very, almost, barely, not at all, too, too, slightly, twice, three times, quite.
Determinative adverbs of image or method of action characterize how the action is performed. For example: to pieces, on foot, by touch, by swimming, hand-to-hand etc.
Adverbial adverbs serve as indicators of spatial, temporal, causal and target relationships. Adverbs of time indicate the time at which an action is performed. Adverbs of place indicate the place where an action takes place or its direction. Adverbs of cause indicate the reason why an action is performed. Adverbs of purpose indicate the purpose for which an action is performed.
7. Function words
Function words include particles, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives. Functional words, in contrast to significant ones, do not have a nominative function, i.e. are not names of objects, features, processes, but serve to express the relationships between phenomena of reality, which are called significant words. Because of this, function words are used in speech only in conjunction with significant words.
Not having a nominative function, function words are not members of a sentence, but are used as formal grammatical means of language: prepositions appear in subordinate phrases, conjunctions - with homogeneous members and in complex sentences, particles - with individual words and in interrogative and exclamatory sentences.
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