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Stages of human development. The main stages of human development and eras of world history Historical development of man

It has become generally accepted to divide the historical path of mankind into:

1. The primitive era;

2. History of the Ancient World;

3. History of the Middle Ages;

4. New time (New history);)

5. Contemporary times Contemporary history).

Length primitive era is determined to be more than 1.5 million years old. During this era, the modern type of man emerged (about 40-30 thousand years ago), tools gradually improved, and the transition from hunting, fishing and gathering to agriculture and cattle breeding began.

History countdown Ancient world has been going on since the emergence of states (IV-III millennium BC). This was the time of the split of society into rulers and the governed, the haves and the have-nots, and the widespread spread of slavery (although it did not have great economic importance in all ancient states). The slave system reached its peak during the period of antiquity (1st millennium BC - beginning of AD), the rise of civilizations Ancient Greece And Ancient Rome .

In recent years, the attempts of mathematician D.T. have gained some popularity. Fomenko, to offer his own chronology of the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages. They argue that the reconstruction by historians of many events that occurred earlier than the 16th-17th centuries, before the widespread use of printing, is not indisputable and other options are possible. In particular, they propose to consider that the written history of mankind has been artificially extended by more than a millennium. This, however, is only an assumption that has not been recognized by most historians.

The Middle Ages determined by time frame V–XVII centuries

1st period era (V-XI centuries) marked by the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the emergence of a new type of social relations - the establishment of the class system in Europe (each class has its own rights and responsibilities). Characteristic is the predominance of subsistence farming and the special role of religion.

2nd period (mid 11th - end of 15th century)- the formation of large feudal states and the growing importance of cities - centers of crafts, trade, and spiritual life, which became increasingly secular in nature.

III period (XV - mid-XVII century)- early modern times, the beginning of the decomposition of the feudal system. Characteristic are the creation of colonial empires, the development of technical and economic activities, the spread of manufacturing, and the complication of the social structure of society, which conflicts with class division. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation mark a new stage in spiritual life. In conditions of growing social and religious contradictions, central power is strengthened and absolute monarchies arise.

Civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages within theories of "stages of growth" ( E. Toffler) are not differentiated , they are considered as "traditional society" the basis of the economy, life, culture, family structure and politics was the land, natural and semi-natural agricultural and craft farming. In all these countries, life was organized around the village settlement, there was a simple division of labor and clearly defined castes and classes: nobles, priests, warriors, slaves or serfs, and an authoritarian character of power.

Exceptions to the rules described above are considered as special variants of a single phenomenon - agrarian civilization.

Modern era - the era of the formation and establishment of industrial capitalist civilization.

1st period (from the middle of the 17th century)- a time of revolutions that destroyed the foundations of the class system (the first of them was the revolution in England in the 1640-1660s). The Age of Enlightenment was of great importance, associated with the spiritual emancipation of man and the acquisition of faith in the power of reason.

2nd period comes after Great French Revolution(1789-1794). Industrial Revolution, which began in England, covers the countries of continental Europe, where the formation of capitalist relations is proceeding at a rapid pace. This is a time of rapid growth of colonial empires, the world market, and the system of international division of labor. With the completion of the formation of large bourgeois states, the ideology of nationalism and national interest is established in most of them.

III period (from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century)- the rapid development of industrial civilization “in breadth” is slowing down due to its development of new territories. The capacity of world markets turns out to be insufficient to absorb the growing volumes of products. The time of global crises of overproduction and the growth of social contradictions in industrial countries. Intensification of the struggle for the redivision of the world.

Contemporaries perceived this time as a period of crisis of industrial, capitalist civilization. The indicator was the First World War of 1914-1918. and the 1917 revolution in Russia.

Periodization and the term Recent history are considered controversial in modern science. For Soviet historians and philosophers, the revolution of 1917 marked the transition to the era of the formation of the communist formation, and it was with it that the advent of modern times was associated. Proponents of other approaches to the periodization of history used the term “Modern Time” to mean a period associated with the history of modernity in the twentieth century.

Within the framework of the history of modern times, it stands out II main period.

