It has long been believed that the Polovtsian is an enemy of the Russian land, since representatives of this tribe were seen in repeated raids on the lands of our state. However, historians know episodes of the neighboring existence of the Polovtsian tribes and Slavs, as well as their joint campaigns against, for example, the Hungarians, Volga Bulgars, Mongols, etc. There is quite a bit of material evidence that reveals the secrets of the tribe, but from them one can trace the unique history of the Polovtsian people.

Were the ancestors of the Cumans Chinese?

The meaning of the word “Polovtsian” in the Old Russian language indicates that the Slavs called this people either those who came from the steppes (from the word “field”), or who had a yellowish skin tone (from the word “polov” - “yellow”).

Indeed, the ancestors of the Cumans were nomads who lived in the steppes between the Eastern Tien Shan and the Mongolian Altai, whom the Chinese called the Seyanto people. In that area there was an ancient state, formed in 630, which, however, was quickly destroyed by the Uighurs and the same Chinese. After this, the residents of these places changed their family name “Sira” to “Kipchaks,” which meant “unlucky, ill-fated,” and went to the Irtysh and the eastern steppes of Kazakhstan.

Interpretations of the nineteenth century and the opinion of D. Sakharov

The meaning and interpretation of the word “Polovtsian” is also interpreted by some experts as coming from the word “lov”, which means hunting (in the sense of property and people), as well as from the word “full” - captivity, where representatives of the Slavs were taken.

In the nineteenth century (in particular E. Skrizhinskaya and A. Kunik) the name of these tribes was identified with the root “pol”, meaning half. As the above-mentioned researchers assumed, the residents of the right bank of the Dnieper called the nomads who came from the other side of the river “from this floor.” The academician generally considered all the proposed versions unconvincing. He thought that the mystery of the origin of the name of this tribe would never be solved, since the Kipchak-Cumans left a minimal amount of their own written documents.

Cumans are not a separate tribe

Today it is believed that the Cumans are a representative of a conglomeration of nomadic tribes, and this data is based on the fact that in the eleventh century AD the Kipchak people were conquered by the Mongol-speaking Kumoshi-Kimaki tribes, and then migrated to the west along with representatives of the Mongoloid tribes - the Khitans. By the end of the thirties of the eleventh century, this set of peoples captured the steppes between the Volga and Irtysh and approached the borders of the ancient Russian state.

"Yellow" people came to the borders of Rus'

Who the Polovtsians are from the point of view of documentary Russian history was first explained in 1055. According to this manuscript, “light, yellow” people came to the borders of the Pereslavl kingdom, which allowed the Kipchaks and Mongoloid tribes to assign the general name “Polovtsy.”

Newly arrived peoples settled in the Azov region, the Lower and Northern Don, where stone “babas” were discovered, which, as scientists believe, were installed by nomadic tribes in memory of their ancestors.

Who were the Cumans of those times from the point of view of religious teachings? It is believed that among this nomadic tribe, the cult of ancestors was initially practiced, which was realized through the installation of stone sculptures in high areas of the steppe, on watersheds in special sanctuaries. At the same time, direct burials were not always nearby. In Polovtsian graves, it was often common to bury the deceased along with household items and the carcass (stuffed) of his war horse.

Two thousand stone idols and a minimum of writing

A mound was poured over the grave of outstanding people by the standards of the Polovtsians. In later periods, when the Kipchaks were conquered by Muslims, part of the pagan monuments was destroyed. To date, about 2,000 stone “babas” (from “balbal” - “ancestor”) have been preserved on the territory of modern Russia, which are still considered to have the power to increase the fertility of the earth and restore nature. These monuments survived many centuries, including the period of Christianization of the Polovtsians. Pagans, Muslims, Christians - that’s who the Polovtsians were in different periods of the development of this set of peoples.

They shot down birds in flight with an arrow

After appearing on the territory of the steppes of Eastern Europe in the 11th century AD. The Polovtsians did not stop in this area and continued to settle further, fortunately this was facilitated by the presence of such a powerful means of transportation of that time as a horse, and good weapons in the form of a bow.

A Polovtsian is first and foremost a warrior. The children of these tribes were taught horse riding and fighting techniques from an early age, so that they would later join the koshun - a militia from one clan. The koshun could consist of dozens of people or three or four hundred, who attacked the enemy like an avalanche, surrounded him with a ring and bombarded him with arrows. In addition to complex, technically advanced bows for that time, the Polovtsy possessed sabers, blades, and spears. They wore armor in the form of rectangular iron plates. Their military skill was so high that while galloping, a rider could shoot down any flying bird with a bow.

Camping kitchen...under saddle

Who are the Polovtsians in terms of their way of life? These peoples were typical nomads, very unpretentious even by the standards of that time. Initially, they lived in covered wagons or felt yurts and ate milk, cheese and raw meat, which was softened under the saddle of a horse. From raids they brought back stolen goods and captives, gradually adopting knowledge, habits and customs from other cultures. Despite the fact that no exact definition has been found for the origin of the word, what Polovtsian means was felt by many peoples of that time.

