The fact that time manifests itself unequally in a certain being can best be observed through the example of social time. It is most often understood as the time of human existence and human activity. People have long, at the level of everyday consciousness, noted the value of time as a resource that predetermines success in many activities. Hence the attention to the “time budget”, the study of factors influencing the ineffective use of time when performing various tasks. With the expansion of knowledge about society, the emergence of new discourses of society, such as sociology, anthropology, cultural studies and others, it became obvious that social time is not some kind of self-sufficient substance of society, but expresses the specifics of a particular social system.
Social time is divided into: “individual time”, “generation time”, “history time”. The ambiguity of human activity makes social time “three-dimensional”: “Length” is the life expectancy of an individual in units of astronomical time and the irreversible sequence of stages of the life cycle. “Width” is an extensive quantity that characterizes the number and variety of human activities and the abundance of connections between individuals and the outside world. “Depth” is an intensive quantity and is determined by the level and degree of a person’s involvement in his activities,
The properties of social time are most clearly manifested during periods of social crises, which appear, among other things, as a discrepancy in social time, a violation of temporal coordination: firstly, the evolutionary flow of time itself breaks down, the side of its discreteness becomes leading; secondly, there is a fragmentation of time beyond the usual; thirdly, inversions are becoming more frequent, the sequence of historical events and the accepted order of relations between people are being disrupted, and fourthly, the dispersion in the pace of heterogeneous social processes is deepening.
During periods of smooth evolutionary changes in society, the continuity and discreteness of its temporary connections are generally balanced. When the socio-historical process undergoes “failures,” the duration of events invariably shortens, and the methods and forms of transitions between them become almost more important than the events themselves. Discreteness is brought forward, which, being an indispensable property of history, can itself have various manifestations and modifications, can be multi-stage, flexible, or can turn out to be sharp and explosive. Hence, time takes on the appropriate form. Sometimes they talk about “progressive”, “regressive”, “revolutionary”, “evolutionary”, “collapsing”, etc. time.
A type of social time is the individual’s subjective time, called psychological time. It is formed on the basis of a person’s experience of cause-and-effect relationships between the main events of life. Often physical and psychological time are mismatched. Psychological time can be compressed or stretched, depending on what type of emotion predominates in the individual’s activity.
The individual time of a person is apparently mediated by the functional asymmetry of the brain: the right hemisphere functions in the present time based on the past, the left hemisphere functions in the present time with a focus on the future. A person can quite consciously change the speed of flow of this internal time, turning to sensory deprivation (auto-training, meditation) to enter altered states of consciousness. The distinct manifestation of meanings, their great personal significance - this is what accelerates the pace of human time.
Historical time is best observed during periods of radical political and social transformation and crisis. The historical duration of such periods in the life of society turns out to be relatively short, but unusually rich and significant for its subsequent generations, since it resolves a whole knot of contradictions and problems that had developed and accumulated earlier. Depending on the intensity of economic and political life, the level of culture and national traditions, a crisis situation can stretch from several months to several years and even decades. Of course, in countries of the so-called “second echelon”, that is, those following an already beaten path, having the opportunity to take into account the invaluable experience of pioneers, as well as benefit from their political support, the duration of the crisis period is noticeably reduced and its severity is reduced. Often periods of crisis are accompanied by long and devastating wars, which in certain conditions can be one of the causes of the crisis, and in others - one of its consequences. A war or even a whole series of wars here act as a radical means to overcome a critical situation, an attempt to quickly eliminate political and other disagreements by force.
All of the above properties, characteristics and varieties of time confirm its attributive status and make it a mandatory parameter of any specific existence.
This refers to the time of only this person. It depends on the person himself, on his. Like space, this time is organized by the functioning brain of the subject.
In the designations “physiological time”, “biological time”, “psychological time”, “perceptual time”, “social time”, etc., which are encountered, it is probably reflected that in special studies the assumption of the existence of time of molecular, biochemical, physiological processes, as well as man as a social subject and society. The temporal characteristics of all processes in the human body are assumed to be interconnected and coordinated [Moiseeva N. I., 1980]. Biological time is “multi-level. At the lower level, it coincides with physical time and can be called pure time. As the system develops, the specificity of the flow of time appears, which is expressed in the form of an unevenly occurring process. This time can be called the true time of the system. Finally, functional time is formed, which represents the interaction of physical and true time, i.e., the objectification of the true time of the system occurs [Mezhzherin V. A., 1980]. “Tissues in the body are formed into organs, and the latter, as higher stages of life, live their new, higher life. Organs form systems that together make up the whole organism, and the whole organism has its own special rhythms of life - biological rhythms.” Rhythmic fluctuations in human mental activity have been described, in particular a weekly period in the intellectual and emotional spheres [Perna N. Ya., 1925].