1st period (first half of the twentieth century) - early modern times - the process of deepening the crisis of industrial civilization (the Great Crisis of 1929-1932) brought the economies of developed countries to the brink of collapse. Power rivalry, the struggle for colonies and markets for products led to World War II of 1939-1945. The colonial system of European powers is collapsing. The conditions of the Cold War are breaking the unity of the world market. With the invention of nuclear weapons, the crisis of industrial civilization began to threaten the destruction of humanity.

2nd period (second half - end of the twentieth century) - qualitative changes associated with changes in the nature of social, socio-political development of the leading countries of the world. With the spread of computers and industrial robots the nature of work is changing, The intellectual worker becomes the central figure of production. In developed countries it is developing socially oriented market economy, The nature of human life and leisure is changing. Integration processes are underway in the international arena, the creation of common economic spaces (Western European, North American), the development of processes of globalization of economic life and the creation of a global system of information communications.

Self-test questions:

1. What functions does historical science perform, what methods and principles does it use when studying historical facts and events?

2. What main stages has historical science gone through in its development? Name its leading schools and largest representatives.

3. What options for the periodization of historical development can you name? Which one seems most reasonable to you?

This article will discuss the main stages of world history: from ancient times to our time. We will briefly review the main features of each stage and identify the events/reasons that marked the transition to the next stage of development.

Epochs of human development: general structure

Scientists usually distinguish five main stages in the development of mankind, and the transition from one to another was marked by fundamental changes in the structure of human society.

  1. Primitive society (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic)
  2. Ancient world
  3. Middle Ages
  4. New time
  5. Modern times

Primitive society: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic

Paleolithic- Old Stone Age, the longest stage. The boundaries of the stage are considered to be the use of primitive stone tools (about 2.5 million years ago) and before the beginning of agriculture (about 10 thousand years BC). People lived mainly by gathering and hunting.

Mesolithic- Middle Stone Age, from 10 thousand years BC to 6 thousand years BC. Covers the period from the last ice age to the rise in global sea levels. At this time, stone tools become smaller, which makes their scope wider. Fishing is developing more actively, presumably at this time the dog was domesticated as a hunting assistant

Neolithic- the new Stone Age does not have clear time boundaries, since different cultures went through this stage at different times. Characterized by the transition from gathering to production, i.e. agriculture and hunting, the Neolithic ends with the beginning of metal processing, i.e. the beginning of the Iron Age.

Ancient world

This is the period between primitive society and the Middle Ages in Europe. Although the period of the ancient world can include civilizations in which writing arose, for example, Sumerian, and this is about 5.5 thousand years BC, usually the term “ancient world” or “classical antiquity” means ancient Greek and Roman history that from about 770 BC to about 476 AD (the year the Roman Empire fell).

The ancient world is famous for its civilizations - Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, the Persian Empire, the Arab Caliphate, the Chinese Empire, the Mongol Empire.

The main features of the ancient world are a sharp leap in culture, associated primarily with the development of agriculture, the formation of cities, the army, and trade. If in primitive society there were cults and deities, then during the Ancient World religion developed and philosophical movements emerged.

Middle Ages or Middle Ages

Regarding the time frame, scientists disagree, since the end of this period in Europe did not mean its end throughout the world. Therefore, it is generally accepted that the Middle Ages lasted from approximately the 5th century (collapse of the Roman Empire) AD until the 15-16th or even the 18th century (technological breakthrough)

Distinctive features of the period are the development of trade, lawmaking, stable development of technology, and the strengthening of the influence of cities. At the same time, there was a transition from slavery to feudalism. Sciences develop, the power of religion increases, which leads to crusades and other wars based on religion.

New time

The transition to a new time is characterized by a qualitative leap that humanity has made in the field of technology. Thanks to this breakthrough, agricultural civilizations, whose prosperity was built on the presence of a large territory that made it possible to stock up on provisions, are moving to industry, to fundamentally new conditions of life and consumption. At this time, Europe, which became the source of this technological breakthrough, is rising, a humanistic attitude towards the world is developing, and there is an active rise in science and art.

Modern times

Modern times include the period since 1918, i.e. since the First World War. The period is characterized by an increasing pace of globalization, the increasing role of information in the life of society, two world wars and many revolutions. In general, modern times are characterized as a stage in which individual states realize their global influence and the planetary scale of existence. Not only the interests of individual countries and rulers, but also global existence come to the fore.