The Polovtsians had someone to adopt cultural traditions from, since the nomadic Kipchak tribes in the twelfth century reached the Cis-Caucasian steppes (on the Sunzha River there was a headquarters of the Polovtsian khans), visited Pomorie, Surozh and Korsun, Pomorie, Tmutarakan, and made a total of about 46 raids to Rus', in which they often won, but were also defeated. Specifically, around 1100 AD. about 45 thousand Kipchaks were forced out by the Russians into Georgian lands, where they mixed with local peoples.

Polovtsian habits of grabbing everything and everyone who came to hand led to the fact that by a certain time, part of the nomadic peoples learned to build dwellings for the winter, where they even equipped stoves in the likeness of Russian heating elements. Primitive leather clothes were decorated with ribbons on the sleeves, like Byzantine nobles, and signs of organization appeared among the tribes.

The Polovtsian kingdoms were no less than European ones

By the time of their conquest by the Mongol-Tatar troops in the 13th century, the Polovtsian hordes were associations, the strongest of which were the Don and Transnistrian ones. In those days, a Polovtsian was a representative of a people who lived on a territory not inferior in size to European kingdoms. These quasi-state formations prevented the passage of caravans along the route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” carried out independent raids on Rus' and were active until the 90s of the twelfth century, after which the Kipchaks fought mainly in Russian squads during the inter-princely strife of that time.

So how can you answer the question of who the Polovtsians are? From ancient history we can conclude that this people, despite some primitiveness, played an important role in the formation of the political map of the world of that time and in the formation of various nationalities, including modern ones.

In the middle of the 11th century, Kievan Rus faced a serious threat in the form of the Polovtsians. These nomads came from the Asian steppes and captured the Black Sea region. The Polovtsians (or Cumans) ousted their predecessors, the Pechenegs, from these places. The new steppe inhabitants were not much different from the old ones. They lived by robberies and invasions of neighboring countries where settled populations lived.

New threat

The appearance of nomads coincided with the beginning of the process of political collapse of Rus'. The East Slavic state was united until the 11th century, when its territory was divided into several small principalities. Each of them was ruled by an independent native. The struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians was complicated by this fragmentation.

The rulers often quarreled among themselves, organized internecine wars and made their own country vulnerable to the steppe inhabitants. In addition, some princes began to hire nomads for money. Having your own small horde in the army became an important advantage on the battlefield. All these factors together led to the fact that Rus' was in a state of constant conflict with the Polovtsians for almost two centuries.

First blood

Nomads first invaded the territory of Rus' in 1054. Their appearance coincided with the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Today he is considered the last Kyiv prince who ruled all of Russia. After him, the throne passed to his eldest son Izyaslav. However, Yaroslav had several more offspring. Each of them received an inheritance (part of the state), although formally they were subordinate to Izyaslav. Yaroslav's second son, Svyatoslav, ruled in Chernigov, and the third, Vsevolod Yaroslavich, received Pereyaslavl. This city was located just east of Kyiv and was closest to the steppe. That is why the Polovtsians often attacked the Pereyaslav Principality in the first place.

When the nomads found themselves on Russian soil for the first time, Vsevolod managed to come to an agreement with them by sending an embassy with gifts to the uninvited guests. Peace was concluded between the parties. However, it could not be durable, since the steppe inhabitants lived by robbing their neighbors.

The Horde invaded again in 1061. This time, many peaceful, defenseless villages were plundered and destroyed. Nomads never stayed in Rus' for long. Their horses were afraid of winter, and besides, the animals needed to be fed. Therefore, the raids were carried out in the spring or summer. After a break for autumn and winter, the southern guests returned.

Defeat of the Yaroslavichs

The armed struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians was initially unsystematic. The rulers of the destinies could not fight the huge hordes alone. This state of affairs made an alliance between the Russian princes vitally necessary. The sons of Yaroslav the Wise knew how to negotiate with each other, so in their era there were no problems with coordinating actions.

In 1068, the united squad of the Yaroslavichs met with the steppe army, led by Sharukan. The location of the battle was the bank of the Alta River near Pereyaslavl. The princes were defeated and had to flee the battlefield in a hurry. After the battle, Izyaslav and Vsevolod returned to Kyiv. They had neither the strength nor the means to organize a new campaign against the Polovtsians. The apathy of the princes led to an uprising of the population, tired of the constant raids of the steppes and seeing the inability of their rulers to do anything to counter this terrible threat. The people of Kiev convened a people's meeting. City residents demanded that the authorities arm ordinary citizens. When this ultimatum was ignored, the dissatisfied destroyed the governor’s home. Prince Izyaslav had to hide with the Polish king.

Meanwhile, the Polovtsian raids on Rus' continued. In the absence of Izyaslav, his younger brother Svyatoslav in the same 1068 defeated the steppe inhabitants in the battle on the Snova River. Sharukan was captured. This first victory allowed the nomads to be temporarily paralyzed.

Polovtsy in the service of princes

Although the Polovtsian raids stopped, steppe inhabitants continued to appear on Russian soil. The reason for this was that Russian princes, who fought with each other in internecine conflicts, began to hire nomads. The first such case took place in 1076. The son of Vsevolod Yaroslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh, together with the Polovtsians, devastated the lands of the Polotsk prince Vseslav.