Time (perceptual time) reflects the real time of objective reality, but does not coincide with it [Yarskaya V.N., 1981]. There is also the designation “psychophysical (individual) time” in the literature [Abasov A. S., 1985]. A review of the monograph by Czechoslovak authors “Space and Time from the Point of Natural Sciences” (1984) notes that the main difficulties in the interdisciplinary study of space and time lie “in the philosophical synthesis of those ideas about time and space that are developing in various areas of culture” [ Kazaryan V.P., 1986].
Individual human time is assumed to be organized by the functioning brain and may be the culminating expression of the evolution of brain time. This time exists, apparently, along with the time of the external physical and social world, independent of the subject. It is assumed to be included in the organization of the human psyche other than the time (and space) of the external world. In the latter, a person acts, builds his active, purposeful; The psychomotor activity of a person, carried out in time (and space) of the world, is objectively observed by other people.
The assumption of the existence, along with the time of the external social and physical world, of the individual time of each person, inscribed in the space and time of the external world, is one of the main reasons for new ideas about time (and space). We are talking about the relationship of time (and space) to the human psyche or the organization of the psyche in time (and space).
In, A. Kanke (1984) believes that in the “implementation” of the possibility of “looking” into the past and future - “the possibility of retro- and prediction (foresight) ... a large role is played by human consciousness, his skillful use of temporal concepts. Thanks to operating with the category of time, a person sees an object identical to himself in a certain period of time and at the same time understands it as a series of events sequential in time... A person is able to carry out retro-prediction because he reflects the properties of real time in a logical form.” According to N.L. Mus??dishvili, V.M. Sergeev (1982), “the flow of psychological time is associated with the number of acts of awareness, i.e., with the number of restructurings, since these acts are the only reference marks for consciousness time." According to clinical observations, consciousness itself (its formation during the functioning of the brain) is impossible without including in its organization the present, past, future, differentiated in the individual time of each person.
Present, past, future tenses are assumed to be represented in the consciousness of the subject with the properties inherent in each of them. The individual past time of a person in our assumptions does not coincide with the past, which is inherent rather not in the individual, but in the collective consciousness: “... the past allows us to know the present and the future: if it were different, then there would be no point in developing historical sciences” [Kanke V.D., 1984, p. 211].
The individual past time of a person is not “past before life”, not a “concept”, not a “phantom”, but a time that was the present, closely fused with sensory images of past perceptions. It forms part of the content of human consciousness. This time is important for the normal adequate mental functioning of a person, and it is in the consciousness of a person while he is alive. The differentiation of the past and future times of a person, even contrasting them with each other according to their properties, can be represented as one of the expressions of the spatio-temporal organization of the human brain achieved in evolution. After all, a person’s individual future time is not the future after death, but the time that is represented in the consciousness of the subject. Psychomotor processes are carried out with a focus on this future.
The foregoing makes it obvious that when it comes to the formation of the human psyche over time, one cannot limit ourselves to considering only the present time. It, as will be seen, is extremely important, but the implementation of its role is possible only in the presence of a past and a future, and the latter are mediated by the present. Thus, the individual present time is included in the formation of images of perception, becoming the past; this time, as it were, carries within itself already realized images of all former perceptions of the subject. The fact that these images are revived and the subject can thus seem to return to some segment of the past makes, perhaps, the position of the irreversibility of time relative: it “phenomenologically manifests itself as the impossibility of getting to the same time point twice” [Lebedev V.P., Stenin V.S., 1970].
Many clinical phenomena precisely illustrate the possibility of a subject “returning” in his consciousness to a certain period of past time. Before each seizure, the 14-year-old patient saw “a girl running in front of her across a wide meadow... the girl is exactly the same as she was at the age of seven” [Kronfeld A. S., 1940]. Consciousness “never remains unchanged in the series of moments that make up time. It is a stream that is ever flowing and ever changing." “The streams of changing mental states, which James so well characterized, flow through a person’s life until he falls into eternal sleep. But these jets, unlike water jets, leave their imprints on the living brain.”