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Charles Darwin's theory of evolution tells us when man appeared on Earth. This point of view is generally accepted among scientific researchers. Previously, people could not say for sure who created man. For thousands of years it was believed that humanity is the work of the gods, but the answer to the question of who created man is evolution.

First representatives

Man appeared in ancient times in a completely different way from the way we can observe him now. The very first representative of our species did not look more like a monkey than a modern representative of human society. Some researchers believe that The first man was Australopithecus. Many criticize such assumptions, since he is really more similar to the lower class of primates. The next developmental milestone after Australopithecus was Homo habilis or “handy man.”

He walked on two legs and had a relatively upright posture. These people created the first tools to use them to obtain food and build housing. Modern archaeological discoveries have made it possible to establish the most accurate date when Homo habilis appeared on Earth. This happened approximately 2.6 million years ago.

Attention! The first representatives of our species on Earth were relatively short in stature. If now the average height of the average person is about 1.7 meters, then a skilled person was no higher than 1.2 meters.

Place of residence

Researchers are trying to determine where did the first settlement appear? of people. For many years it was believed that the human race originated in Western Europe.

The main reason for this is the theory of Eurocentrism, which said that it was on the territory of Europe that powerful civilizations were created, and it was from here that progress began.

In the second half of the twentieth century, archaeologists found the remains of that same Homo habilis in the territory of modern Tanzania, the so-called Afar Triangle.

It was there that key discoveries were made that shed light on the origins of humanity. Archaeologists found tools made of stone next to human bones, which could well serve as good tools. tool for obtaining food.

In 1960, few people had any doubts. Archaeological finds also made it clear how man developed, how the volume of his brain increased over time and intellectual activity improved.

As for the classification by period, the origin of humanity should be dated to the Cenozoic era, which began 65 million years ago. This period is referred to as the “era of new life,” because it started immediately after the fall of a huge meteorite, which destroyed the dinosaurs and most of life on the planet.

Process of evolution

We learned where man came from and what the very first man on earth was called, but the evolution of our species did not stop there - even more amazing changes were to come.

Homo ergaster

Approximately 1.8 million years ago, homo habilis evolved into a working person, that is, homo ergaster. The brain size of this species is significantly larger than homo habilis. Scientists believe that it was homo ergaster who acquired the ability to use spoken language.

Near the skeletons of Homo ergaster, archaeologists found traces of the first fire pits. Therefore, it is This species began to make fire for the first time. In addition, a working man invented a chopper.

Homo ergaster began to hunt animals more often, and until that moment the first people on Earth were more likely to be gatherers and scavengers. A fairly high level of intelligence allowed them to gather in groups that began to go hunting - this significantly increased the chances of survival and a successful ending.

Homo erectus

A previous species of man began to colonize the planet. From Africa, the first people on Earth went to Western Europe and Asia. It was in the Far East that the remains of the next stage in the development of the human race were found - homo erectus or erectus.

At this stage of human development, its typical representative had an average height of 1.4 m. Homo erectus no longer slouched, and walked straight. Still in use stone tools. People collected roots and plants, hunted medium and small game.

Since man in ancient times could not protect himself alone, erectuses began to gather into fairly large ancestral communities, which numbered several dozen people. Erectus were also the first to cook meat over a fire. At this stage of development, during periods of famine, people resorted to cannibalism.

For the first time, the beginnings of a relationship appeared between erectuses, reminiscent of a permanent married couple, but promiscuous sexual relations took advantage. Archaeological finds have also confirmed that erectus cared for wounded tribesmen and understood the medicinal properties of herbs.

Important! Perhaps even then there appeared people who were called shamans or healers.

Development of thinking

For a long time it was believed that Homo sapiens was the ancestor of Neanderthals.

However, research in the 20th century proved that Neanderthal man was a dead-end branch of development in Western Europe, and homo sapiens came from Africa. Moreover, it was he who exterminated and assimilated the Neanderthals.

Archaeologists have found that the first people with the rudiments of reason appeared approximately 350-250 thousand years ago.

Initially, homo sapiens were nomads and gatherers, and only 15 thousand years ago they began:

  • master agriculture,
  • make tools from bone,
  • build permanent homes,
  • establish small permanent settlements,
  • to sew clothes,
  • draw on cave walls.