In the same year, Svyatoslav, who had previously occupied Kyiv, died. His death allowed Izyaslav to return to the capital and become a prince again. Chernigov (the hereditary inheritance of Svyatoslav) was occupied by Vsevolod. Thus, the brothers left their nephews Roman and Oleg without the lands that they should have received from their father. Svyatoslav's children did not have their own squad. But the Polovtsy went to fight with them. Often nomads went to war at the call of the princes, without even asking for a reward, since they received rewards during the robberies of peaceful villages and cities.

However, such an alliance was dangerous. Although in 1078 the Svyatoslavichs defeated Izyaslav in the battle on Nezhatina Niva (the Kiev ruler died in battle), very soon Prince Roman himself was killed by the Polovtsians, whom he called after him.

Fight on Stugna

At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries. Vladimir Monomakh became the main fighter against the steppe threat. The Polovtsians decided to reassert themselves in 1092, when Vsevolod, who then ruled in Kyiv, fell seriously ill. Nomads often attacked Rus' when the country found itself without power or when it was weakened. This time the Polovtsians decided that Vsevolod’s illness would not allow the Kievans to gather their strength and repel the attack.

The first invasion went unpunished. The Cumans, having met no resistance, calmly returned to their winter nomadic places. The campaigns were then led by Khan Tugorkan and Khan Bonyak. A powerful onslaught of the steppes after a long break became possible after the hordes that had been scattered for several years united around these two leaders.

Everything favored the Polovtsians. In 1093, Vsevolod Yaroslavich died. The inexperienced nephew of the deceased, Svyatopolk Yaroslavovich, began to rule in Kyiv. Tugorkan, together with his horde, besieged Torchesk, an important city in Porosye on the southern borders of Rus'. Soon the defenders learned of approaching help. The Russian princes temporarily forgot about mutual claims against each other and gathered their squads for a campaign in the steppe. This army included the regiments of Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich, Vladimir Monomakh and his younger brother Rostislav Vsevolodovich.

The united squad was defeated in the Battle of the Stugna River, which took place on May 26, 1093. The first blow of the Polovtsians fell on the Kievites, who wavered and fled from the battlefield. Behind them the Chernigovites were defeated. The army found itself pressed against the river. The warriors had to hastily swim across the river in their armor. Many of them simply drowned, including Rostislav Vsevolodovich. Vladimir Monomakh tried to save his brother, but could not help him get out of the seething stream of Stugna. After the victory, the Polovtsians returned to Torchesk and finally took the city. The defenders of the fortress surrendered. They were taken captive, and the city was set on fire. The history of Kievan Rus was darkened by one of the most devastating and terrible defeats.

Stab in the back

Despite heavy losses, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians continued. In 1094, Oleg Svyatoslavovich, who continued to fight for his father’s inheritance, besieged Monomakh in Chernigov. Vladimir Vsevolodovich left the city, after which it was given over to the nomads for plunder. After the concession of Chernigov, the conflict with Oleg was settled. However, the Polovtsians soon besieged Pereyaslavl and appeared under the walls of Kyiv. The steppe inhabitants took advantage of the absence of strong squads in the south of the country, who went north to participate in the next civil strife on Rostov soil. In that war, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, the Murom prince Izyaslav, died. Meanwhile, Tugorkan was already close to starving Pereyaslavl.

At the very last moment, a squad returning from the north came to the city’s rescue. It was led by Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich. The decisive battle took place on July 19, 1096. The Russian princes finally defeated the Polovtsians. This was the first major success of Slavic weapons in the confrontation with the steppes in the last 30 years. Under a powerful blow, the Polovtsy scattered. In this pursuit, Tugorkan died along with his son. The next year after the victory at Trubezh, the Russian princes gathered at the famous congress in Lyubech. At this meeting, the Rurikovichs regulated their own relations. The hereditary inheritance of the late Svyatoslav finally returned to his children. Now the princes could come to grips with the problem of the Polovtsians, which was what Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich insisted on, who formally continued to be considered the eldest.

Hiking in the steppe

At first, the struggle of the Russian princes with the Polovtsians did not go beyond the borders of Rus'. The squads gathered only if nomads threatened Slavic cities and villages. This tactic was ineffective. Even if the Polovtsians were defeated, they returned to their own steppes, regained strength, and after some time crossed the border again.

Monomakh understood that a fundamentally new strategy was needed against the nomads. In 1103, the Rurikovichs met at the next congress on the shores of Lake Dolob. At the meeting, a general decision was made to march with the army into the steppe, into the lair of the enemy. Thus began the military campaigns of the Russian princes to the nomadic places of the Polovtsians. Svyatopolk of Kiev, Davyd Svyatoslavovich of Chernigov, Vladimir Monomakh, Davyd Vseslavovich of Polotsk and Monomakh’s heir Yaropolk Vladimirovich took part in the campaign. After a general gathering in Pereyaslavl, the Russian army set off for the steppe in the early spring of 1103. The princes were in a hurry, hoping to overtake the enemy as quickly as possible. Polovtsian horses needed a long rest after previous campaigns. In March, they were still not strong, which should have been to the advantage of the Slavic squad.