The holistic neuropsychic activity of a person, his consciousness, is composed at each moment of the present time from mental processes: 1) occurring in the present time, 2) realized in the past time, 3) to be completed in the future time. Therefore, another doubt arises if we try to compare assumptions arising from clinical observations with existing ideas about time in general. In the times we are interested in, does the “order of changing states of the phenomena of reality, their transition from existence to non-existence”, the one-dimensionality of time as its objective property, retain its force [Zharov A.M., 1968]? The formation of mental phenomena over time, unfortunately, is not seriously studied. But the laws here are completely different than in physical phenomena. Thus, images of perception in the present tense are fully realized. But they do not disappear from the subject’s consciousness; they remain. They are not simply preserved in consciousness, but determine the past time of the subject. Perhaps the question of the one-dimensionality of time should be discussed differently than in relation to the time of the physical world: attempts to interpret time as a multidimensional phenomenon were made in order to explain some facts of the human psyche [Zharov A. M., 1968].
Present tense- this is real time. This also applies, apparently, to a person’s individual present time.
One of its properties may be what can probably be described as mobility, the inconstancy of the degree of its actualization even in a healthy person. With right hemisphere pathology of the brain, a sharp “weakening” or even “disappearance” is possible. Clinically, they correspond to changes or even a break in the perception of the outside world and oneself. In the case of the “disappearance” of time (a break in the perception of real reality), the patient’s consciousness, apparently, is never “empty”, but, on the contrary, it is full. The main ones in it are sensory ideas. They refer to phenomena of the external world that are absent in the present time. These are experiences of either a past situation or some other world, unreal either now or in the past.
The degree of relevance of a person’s present time is determined, apparently, not only by the whole brain, but also by how many events influence the subject from the time (and space) of the external world independent of him. The mental state of a healthy person, deprived of the daily influences of the social and physical environment, changes dramatically. Perhaps, here too there is a “weakening” of the subject’s individual time? This can be thought of based on the occurrence of hallucinations, illusions, and sudden errors in the perception of time in the outside world. These changes in mental state are similar to disturbances in mental activity due to selective brain damage and suggest not only that “we do not have a sense of empty time.” One has to think that the relationship between a person’s individual time and the time of a world independent of him is more complex than it currently appears to us.
French speleologist Antoine Segny, on the 122nd day of his stay in the cave, was sharply behind in counting the time: according to his calculations, it was February 6, when in reality it was April 2. Devi Lafferity, before the end of his 130-day stay in the cave, said that it was July 1, although it was August 1. Michel Siffre, who spent about 7 months in the cave, noted the deceptions of vision and wrote: “When you find yourself alone, isolated in a world without face-to-face time with yourself, all the masks that you hide behind and that protect your illusions and inspire these illusions to others - all masks fall."
Three healthy subjects participated in two experiments. In the first, a 24-hour cycle was taken as a basis: 8 hours, 8 hours of rest, 8 hours of work; in the second - an 18-hour cycle: 6 hours each for sleep, rest, work. In the second: 1) the time required to perform a number of operations has been reduced; for example, instead of 20–25 minutes (first experiment), 10–15 minutes were spent on eating; 2) the pace of performing a set of exercises has increased; 3) “restlessness” appeared, the subjects often changed their position [Dushkov B.A., Kosmolinsky F.P., 1968].
Research into the effects of “sensory hunger” on the human condition has become important in connection with space exploration. When deprived of external stimuli, the subjects experienced motor restlessness; during the first few hours, they experienced the events of the current day, thought about themselves and loved ones; then they began to experience a feeling of “pleasure” from the experiment, which very soon was replaced by a rapidly intensifying feeling of irritation from the outside. In experiments where subjects were placed in a soundproof chamber and engaged in work simulating operator activity for several hours, and the rest of the time were left to their own devices, illusions were noted - incorrect recognition of stimuli, the informative characteristics of which were insufficient for recognition; the feeling of the presence of a stranger in the soundproofing chamber developed; there were “subjectively realized dreams”, eidetic ideas, “formation of highly valuable ideas” and other phenomena. The perception of time changed: there was a “subjective acceleration of the passage of time” (a 20-second interval was perceived as 30.5 s), in others there was a “subjective slowdown in the passage of time” and in still others there was an alternating shortening and lengthening of the reproduced interval [Leonov A. A., Lebedev V.I., 1968].