10 thousand years ago, people communicated using speech, and gestures and facial expressions faded into the background.

At this stage of development, people first became create families and get married. The development of agriculture made it possible to preserve part of the production, which made possible the emergence of classes, power and the ability to survive in unfavorable times.

Homo sapiens domesticated animals, which gave impetus to the development of cattle breeding. This also made it easier to get food - there was no need to spend a huge amount of time and effort on hunting. At that time, trade arose between the tribes: some offered skins, while others offered beautiful shells or fish.

10 thousand years ago homo sapiens began to build cities, invented the first languages ​​and built civilizations in the Middle East, North Africa, India, and Latin America.

We traced how man developed throughout the entire period of evolution, where the first people appeared 2.5 million years ago, and how the evolutionary process continued, which continues to this day.

Modern scientific achievements have refuted the theory of the divine origin of man and strengthened the position of Darwinism. People, before becoming what they are now, have come a long way of evolution - from ape-like creatures to modern man of the information age.

In what period did the first people appear?

Stages of development of Homo sapiens on Earth

Conclusion

The first man appeared on the African continent, its homeland was the territory of modern Tanzania . Archaeologists call this region the Afar Triangle or “the cradle of humanity.” From Africa, small tribes of people began to settle throughout the planet, conquering Europe, Asia, and then Australia and America.

At one time, the famous writer of antiquity Ovid said: “What we were and what we are today, we will no longer be tomorrow.” The rapid development of technological progress, which occurred thanks to man’s inclination to express and embody his thoughts in real life, is direct proof of this. Time passes, the world changes, and with it human knowledge of the environment and one’s own resources becomes deeper.

The main stages of human development are determined by: science, psychologists, theorists of world religions. They differ in some ways, they coincide in many ways, but a person is a separate structure that cannot adapt to established standards, because his goal is continuous knowledge and improvement.

Human development as a subject of scientific research

Today, there are many theories about the origin and development of the human race. Science insists that modern representatives of all nationalities descended from monkeys. From the primate stage, humans have advanced to the modern level of development. This happened because at first there was a need to arrange their lives so that they had something to eat, something to keep warm, where to live - these were goals that people managed to achieve. Over time, they realized that this was not enough, they could come up with something better, and if this succeeded, life would become even easier and more comfortable.

Only after creating certain living conditions that met people’s needs did they begin to think about relationships and spiritual development. Such progress did not take hundreds or even thousands of years. Finding yourself, the ability to create relationships in society, do your job correctly, express your thoughts - this is what created the people whom everyone is used to seeing every day. And the words: “Labor made a man out of a monkey” have found their application in the 21st century. Modern man is not going to stop there, because moving forward is what gives the incentive to live, work, and enjoy every new day.

The period of a person’s life from A to Z – gradual knowledge of the world

Modern psychologists and representatives of various scientific groups have divided the stages of human development into specific time periods. These periods can be structured as follows:

  • Baby's age;
  • The period of awareness of one’s “I”;
  • Preschool age;
  • Schoolboy period;
  • Teenage stage;
  • Time period of youth;
  • Fully grown up in every sense;
  • Mature age or period of wisdom.

Baby's age- the first stage in the development of human personality. A small child is not aware of his personality, cannot imagine life without other people - especially his mother. It does not last long - until the little person takes at least one step on his own.

The period of awareness of one’s “I”– the stage at which a person realizes that he can do what he needs on his own; he is an individual who has his own needs. If his demands are not met, he will do it on his own and will firmly insist on his own. This period involves partial acquaintance with the world, the formation of the basic principles of the child’s perception of life.

Preschool age- a stage of personality development that is very dependent on the influence of the outside world - mainly the people who surround the child every day. Here parents must realize the importance of their influence on the child. It is necessary to notice his talents, inclinations, desires, give him the opportunity to fully develop, and teach him the rules of being in a social environment. This is a period that acts as a preparatory process. At the end of it, the individual’s life becomes partially independent, the little person must learn to take responsibility for his actions, do everything diligently, communicate on equal terms with peers, and find a common language with adults.