The history of Kievan Rus has never known such a military campaign. Not only cavalry, but also a large foot army marched south. The princes counted on him in case the cavalry became too tired after a long journey. The Polovtsians, having learned about the unexpected approach of the enemy, began to hastily assemble a united army. It was headed by Khan Urusoba. Another 20 steppe princes brought their troops. The decisive battle took place on April 4, 1103 on the banks of the Suteni River. The Polovtsians were defeated. Many of their princelings were killed or captured. Urusoba also died. The victory allowed Svyatopolk to rebuild the city of Yuryev on the Ros River, which was burned back in 1095 and was empty for many years without inhabitants.

In the spring of 1097, the Polovtsians again went on the offensive. Khan Bonyak led the siege of the city of Lubena, which belonged to the Pereyaslavl principality. Svyatopolk and Monomakh together defeated his army, meeting him on the Sula River. Bonyak ran. Still, the peace was fragile. Subsequently, the military campaigns of the Russian princes were repeated (three times in 1109 - 1111). All of them were successful. The Polovtsians had to migrate away from the Russian borders. Some of them even moved to the North Caucasus. For two decades, Rus' forgot about the threat of the Polovtsians. It is interesting that in 1111 Vladimir Monomakh organized a campaign similar to the Catholic Crusade in Palestine. The struggle between the Eastern Slavs and the Polovtsians was also religious. The nomads were pagans (in the chronicles they were called “filthy”). In the same year 1111, the Russian army reached the Don. This river became her last frontier. The Polovtsian cities of Sugrov and Sharukan, in which the nomads usually spent the winter, were captured and plundered.

Long Neighborhood

Vladimir Monomakh became the prince of Kyiv. Under him and his son Mstislav (until 1132), Rus' was for the last time a single and cohesive state. The Polovtsians did not bother Kyiv, Pereyaslavl, or any other East Slavic cities. However, after the death of Mstislav Vladimirovich, disputes began between numerous Russian princes over the rights to the throne. Some wanted to get Kyiv, others fought for independence in other provinces. In wars among themselves, the Rurikovichs again began to hire Polovtsians.

For example, the ruler of Rostov, together with nomads, besieged the “mother of Russian cities” five times. The Polovtsians were actively involved in internecine wars in the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1203, under the command of Rurik Rostislavovich, they captured and plundered Kyiv. Then Prince Roman Mstislavovich Galitsky ruled in the ancient capital.

Trade protection

In the XI-XII centuries. The Polovtsians did not always invade Rus' at the call of one of the princes. During periods when there were no other ways to rob and kill, nomads arbitrarily attacked Slavic settlements and cities. Under the Kiev prince Mstislav Izyaslavovich (reigned 1167-1169), for the first time in a long time, a campaign in the steppe was organized and carried out. The squads were sent to nomadic places not only to secure border settlements, but also to preserve Dnieper trade. For many centuries, merchants used the Route from the Varangians to the Greeks, along which Byzantine goods were delivered. In addition, Russian traders sold northern wealth in Constantinople, which brought great profits to the princes. Hordes of robbers were a constant threat to this important exchange of goods. Therefore, the frequent Russian-Polovtsian wars were also determined by the economic interests of the Kyiv rulers.

In 1185, the prince of Novgorod-Seversky undertook another campaign in the steppe. The day before there was a solar eclipse, which contemporaries regarded as a bad sign. Despite this, the squad still went to the Polovtsian lair. This army was defeated, and the prince was captured. The events of the campaign formed the basis of “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” This text is today considered the most significant monument of ancient Russian literature.

The emergence of the Mongols

Relations between the Slavs and the Polovtsians for almost two centuries fit into a system of regular alternation of war and peace. However, in the 13th century, the established order collapsed. In 1222, the Mongols first appeared in Eastern Europe. Hordes of these ferocious nomads had already conquered China and were now moving west.

Campaign 1222-1223 was a trial and was actually a reconnaissance mission. However, even then both the Polovtsians and the Russians felt their helplessness before the new enemy. These two peoples had previously constantly fought with each other, but this time they decided to act together against an unexpected enemy. In the Battle of Kalka, the Polovtsian-Russian army suffered a crushing defeat. Thousands of warriors died. However, after the victory, the Mongols suddenly turned back and went to their native lands.

It seemed that the storm had passed. Everyone began to live as before: the princes fought with each other, the Polovtsians plundered border settlements. A few years later, the unreasonable relaxation of the Polovtsians and Russians was punished. In 1236, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu, began their great western campaign. This time they went to distant countries in order to conquer them. First the Polovtsians were defeated, then the Mongols plundered Rus'. The Horde reached the Balkans and only turned back there. New nomads settled in the former Gradually the two peoples assimilated. However, as an independent force, the Cumans disappeared precisely in the 1230-1240s. Now Rus' had to deal with a much more terrible enemy.

| In the period from the 9th century to the 16th century. Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI – XIII centuries)

Russian-Polovtsian wars (XI – XIII centuries)

The departure of the Pechenegs from the Northern Black Sea region caused a void that sooner or later someone had to fill. From the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsians became the new masters of the steppes. From that time on, a titanic Russian-Polovtsian struggle unfolded, which was waged on the broadest front from Ryazan to the foothills of the Carpathians. Unprecedented in its scale, it lasted for a century and a half and had a significant impact on the fate of the Old Russian state.