Deprivation of the influence of such a global characteristic of the world as gravity is also accompanied by changes in the perception of time and space, and indeed the entire psyche [Kitaev-Smyk L. A., 1979]. During a space flight, the American astronaut D. McDivitt had a problem while assessing the distance from the launch vehicle with which he was supposed to dock his ship, and due to an error, he was unable to dock. G. T. Beregovoy (1979) refers to this fact, describing his own sensations: “In the initial period of exposure to weightlessness, during movements, a peculiar sensation of stopping time arose.” When he began to write with a pencil, it felt like his hand was moving “much slower than I wanted.” The author explains it this way: “If in conditions with the usual action of gravity, the awareness of the spatial movement of the limbs (arms) is more significant than the temporal characteristics of the movement, then in weightlessness the importance of awareness of the time during which the movement occurs increases. Apparently, in weightlessness, smaller “quanta” of movement and the time during which this movement occurs are realized. By unconsciously comparing the number of these “quanta” in flight with traces of the same movements under normal conditions before the flight, the feeling that I experienced may arise in consciousness. On Earth, in all movements, a person makes efforts adequate to the force of gravity. In zero gravity, such a stereotype can become a source of errors.”
This refers to the time of only this person. It depends on the person himself, on his brain. Like space, this time is organized by the functioning brain of the subject.
In the common designations “physiological time”, “biological time”, “psychological time”, “perceptual time”, “social time”, etc.
D. is probably reflected in the fact that special research is increasingly emphatically putting forward the assumption of the existence of time for molecular, biochemical, physiological processes, as well as man as a social subject and society. The temporal characteristics of all processes in the human body are assumed to be interconnected and coordinated [Moiseeva N.I., 1980]. Biological time is “multi-level. At the lower level, it coincides with physical time and can be called pure time. As the system develops, the specificity of the flow of time appears, which is expressed in the form of an unevenly occurring process. This time can be called the true time of the system. Finally, functional time is formed, which represents the interaction of physical and true time, i.e., the objectification of the true time of the system occurs [Mezhzherin V. A., 1980]. “Tissues in the body are formed into organs, and the latter, as higher stages of life, live their new, higher life. Organs form systems that together make up the whole organism, and the whole organism has its own special rhythms of life - biological rhythms.” Rhythmic fluctuations in human mental activity have been described, in particular a weekly period in the intellectual and emotional spheres [Perna N. Ya., 1925].
The time of perception (perceptual time) reflects the real time of objective reality, but does not coincide with it [Yarskaya V.N., 1981]. There is also the designation “psychophysical (individual) time” in the literature [Abasov A. S., 1985]. In a review of the monograph by Czechoslovak authors “Space and Time from the Point of View of the Natural Sciences” (1984), it is noted that the main difficulties in the interdisciplinary study of space and time lie “in the philosophical synthesis of those ideas about time and space that are developing in various areas of culture” [Kazaryan V.P., 1986].
Individual human time is assumed to be organized by the functioning brain and may be the culminating expression of the evolution of brain time. This time exists, apparently, along with the time of the external physical and social world, independent of the subject. It is assumed to be included in the organization of the human psyche other than the time (and space) of the external world. In the latter, a person acts, builds his active, purposeful behavior; The psychomotor activity of a person, carried out in time (and space) of the world, is objectively observed by other people.
The assumption of the existence, along with the time of the external social and physical world, of the individual time of each person, inscribed in the space and time of the external world, is one of the main reasons for new ideas about time (and space). We are talking about the relationship of time (and space) to the human psyche or the organization of the psyche in time (and space).
In, A. Kanke (1984) believes that in the “implementation” of the possibility of “looking” into the past and future - “the possibility of retro- and prediction (foresight) ... a large role is played by human consciousness, the skillful use of temporal concepts. Thanks to operating with the category of time, a person sees an object identical to himself in a certain period of time and at the same time understands it as a series of events sequential in time... A person is able to carry out retro-prediction because he reflects the properties of real time in a logical form.” According to N. L. Mus??dishvili, V. M. Sergeev (1982), “the flow of psychological time is associated with the number of acts of awareness, i.e., with the number of restructurings, since these acts are the only reference marks for consciousness time." According to clinical observations, consciousness itself (its formation during the functioning of the brain) is impossible without including in its organization the present, past, future, differentiated in the individual time of each person.