Schoolboy period- a wonderful time that provides an opportunity to gain basic life knowledge, become a guide in your future life, and help you decide on the type of activity and moral principles. At this stage, mental abilities are intensively developing, because A.P. Chekhov, at one time, noted: “The higher a person is in mental and moral development, the more pleasure life gives him” - which suggests that the time period spent at school is important. Basic school knowledge gives a start in life, awareness of one’s favorite activity, and identification of what a person does best.

Teen stage- this is a period that gradually takes a person from school life to the wonderful time of youth. This is a difficult age that requires increased attention from adults, patience, and understanding. A person is on the verge of choosing between good and evil and must roughly decide on the type of activity to which he wants to devote his life.

Time period of youth- a short stage of life that gives you the opportunity to enjoy the delights of this world, to fully prepare for adult life and starting a family. At this time, people fall in love, learn their favorite activity, and discover the possibilities of the world.

The complete maturation of a person in every sense is the longest period of human life. During this period, a person builds his personal life and relationships at work. A person tries to raise his own children in the right direction, regulate his family relationships, become an authority for others, and learn more deeply the basic principles of life.

Mature age or period of wisdom- the time when most of life is already behind you. Thanks to many years of practice in terms of work, education, personal growth, a person can teach something to the younger generation, but do not forget to actively develop in the future. At this stage, all the mistakes of youth are visible, and certain conclusions are drawn.

The life path of a person is a combination of stages of physical and spiritual development

The stages of human development in the physical plane are important, but not the main ones. Everyone strives for spiritual improvement and the development of powerful mental capabilities. Once upon a time, very clever words were said: “The progress of science and machines is a useful means, but the only goal of civilization is the development of man,” and they are fair, because without human resources, technical development has no value. By the way, you can free up a significant resource by getting rid of the mental burden of problems. This system allows you to do this quite quickly and efficiently.

If a person does not develop spiritually, he is unable to understand or support either himself or another; It becomes difficult to adequately assess the situation and understand it. The basic laws of the Universe are that in order to take something you must give it away. By spending his time on self-improvement, a person acquires intelligence, becomes an authority in the eyes of others, and is able to find an adequate way out of any situation. The process of learning about oneself and the world around us gives a person the following privileges:

  • The ability to independently manage your destiny and correct its surprises;
  • Programming your own body for a positive attitude, which makes it possible to get out of any situation correctly;
  • A chance to achieve heights in your career and become an example in the family;
  • Spiritual harmony within yourself, full interaction with the outside world.

You can get rid of many problems and speed up the process of self-development thanks to a special system (check out). This practice is necessary for a long time; the path of spiritual knowledge is quite difficult, time-consuming, but interesting and useful. In the process of hard spiritual and mental work, a certain level of understanding of the Universe is achieved, a new stage begins in life when a person can become an example for others. Development of this level brings everyone who has practiced it for many years closer to perfection; he knows how to look at life differently, solve his problems, no matter how complex they may be, in a balanced and calm manner.

A person who knows that somewhere there is a higher power that takes care of him, protects him, leads him along the path of life, feels confident, capable of conquering any heights. At the main stages of the development of consciousness and physical indicators, nature gave a person physical strength, but did not free him from emotional dependence, which can explain the need for support and accompaniment. It is almost impossible to find people who are not influenced by emotional waves. But the development process is moving forward, perhaps soon a person will be completely independent in every sense. Until this happens, society assumes complete mutual action between people who can be useful to each other.

Human development, according to psychologists and scientists, will not end as long as he is alive. The same applies to entire countries and individual peoples. Human strength and intelligence will strive forward as long as there is life on planet Earth. Many people say that the capabilities of the human brain are limitless. This is a theory that has been tested for years and will remain in the status of a theorem for a long time. Time will tell how long and progressively humanity can develop.

I was prompted to write this article by my previous publication about the incident of self-enslavement. There I touched upon the topic of formations, which I want to consider in more detail.

This may seem boring, especially after the tedious memorization of dry facts in history lessons at school or college, but, in my opinion, it is very exciting and exciting. It is very interesting to understand the society in which we all live. By imagining the stages and laws of social evolution common to humanity, we can better understand our past, and the most interesting thing is to try to extrapolate them to the future and make an assumption about what lies ahead for all of us.