Like the Pechenegs, the Polovtsians did not set the goal of seizing Russian territories, but limited themselves to robberies and deportation. And the ratio of the population of Ancient Rus' and the steppe nomads was far from in favor of the latter: according to various estimates, approximately 5.5 million people lived on the territory of the Old Russian state, while the Polovtsians numbered several hundred thousand.

The Russians had to fight the Polovtsy under the new historical conditions of the collapse of a single state. Now, squads of individual principalities usually participated in the war with nomads. The boyars were free to choose their place of service and could move to another prince at any time. Therefore, their troops were not particularly reliable. There was no unity of command and weapons. Thus, the military successes of the Polovtsians were directly related to internal political changes in the Old Russian state. Over the course of a century and a half, nomads made about 50 major raids on Russian lands. Sometimes the Polovtsians became allies of princes engaged in internecine struggle.

The Russian-Polovtsian wars can be divided into three stages. The first covers the second half of the 11th century, the second is associated with the activities of Prince Vladimir Monomakh, the third falls on the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries.

Wars with the Cumans, first stage (second half of the 11th century)

The first attack of the Polovtsians on Russian soil dates back to 1061, when they defeated the army of the Pereyaslavl prince Vsevolod Yaroslavich. Seven years later, a new raid was made. The joint forces of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Izyaslav and his brothers Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod of Pereyaslav came out to meet him.

Battle of the Alta River (1068).

The opponents met in September on the banks of the Alta River. The battle took place at night. The Polovtsians turned out to be more successful and defeated the Russians, who fled from the battlefield. The consequence of this defeat was a rebellion in Kyiv, as a result of which Izyaslav fled to Poland. The Polovtsian invasion was stopped by Prince Svyatoslav, who with a small retinue boldly attacked a large army of nomads near Snovsk and won a decisive victory over them. Until the 90s of the 11th century, chronicles are silent about major raids, but the “small war” continued periodically.

Battle of Stugna (1093).

The onslaught of the Polovtsians especially intensified in the 90s of the 11th century. In 1092, nomads captured three cities: Pesochen, Perevoloka and Priluk, and also destroyed many villages on both sides of the Dnieper. The Polovtsian khans Bonyak and Tugorkan became famous in the raids of the 90s. In 1093, Polovtsian troops besieged the city of Torchesk. The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich came out to meet them with a squad of 800 soldiers. Along the way, he united with the troops of princes Rostislav and Vladimir Vsevolodovich. But having joined forces, the princes were unable to develop joint tactics. Svyatopolk self-confidently rushed into battle. The rest, citing a lack of strength, offered to enter into negotiations with the Polovtsians. In the end, the passionate Svyatopolk, wanting victory, won over the majority to his side. On May 24, the Russian army crossed the Stugna River and was attacked by superior Polovtsian forces. Unable to withstand the blow, the Russians fled to the river. Many died in the stormy waters from the rains (including the Pereyaslavl prince Rostislav Vsevolodovich). After this victory, the Polovtsians captured Torchesk. To stop their invasion, the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatopolk was forced to pay them tribute and marry the daughter of the Polovtsian khan Tugorkan.

Battle of Trubezh (1096).

Svyatopolk's marriage to a Polovtsian princess briefly curbed the appetites of her relatives, and two years after the Battle of Stugna, the raids resumed with renewed vigor. Moreover, this time the southern princes were unable to agree on joint actions at all, since the Chernigov prince Oleg Svyatoslavich avoided the fight and preferred to conclude not only peace, but also an alliance with the Polovtsians. With the help of the Polovtsians, he expelled Prince Vladimir Monomakh from Chernigov to Pereyaslavl, who in the summer of 1095 had to single-handedly repel the raids of nomads. The next year, Vladimir Monomakh and Svyatopolk Izyaslavovich expelled Oleg from Chernigov and besieged his army in Starodub. The Polovtsians immediately took advantage of this discord and moved towards Rus' on both sides of the Dnieper. Bonyak appeared in the vicinity of Kyiv, and the princes Kurya and Tugorkan besieged Pereyaslavl.

Then Vladimir and Svyatopolk quickly moved to defend their borders. Not finding Bonyak near Kyiv, they crossed the Dnieper and, unexpectedly for the Polovtsians, appeared near Pereyaslavl. On July 19, 1096, the Russians quickly forded the Trubezh River and attacked Tugorkan’s army. Not having time to line up for battle, it suffered a crushing defeat. During the persecution, many Polovtsian soldiers were killed, including Khan Tugorkan (father-in-law of Svyatopolk) along with his son and other noble military leaders.