Present, past, future tenses are assumed to be represented in the consciousness of the subject with the properties inherent in each of them. The individual past time of a person in our assumptions does not coincide with the past, which is inherent rather not in the individual, but in the collective consciousness: “... the past allows us to know the present and the future: if it were different, then there would be no point in developing historical sciences” [Kanke V.D., 1984, p. 211].
The individual past time of a person is not “past before life”, not a “concept”, not a “phantom”, but a time that was the present, closely fused with sensory images of past perceptions. It forms part of the content of human consciousness. This time is important for the normal adequate mental functioning of a person, and it is in the consciousness of a person while he is alive. The differentiation of the past and future times of a person, even contrasting them with each other according to their properties, can be represented as one of the expressions of the spatio-temporal organization of the human brain achieved in evolution. After all, a person’s individual future time is not the future after death, but the time that is represented in the consciousness of the subject. Psychomotor processes are carried out with a focus on this future.
The foregoing makes it obvious that when it comes to the formation of the human psyche over time, one cannot limit ourselves to considering only the present time. It, as will be seen, is extremely important, but the implementation of its role is possible only in the presence of a past and a future, and the latter are mediated by the present. Thus, the individual present time is included in the formation of images of perception, becoming the past; this time, as it were, carries within itself already realized images of all former perceptions of the subject. The fact that these images are revived and the subject can thus seem to return to some segment of the past makes, perhaps, the position of the irreversibility of time relative: it “phenomenologically manifests itself as the impossibility of getting to the same time point twice” [Lebedev V.P., Stenin V.S., 1970].
Many clinical phenomena precisely illustrate the possibility of a subject “returning” in his consciousness to a certain period of past time. Before each seizure, the 14-year-old patient saw “in front of her a girl running through a wide meadow... the girl is exactly the same as she was at the age of seven” [Kronfeld A. S., 1940]. Consciousness “never remains unchanged in the series of moments that make up time. It is a stream that is ever flowing and ever changing." “The streams of changing mental states that James so well characterized flow through a person’s life until he falls into eternal sleep. But these jets, unlike water jets, leave their imprints on the living brain.”
The holistic neuropsychic activity of a person, his consciousness, is composed at each moment of the present time from mental processes: 1) occurring in the present time, 2) realized in the past time, 3) to be completed in the future time. Therefore, another doubt arises if we try to compare assumptions arising from clinical observations with existing ideas about time in general. In the times we are interested in, does the “order of changing states of the phenomena of reality, their transition from existence to non-existence”, the one-dimensionality of time as its objective property, retain its force [Zharov A.M., 1968]? The formation of mental phenomena over time, unfortunately, is not seriously studied. But the laws here are completely different than in physical phenomena. Thus, images of perception in the present tense are fully realized. But they do not disappear from the subject’s consciousness; they remain. They are not simply preserved in consciousness, but determine the past time of the subject. Perhaps the question of the one-dimensionality of time should be discussed differently than in relation to the time of the physical world: attempts to interpret time as a multidimensional phenomenon were made in order to explain some facts of the human psyche [Zharov A. M., 1968].
At the socio-psychological level, there is a reflection of social time, specific to various social communities, cultural and historical conditions. On a historical scale, the patterns of a person’s awareness of the historical past and future are very important, as well as the relationship of this awareness with one’s own past and future, the possibility of overcoming the limitations of individual life in its various forms: belief in the immortality of the soul or understanding of one’s role and place in the development of humanity.
The latter is closely related to the concept of psychological time, i.e., reflection in the mental world of a person of a system of temporary relations between the events of his life path. What does it include? psychological time:
assessment of the sequence and speed of various life events;
experiences of compression and elongation, limited and infinite time;
life events belong to the present and are remote to the past or future;
awareness of age, idea of probable life expectancy.
Psychological time does not directly reflect the chronology of events in a person’s life, but is determined by a complex system of interdependent inter-event connections such as “cause - effect”, “goal” - means"; changes occurring in the mental space of a person.