Formational approach

Image source: www.fotosimagenes.org Or the approach of socio-economic formations was developed by Karl Marx and subsequently developed by Friedrich Engels, but then, unfortunately, it had a difficult history and now, like all of Marx’s teachings, the formational approach, To put it mildly, it is not popular. I hope this omission will be corrected by the scientific community.

The criterion in this approach is socio-economic formation- a stage of social evolution, which is characterized by a method of production specific for a given formation and the production and economic relations corresponding to it.
For example, feudalism, as a socio-economic formation, is characterized by a feudal mode of production: an agricultural economy, the predominance of the rural population, the absence or rudiments of industrial sectors. The feudal mode of production corresponds to feudal production-economic relations: the ruling class (landowners) received rent from the peasants (the exploited class) through non-economic coercion.

Below I have highlighted the main features and characteristics of all formations.

Primitive communal system

Also called pre-agrarian, hunter-gatherer, or primitive communism.

  • Character traits:
    • appropriating (non-producing) principle of production;
    • absence of state, classes and private property;
    • equal position of community members in relation to the means of production.
  • Qualitative changes: man's exit from the animal kingdom.
  • Basic production principle: hunter-gatherer.
  • Class composition: absent.
  • State: absent, the hierarchy was based on age and gender differentiation.
  • Religion: primitive beliefs: animism, shamanism, totemism.
  • Culture: Since there was no written language in this era, it is difficult to say anything specific.

The discovery of agriculture and cattle breeding allowed primitive people to begin to produce a surplus product, which entailed the property stratification of society, the separation of rich and ordinary members of the community, the clan nobility. Also, thanks to agriculture and cattle breeding, population growth and the consolidation of clan communities into tribes and chiefdoms began to occur. Prisoners of war and the poorest members of the community begin to be used as free labor, and society is divided into classes.

Public product- this is the totality of material goods created in all sectors of material production (means of production and consumer goods).

Required product- part of the social product necessary for the normal, from the point of view of current socio-economic conditions, reproduction of the physical and spiritual abilities of the worker and his family members.

Surplus product- part of the social product produced in excess of the necessary product.

Slave system

  • Character traits:
    • agrarian-craft principle of production, subsistence farming;
    • a slave does not own the means of production: neither land, nor tools, nor livestock;
    • the slave is completely without rights in society (the slave is an object, not a subject of law);
    • low level of technological development - disinterest of slaves in the development and growth of production and free labor of slaves for the owner;
  • Qualitative changes: the transition from an appropriating to a producing economy, the emergence of a class society, the emergence of the state.
  • Dominant class: slave owners.
  • Exploited class: slaves
  • Operation method: non-economic.
  • State: State forms vary greatly depending on population density, terrain, and cultural differences, from Greek democracy to Asian empires with extensive bureaucracies and strong centralized states.
  • Religion: the development of primitive beliefs in polytheism, as well as, under certain conditions, the emergence of monotheistic beliefs: the cult of Aten in Egypt, Yahweh in Judea.
  • Culture: the emergence of a secular worldview in the form of various philosophical teachings: natural philosophy, Platonism in the West; Taoism, Confucianism in the east.

Slave-owning production relations, having laid the foundation for the division of labor and given impetus to the development of production forces, became economically unprofitable. The slave and the results of his labor were the full property of the individual or collective owner (community, temple, state), thus, the slave’s economic interest in his activities was virtually absent. This became the reason for the evolution of the slave system into a feudal system, through a gradual increase in the independence of slaves, for example, colonata in the Roman Empire.

Productive forces (German: Produktivkräfte) are means of production and people who have certain production experience, skills to work and put these means of production into action.

Not all nations went through the slave system. Having appeared on the arena of history in the vicinity of societies that had moved to a higher level of social development, some peoples, under their influence, bypassed previous socio-economic formations. For example, the Slavic and Germanic tribes completed the formation of a class society with the emergence of the feudal system.