Meanwhile, Bonyak, having learned about the departure of the princes for the Dnieper, almost captured Kyiv in an unexpected raid. The Polovtsians plundered and burned the Pechersky Monastery. However, having learned about the approach of the regiments of Svyatopolk and Vladimir, the Polovtsian khan quickly left with his army in the steppe. After successfully repelling this raid, the Torci and other border steppe tribes began to join the Russians. The victory on the banks of Trubezh was of great importance in the rise of the military star Vladimir Monomakh, who became a recognized leader in the fight against the Polovtsian danger.

Wars with the Cumans, second stage (second half of the 12th century)

The external threat made it possible to temporarily slow down the process of disintegration of state unity. In 1103, Vladimir Monomakh convinced Svyatopolk to organize a large-scale campaign against the nomads. From this time on, the offensive stage of the fight against the Polovtsians began, inspired by Vladimir Monomakh. The campaign of 1103 was the largest military operation against the Cumans. The armed forces of seven princes took part in it. The combined troops on boats and on foot reached the Dnieper rapids and turned from there into the depths of the steppes, to the town of Suten, where one of the large groups of nomads led by Khan Urusoba was located. It was decided to set out in early spring, before the Polovtsian horses had time to gain strength after a long winter. The Russians destroyed the advanced patrols of the Polovtsians, which ensured the surprise of the attack.

Battle of Suteni (1103).

The battle between the Russians and the Cumans took place on April 4, 1103. At the beginning of the battle, the Russians surrounded the Polovtsian vanguard, led by the hero Altunopa, and completely destroyed it. Then, encouraged by success, they attacked the main Polovtsian forces and inflicted complete defeat on them. According to the chronicle, never before have the Russians won such a famous victory over the Polovtsians. In the battle, almost the entire Polovtsian elite was destroyed - Urusoba and nineteen other khans. Many Russian prisoners were released. This victory marked the beginning of Russian offensive actions against the Polovtsians.

Battle of Luben (1107).

Three years later, the Polovtsians, having recovered from the blow, made a new raid. They captured a lot of booty and prisoners, but on the way back they were overtaken by Svyatopolk’s squads across the Sula River and defeated. In May 1107, Khan Bonyak invaded the Pereyaslav Principality. He captured herds of horses and besieged the city of Luben. A princely coalition led by princes Svyatopolk and Vladimir Monomakh came out to meet the invaders.

On August 12, they crossed the Sulu River and decisively attacked the Cumans. They did not expect such a rapid onslaught and fled from the battlefield, abandoning their convoy. The Russians pursued them all the way to the Khorol River and captured many prisoners. Despite the victory, the princes did not seek to continue the war, but tried to establish peaceful relations with the nomads. This, in particular, was evidenced by the fact that after the Battle of Luben, Russian princes Oleg and Vladimir Monomakh married their sons to Polovtsian princesses.

Battle of Salnitsa (1111).

However, hopes that family ties would strengthen Russian-Polovtsian ties and bring peace with the nomads did not materialize. Two years later, hostilities resumed. Then Monomakh again convinced the princes to unite for joint action. He again proposed a plan of offensive action and transfer of the war into the depths of the Polovtsian steppes, characteristic of his military strategy. Monomakh managed to achieve coordination of actions from the princes and in 1111 organized a campaign that became the pinnacle of his military successes.

The Russian army set out in the snow. The infantry, to which Vladimir Monomakh attached special importance, rode on sleighs. After four weeks of campaigning, Monomakh’s army reached the Donets River. Never since the time of Svyatoslav had the Russians gone so far into the steppe. The two largest Polovtsian strongholds were taken - the cities of Sugrov and Sharukan. Having freed many prisoners there and captured rich booty, Monomakh’s army set off on the return journey. However, the Polovtsians did not want to release the Russians alive from their possessions. On March 24, the Polovtsian cavalry blocked the path of the Russian army. After a short fight she was driven back. Two days later the Polovtsy tried again.

The decisive battle took place on March 26 on the banks of the Salnitsa River. The outcome of this bloody and desperate, according to the chronicle, battle was decided by the timely strike of the regiments under the command of princes Vladimir and Davyd. The Polovtsians suffered a crushing defeat. According to legend, heavenly angels helped Russian soldiers defeat their enemies. The Battle of Salnitsa was the largest Russian victory over the Cumans. It contributed to the growing popularity of Vladimir Monomakh, the main hero of the campaign, the news of which reached “even Rome.”

After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Svyatopolk in 1113, the Polovtsian khans Aepa and Bonyak carried out a major raid in the hope of internal unrest. The Polovtsian army besieged the Vyr fortress. But having learned about the approach of the Russian squads, it hastily retreated without accepting the battle. Apparently, the factor of the moral superiority of Russian soldiers had an effect.

In 1113, Vladimir Monomakh took the Kiev throne. During his reign (1113-1125), the fight against the Cumans was carried out exclusively on their territory. In 1116, Russian princes under the command of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yaropolk (an active participant in previous campaigns) moved deep into the Don steppes and again captured Sharukanya and Sugrov. Another center of the Polovtsians, the town of Balin, was also taken. After this campaign, Polovtsian dominance in the steppes came to an end. When Yaropolk undertook another “preventative” campaign in 1120, the steppes were empty. By that time, the Polovtsians had already migrated to the North Caucasus, away from the Russian borders. The northern Black Sea region was cleared of aggressive nomads, and Russian farmers could safely harvest their crops. This was a period of revival of state power, which brought peace and tranquility to the lands of Ancient Rus'.