Let's talk a little about age awareness, about psychological time personality. The concept of “age” is multifaceted. There are four subtypes: chronological (passport), biological (functional), social (civil) and psychological. Psychological age is very closely related to the concept of psychological time and, above all, to how a person evaluates his age in the inner world.
Marietta Shaginyan wrote: “I was young at eighty-five years old. I was so young that I seemed younger than my previous twenty years.” Some young people find this statement very strange. But in fact, there is a certain pattern in how people of different age groups assess their age. Thus, during the experiment, young people (from 20 to 40) and older people (from 40 to 60) assessed their age. It turned out that the younger a person is, the older he seems to be, and also, with an overestimation of age, he perceives others. A girl who didn’t get married at 23 considers herself an old maid, and 30-year-olds even more so old.
After 40 years, the opposite trend is observed - people usually perceive themselves as younger than they actually are. And the older they get, the younger their soul becomes, but, unfortunately, biology reminds a person of his age.
Psychological age has some characteristic features:
measured on the “internal reference scale” of each individual;
reversible within certain limits, i.e. a person can become younger and older due to an increase in the share of the psychological future or a decrease in the psychological past;
may not coincide in different spheres of a person’s life (in his personal life, in the business sphere);
may be accompanied by psychological crises at certain age periods.
Age-related crises are like “turning points,” psychological turning points in a person’s life path. At what chronological age are these fractures possible?
In childhood - 6-7 years; for teenagers - 12-14 years; for boys - 18-19 years old, 25-26 years old. And then fractures occur every decade - 30, 40, 50, and so on until 70, and then every 5 years. It’s as if a person sums up his life for a decade and makes plans for the future. The psychological crisis in 40-year-olds is assessed as a mid-life crisis. The strength of this crisis is determined by how large the discrepancy is between the goals, ideas, plans set in youth, and how they are implemented. A midlife crisis helps a person rethink the part of his life he has lived and outline the prospects for life in such a way as to remain active and needed by people.
M. Zoshchenko in “The Tale of Reason” evaluates the case of a man who was in a car accident - his upper lip was cut and he was immediately taken to the hospital. A female surgeon, in the presence of a patient who could not speak due to injury, asked a friend accompanying him: “How old is he?” He replied: “40 or 50, what’s the difference?” The woman doctor said: “If it’s 40, we’ll do plastic surgery, if it’s 50, then I’ll sew it up like that.”
The victim made negative gestures and showed four fingers (that he was 40). The patient underwent plastic surgery. Everything went well, the scar was small, but the moral shock was strong.
The man forgot that the car had hit him, his shock was elsewhere - he could not forget the surgeon’s words about fifty-year-old people whose lips can be sewn up the way mattresses are sometimes sewn up, by quilting with a coarse thread over the edge. This mental pain of an aging man remained with him for a long time.
Throughout his life, a person experiences five main periods: birth, maturation, maturity, aging and old age. Each age period has its own characteristics (they are described in sufficient detail in the literature)*. We would like to dwell on just some of the problems.
* See: Rybalko E. F. Developmental psychology. L.: Leningrad State University Publishing House, 1990.
In creative professional activity there are several phases: start, culmination (peak) and finish.
As studies by American and Soviet psychologists have shown, there are two professional peaks. The first peak occurs at the age of 30-35, when “minds are fresh”, a person makes discoveries, inventions, and offers something completely unknown to him. The second peak is associated with the wisdom and maturity of a person with extensive life experience - age 50-60 years; such a person is capable of generalizations, creating his own school, and can be a wise organizer and leader.
Man as an individual, personality, constantly develops, although some psychophysiological functions are subject to the aging process: vision, hearing, involuntary memory and attention, reaction time.
Any person must know the psychological characteristics of each age period: instability and maximalism of youth; high efficiency and professionalism of an adult; increased sensitivity, interest in communication, fatigue in older people.