Feudalism

  • Character traits:
    • agrarian-craft principle of production, subsistence farming, small individual production;
    • monopoly of the ruling class of feudal lords on the main means of production - land;
    • ownership of land was inextricably linked with dominance over the producing class of peasants;
    • in contrast to the slave system, the peasant had his own farm, legally belonging to the feudal lord, but actually passed on by inheritance in the peasant’s family;
    • the peasant was the owner of tools, real estate and livestock;
    • The feudal lord, because of his “right” to the land, collected land rent from the peasants free of charge (corvée, quitrent).
  • Qualitative changes: The economic independence of the peasant, established under feudalism (in comparison with the position of a slave), opened up the possibility of increasing labor productivity; the separation of crafts from agriculture led to a deepening of the division of labor and the emergence of legal recognition of the artisan’s ownership of the means of production (workshop, tools) and the products produced by him.
  • Dominant class: feudal lords.
  • Exploited class: peasants.
  • Operation method: non-economic.
  • State: in the early stages of feudalism, there was a deepening of the property stratification of society; the emergence of aristocracy, estates (social groups whose members differ in their legal status), centralization of the state. The main type of state becomes an estate monarchy.
    In the later stages of feudalism, the form of political domination of the feudal class became an absolute monarchy (absolutism, autocracy).
  • Religion: The spread of feudalism and its early stages was accompanied by the spread of Christianity, which ideologically legitimized the feudal structure and hierarchy of society. At the stage of the emergence of new capitalist relations and classes in society and the decomposition of feudalism, radical changes took place in the religious sphere - the Reformation - changes in religion that suited the interests of the emerging capitalist class (see, for example, the Protestant work ethic).
  • Culture: the development of productive forces under feudalism also led to the development of spiritual life. The Renaissance, characterized by its secular character, humanistic worldview, the emergence of science based on experimental knowledge, and a return to ancient culture, represented a movement against feudalism and the liberation of spiritual life from religious influence.

Late feudalism resulted in two completely different paths of development. In the countries of Western Europe with early emerging commodity-money relations, the growth of internal contradictions in society led to the bourgeois revolutions of the 16th-18th centuries, which replaced the feudal formation with the capitalist one, as more appropriate to the level of development of the production forces.

In some countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the process of formation of capitalist relations slowed down due to the feudal reaction, which consisted of the establishment of a dictatorship of the nobility, strong centralization of the state and the introduction of harsh forms of serfdom with the beginnings of commodity-money relations. As a result, the lordly plowing took on the character of a large business enterprise, and the exploitation of the peasants was of a slave-owning nature (some historians consider this to be a consequence of the increased demand for bread from the countries of Western Europe, where capitalist relations were being established at that time). Late feudalism became protracted and ended in some countries only in the second half of the 19th century.

Similar processes occurred in Asian countries, but there they were aggravated by the intervention of Western European countries, especially in China and India.

Capitalism

  • Characteristic features and qualitative changes:
    • industrial production principle;
    • the dominance of commodity-money relations and deep division of labor;
    • private ownership of the means of production;
    • the transition from non-economic coercion to economic coercion - hired labor became a salable commodity;
    • rapid development of technology and machine production.
  • Ruling class: bourgeoisie.
  • Exploited class: workers.
  • Operation method: economic.
  • State: limited and formal democracy.
  • Religion: In many countries there has been a separation of church and state and the proclamation of a secular society, although the percentage of believers is still quite high.
  • Culture: the growth of the intelligentsia layer, fantastic scientific achievements, scientific, technological and information revolutions have given humanity enormous opportunities, but it is not yet in a hurry to use them to the fullest.

Having gone through the stage of intense competition in the 19th century and the stage of redistribution of sales markets in the first half of the 20th century (two world wars), capitalism is now in a state-monopoly stage, which is characterized by the fact that the top of the bureaucratic apparatus has merged with the owners of large capitalist monopolies, a financial oligarchy , which greatly strengthened the position of capitalism.

Conclusion

The sources of Marx's ideas were the works of the classical English school of political economy (Adam Smith), German classical philosophy (Hegel) and the French utopian socialists (Saint-Simon). Thus, based on the ideas of the leading thinkers of his time, he develops them in the spirit of Renaissance humanism, trying to find an answer to the problem of social contradictions in society that have haunted him since the time of his exit from the animal kingdom.

Having examined the evolution of human society from prehistoric times to the 19th century, Karl Marx tried to extrapolate the data he collected for the future development of mankind, and describe the main features of the future formation.

Since an attempt to describe the future formation is a difficult and rather voluminous topic, along with such as the analysis of formations in Russia and the USSR (essentially having nothing to do with socialism and communism), as well as the current stage of development of capitalism, I will consider them in my future publications .