Wars with the Cumans, third stage (second half of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century)

After the death of Vladimir Monomakh, Khan Atrak dared to return to the Don steppes from Georgia. But the Polovtsian raid on the southern Russian borders was repelled by Prince Yaropolk. However, soon the descendants of Monomakh were removed from power in Kyiv by Vsevolod Olgovich - a descendant of another grandson of Yaroslav the Wise - Oleg Svyatoslavovich. This prince entered into an alliance with the Cumans and used them as a military force in his campaigns against the Galician princes and Poland. After the death of Vsevolod in 1146, a struggle for the Kiev throne broke out between princes Izyaslav Mstislavovich and Yuri Dolgoruky. During this period, the Polovtsians began to actively participate in internecine warfare.

Here the regiments of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa distinguished themselves. Thus, Yuri Dolgoruky led Polovtsian troops to Kyiv five times, trying to capture the capital of Ancient Rus'.

Years of strife nullified the efforts of Vladimir Monomakh to protect Russian borders. The weakening of the military power of the ancient Russian state allowed the Polovtsians to strengthen themselves and create a large unification of tribes in the 70s of the 12th century. It was headed by Khan Konchak, whose name is associated with a new outbreak of Russian-Polovtsian confrontation. Konchak constantly fought with the Russian princes, plundering the southern borderland. The areas around Kyiv, Pereyaslavl and Chernigov were subjected to the most brutal raids. The Polovtsian onslaught intensified after Konchak’s victory over the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in 1185.

Campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich (1185).

The background to this famous campaign, sung in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” is as follows. In the summer of 1184, the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, at the head of a princely coalition, launched a campaign against the Polovtsians and inflicted a crushing defeat on them in the Battle of the Orel River on July 30. 7 thousand Polovtsians were captured, including their leader, Khan Kobyak, who was executed as punishment for previous raids. Khan Konchak decided to take revenge for the death of Kobyak. He came to the borders of Rus' in February 1185, but was defeated in the battle on March 1 on the Khorol River by the troops of Svyatoslav. It seemed that the times of Vladimir Monomakh were returning. Another joint blow was needed to completely crush the revived Polovtsian power.

However, this time history did not repeat itself. The reason for this was the inconsistency in the actions of the princes. Under the influence of Svyatoslav’s successes, his ally, Prince of Novgorod-Seversk Igor Svyatoslavich, together with his brother Vsevolod, decided to receive the laurels of a triumph without anyone’s help and set off on a campaign on their own. Igor's army of approximately 6 thousand people moved deep into the steppes and found themselves alone with all the forces of Konchak, who did not miss the chance given to him by the reckless prince.

Having retreated after the vanguard battle, the Polovtsians, following all the rules of their tactics, lured the Russian army into a trap and surrounded it with much superior forces. Igor decided to fight his way back to the Seversky Donets River. We must note the nobility of the brothers. Having cavalry to break through, they did not abandon their infantry to the mercy of fate, but ordered the mounted warriors to dismount and fight on foot, so that they could all fight their way out of the encirclement together. “If we run, kill ourselves, and leave ordinary people behind, then it will be a sin for us to hand them over to the enemies; we will either die or live together,” the princes decided. The battle between Igor's squad and the Polovtsians took place on May 12, 1185. Before the battle, Igor addressed the soldiers with the words: “Brothers! This is what we were looking for, so let us dare. Shame is worse than death!”

The fierce battle lasted three days. On the first day, the Russians repelled the Polovtsian onslaught. But the next day one of the regiments could not stand it and ran. Igor rushed to the retreating forces to return them to the line, but was captured. The bloody battle continued even after the prince was captured. Finally, the Polovtsians, due to their numbers, managed to grind down the entire Russian army. The death of a large army exposed a significant line of defense and, in the words of Prince Svyatopolk, “opened the gates to Russian land.” The Polovtsians were not slow to take advantage of their success and carried out a series of raids on the Novgorod-Seversk and Pereyaslavl lands.

The grueling struggle with the nomads, which lasted for centuries, cost enormous victims. Due to constant raids, the fertile outskirts of the southern regions of Rus' were depopulated, which contributed to their decline. Constant military operations in the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region led to the shift of old trade routes to the Mediterranean region. Kievan Rus, which was a transit corridor from Byzantium to Northern and Central Europe, now remains aloof from new routes. Thus, the Polovtsian raids not least contributed to the decline of Southern Rus' and the movement of the center of the Old Russian state to the northeast, to the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

By the early 90s of the 12th century, the raids subsided, but after the death of the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav in 1194, a new period of strife began, into which the Polovtsians were also drawn. The geography of their attacks is expanding. The Polovtsians made repeated raids on the Ryazan principality. By the way, the Ryazan prince Roman “with his brethren” organized the last major Russian campaign in history against the Polovtsians in April 1206. During this period, the Polovtsians are already completely moving to the second stage of nomadism - with permanent winter roads and summer roads. The beginning of the 13th century is characterized by a gradual attenuation of their military activity. The chronicle dates the last Polovtsian raid on Russian lands (the vicinity of Pereyaslavl) to 1210. Further development of Russian-Polovtsian relations was interrupted by a hurricane from the east, as a result of which both the Polovtsians and Kievan Rus disappeared.