Personality and its development have traditionally been considered at the intersection of two axes - time and space. In Russian literature, space is identified with social reality, social space, objective reality. According to A.G. Asmolov, a person becomes a person if, with the help of social groups, he is included in the flow of activities and through their system he assimilates the meanings exteriorized in the human world. The problem of space and its psychological interpretation was discussed in the works of S.L. Rubinstein. He interprets it as a problem of being, the world and the existence of man as an acting, influencing and interacting subject. This point of view, of course, differs from the position expressed by A.G. Asmolov, since it allows for the possibility of organizing living space by the individual himself. The latter is determined by a person’s ability to establish diverse relationships with other people and their depth. Another person, people’s relationships, their actions as real “human” and not “objective” conditions of life - this is the ontology of human life. The space of the individual is also determined by his freedom, the ability to go beyond the limits of the situation, to reveal his true human nature. In connection with this interpretation of the personal space, questions are formulated - freedom and lack of freedom of the individual, the Self-Other relationship, the experience of the state and feeling of loneliness, etc. The problem of time in philosophical and psychological literature is developed in more detail. The solution to the cardinal question for psychology about objective and subjective time made it possible to further reveal the temporal aspects of the psyche, the mechanisms of their action - speed, rhythm, intensity. In a broader context, the problem of life time was solved in the concept of personal organization of time by K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya. The concept of personal time is revealed in this theory through the category of activity, which acts as a way of organizing life time, as a way of transforming the potential time of personality development into real life time (see Reader. 11.1). It is hypothetically assumed that personal time has a variable-typological character, and cannot be scientifically studied in terms of individual, unique, biographical time. This hypothesis was tested in specific empirical studies. Thus, in the work of V.I. Kovalev identified four types of time regulation. The basis for constructing the typology was the nature of time regulation and the level of activity.
The spontaneous-everyday type of time regulation is characterized by dependence on events, situationality, inability to organize the sequence of events, and lack of initiative.
The functionally effective type of time regulation is characterized by the active organization of events in a certain sequence and the ability to regulate this process; initiative arises only in the actual moment; there is no prolonged regulation of life time - the life line.
The contemplative type is characterized by passivity and lack of ability to organize time; prolonged trends are found only in the spheres of spiritual and intellectual activity.
The creative-transforming type has such properties as a prolonged organization of time, which correlates with the meaning of life, with the logic of social trends.
Only one of the identified types, namely the last, has the ability for holistic, prolonged regulation and organization of life time. He arbitrarily divides his life into periods, stages and is relatively independent of the series of events. In this sense, the event approach (A.A. Kronik) could not explain the existing individual differences in the organization of life time. The problem of the relationship between subjective and objective time was formulated in the study of L.Yu. Kublickene. The subject of the analysis was the relationship between the experience of time, its awareness and its practical regulation.
1) optimal mode;
2) an indefinite period, in which a person himself determines the total time and deadline for completing the activity;
3) time limit - hard work in a limited time;
4) excess time, i.e. there is obviously more time than is necessary to complete the task;
5) time shortage - insufficient time.
As a result, five modes of activity were identified:
During the study, all modes were presented to the subject, who had to choose one of five proposed options when answering the following questions: “How do you usually act, realistically?” and “What would be the ideal way to act?”
Optimal - works successfully in all modes, copes with all temporary tasks; capable of organizing time.
Scarcity - reduces all possible modes to a shortage of time, since it is in a shortage that it operates most successfully.
Calm - experiences difficulties when working under time pressure. Strives to know everything in advance and plan his actions; disorganization of behavior occurs when time is given from the outside.
Executive - operates successfully in all modes, except for temporary uncertainty, in all modes with a given deadline.
Anxious - successful at the optimal time, works well in excess, but avoids a deficit situation.
As a result of the study, five personality types were identified:
Each person, knowing his own characteristics of time organization, can either avoid time regimes that are difficult for him or improve his time capabilities. A typological approach to life time and its organization makes it possible to most accurately and differentiatedly classify individual options for the temporal regulation of a person’s life path. In a number of studies, a typological approach to the organization of time was implemented thanks to the already well-known typology of K. Jung. This is a study conducted by T.N. Berezina. C. Jung identified eight personality types. The following criteria were chosen for constructing the typology: 1) dominant mental function (thinking, feeling, intuition, sensation) and 2) ego orientation (introversion or extraversion). There was an opinion that representatives of the feeling type are characterized by an orientation towards the past, the thinking type - towards the connection of the present with the past and the future, the sensory type - towards the present, and the intuitive type - towards the future. In the study by T.N. Berezina, carried out under the guidance of K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, uses the concept of transspective proposed by V.I. Kovalev. Transspective is a psychological formation in which the past, present and future of an individual are organically combined and generated. This concept means an individual’s review of the course of his own life in any direction, at any stage, an end-to-end vision of the past and future in their relationship with the present and in the present. The whole variety of transspects is considered in connection with personality types. For example, an intuitive introvert evaluates the past, present and future as separately presented, unrelated images; a thinking introvert connects images of the past, present and future, and the future is seen as a more distant period of life from the past and present; the feeling introvert highlights the present, while the past and future are undefined and blurred, etc. The typological approach to the regulation of life time has a number of advantages compared to the event-based (A.A. Kronik) and evolutionary-genetic (S. Buhler). It makes it possible to explore individual differences between people in the organization of time and to differentially consider the problem of time or life perspectives. From the point of view of this approach, it is customary to distinguish between psychological, personal and life perspectives. Psychological perspective is a person’s ability to consciously foresee the future and predict it. Differences in psychological perspective are associated with the value orientations of the individual. Personal perspective is the ability to foresee the future and readiness for it in the present, setting for the future (readiness for difficulties, uncertainty, etc.). Personal perspective is a property of a person, an indicator of his maturity, development potential, and developed ability to organize time. Life perspective is a set of circumstances and living conditions that create an individual’s opportunity for optimal advancement in life. Considering the evolutionary-genetic and functional-dynamic approaches to the problem of a person’s life path and its time, we should also dwell on the event-based approach of A.A. Kronika, E.I. Golovakhi. From the point of view of the event approach, the analysis of personality development is carried out in the plane - past-present-future. A person’s age is considered from four points of view, which give an idea of the different characteristics of age: 1) chronological (passport) age, 2) biological (functional) age, 3) social (civil) age, 4) psychological (subjectively experienced) age. The authors correlate the solution to the problem of psychological age with a person’s subjective attitude towards it, with self-esteem of age. To test theoretical and empirical hypotheses, an experiment was conducted in which subjects were asked to imagine that they knew nothing about their chronological age and to name the one that subjectively suited them. It turned out that for 24% of people their own assessment coincided with their chronological age, 55% considered themselves younger, and 21% felt older. The sample consisted of 83 people (40 women and 43 men). The specific influence of the age factor on the subjective assessment of age was highlighted - the older the person, the stronger the tendency to consider himself younger than his age. A.A. Kronik and E.I. Golovakha associated the assessment of life time with a person’s assessment of his achievements (and their correspondence to age). When the level of achievement exceeds social expectations, a person feels older than his true age. If a person has achieved less than what is expected of him, as he thinks, at a given age, then he will feel younger. An experiment conducted in a group of people aged 23-25 revealed that single young people underestimate their age compared to married young people. This apparently means that the corresponding family status - marriage and creation of a family - determines the psychological age of the individual. A person’s life time is also the years lived, according to Kronik, and the years to be lived in the future, therefore psychological age should be assessed according to two indicators: years lived and years to come (for example, if life expectancy is 70 years, and self-assessment of age is 35 , then the degree of implementation will be equal to half the lifetime). In accordance with the event approach, a person’s perception of time is determined by the number and intensity of events occurring in life. You can get a specific answer if you ask a person the following question: “If the entire event content of your life is taken as 100%, what percentage has already been realized by you?” Events are assessed not as objective units of life, but as subjective components that are significant for a person. The realization of psychological time is realized by a person in the form of experiencing internal age, which is called the psychological age of the individual.
Psychological age is a characteristic of a person’s individuality; it is measured using an internal reference frame.
Psychological age is reversible - a person can both grow old and become younger.
Psychological age is multidimensional. It may not coincide in different spheres of life (professional, family, etc.).
As we were able to notice, the concept of S.L. Rubinstein aroused serious scientific interest, which was reflected in the further development of the basic principles of the psychology of the individual’s life path. True, the continuity of Rubinstein’s ideas was not always respected, since subsequent scientific developments were carried out in directions that did not coincide in their methodological and theoretical positions - in the concept of personal organization of time and within the framework of the event approach. Each of these theories formulated in its own way the tasks associated with solving the fundamental problem of an individual’s life path, and explored the problem of personal and psychological time in different ways. It seems that despite all this, both schools remained open to exchange opinions and conduct scientific discussions.