Based on materials from the portal "Great Wars in Russian History"

We all know from history that in ancient times Russians often fought with the Polovtsians. But who are these Polovtsians? After all, now there is no people in the world with that name. Meanwhile, their blood may even flow within ourselves...

"Unfortunate" people

It is not known exactly where the ethnonym “Polovtsy” came from. At one time there was a version that it was connected with the word “field”, because these peoples lived in the field, the steppe. Modern historians generally believe that the word “Polovtsian” comes from “sexual” - “yellow-white, yellowish, straw-colored.” Most likely, the hair of representatives of this people was light yellow, straw color. Although this is strange for the Turkic tribes. The Polovtsians themselves called themselves Kipchaks, Kimaks, Cumans...

It is interesting that the word “Kipchak” (or, as the speakers themselves pronounced it, “Kypchak”) in Turkic dialects means “ill-fated.” Most likely, the ancestors of the Kipchaks were the Sir tribes, who roamed the steppes between the Mongolian Altai and the eastern Tien Shan in the 4th-7th centuries. There is evidence that in 630 they formed a state called Kipchak, which was later destroyed by the Uighurs and Chinese.

At the beginning of the 11th century, Polovtsian tribes came from the Volga region to the Black Sea steppes, then crossed the Dnieper and reached the lower reaches of the Danube. Thus, they managed to populate the entire territory from the Danube to the Irtysh, which was called the Great Steppe. Eastern sources even call it Desht-i-Kipchak (Kipchak steppe).

From raids to the Golden Horde

Starting from the second half of the 11th century, the Polovtsians continually raided Rus', devastating the lands, taking livestock and property, and taking local residents into captivity. The border principalities - Pereyaslavl, Seversky, Kiev, Ryazan - suffered most from the Polovtsian attacks.

At the beginning of the 12th century, the troops of princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich and Vladimir Monomakh managed to oust the Polovtsians to the Caucasus, beyond the Volga and Don. Subsequently, they made up the majority of the population of the Golden Horde. It was from them, according to historians, that the Tatars, Kyrgyz, Gagauz, Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Nogais, Kumyks, Bashkirs, Karachais, Balkars came.

Where to look for the descendants of the Polovtsians?

During the existence of the Golden Horde, Russian princes often took Polovtsian princesses as wives. The beginning of this tradition was laid by the son of Yaroslav the Wise, Prince Vsevolod, who in 1068 married Anna, the daughter of the Polovtsian khan, who went down in history as Anna of Polovets. His son Vladimir Monomakh also married a Polovtsian woman. The Kiev prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich was married to the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Tugorkan, Yuri Dolgoruky - to the daughter of Khan Aepa, Rurik, the son of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Rostislav Mstislavich - to the daughter of Khan Belok, the son of Novgorod-Seversk

oh Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, the hero of “The Lay of Igor’s Campaign” Vladimir - on the daughter of Khan Konchak, Prince Galitsky Mstislav Udatny - on the daughter of Khan Kotyan, who, by the way, became the grandmother of Alexander Nevsky!

So, mother Vladimiro-Suzdal

Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky, was a Polovtsian. The study of his remains was supposed to serve as confirmation or refutation of the theory about the Caucasoid appearance of the Cumans. It turned out that there was nothing Mongoloid in the prince’s appearance. If you believe anthropologically

According to us, they were typical Europeans. All descriptions indicate that the “Kipchaks” had blond or reddish hair, gray or blue eyes... Another thing is that in the process of assimilation they could mix, for example, with the Mongols, and their descendants already acquired Mongoloid features.

Where did the Polovtsians get their Caucasian features from? One of the hypotheses says that they were descendants of the Dinlins, one of the oldest nations in Europe, who, as a result of migration processes, mixed with the Turks.

Today, among the Nogais, Kazakhs, Bashkirs, Tatars, and Kyrgyz, there are descendants of tribes with the generic names “Kipchak”, “Kypshak”, “Kypsak” with similar genetic haplogroups. Among the Bulgarians, Altaians, Nogais, Bashkirs, and Kyrgyz there are ethnic groups with the names “Cuman”, “Kuban”, “Kuba”, which some historians attribute to part of the Polovtsian tribes. The Hungarians, in turn, have the “Plavtsy” and “Kunok” ethnic groups, which are descendants of related tribes - the Cumans and the Kuns.

A number of researchers believe that distant descendants of the Cumans are also found among Ukrainians, Poles, Czechs, Bulgarians and even Germans.

Thus, the blood of the Polovtsians can flow in many peoples, not only in Asia, but also in Europe, and even Slavic ones, not excluding, of course, the Russians...