Now only the lazy do not talk about the incredible economic development of China, which before our eyes is becoming a new superpower. The architecture of the Middle Kingdom is one of the proofs of the greatness of this beautiful country. Our review presents 27 examples of incredible Chinese architecture that everyone should see.
A very original building for one of the leading companies in China, Alibaba, in Hangzhou was built in 2009. The purpose of its construction was to create the most open and free space that would contribute to a productive, but at the same time relaxed work process. The headquarters, with an area of 150,000 square meters, can accommodate about 9 thousand employees of the company.
Built in 1990, the 315-meter (including two antennas, the height of the building reaches 367 meters) skyscraper Bank of China was considered the tallest building in Asia for 3 years. The Hong Kong tower is distinguished from most other skyscrapers by its unusual futuristic design, thanks to which the building has become extremely popular among residents and tourists.
The modern theater in the small town of Wuzhen, which was designed by Taiwanese architect Chris Yao from the ARTECH bureau, resembles two lotus flowers sprouting from one stem and fused together. Ornate timber screens cover approximately half of the façade, while the rest is covered in brickwork. This theater has become a real calling card of Wuzhen.
Interior of the "New Century" center
Built in 2010, the New Century multifunctional complex is officially recognized as the largest single building in the world. The building area is 1.76 million square meters, which is three times the size of the Pentagon. The unique complex houses retail space, offices, conference rooms, a university complex, two commercial centers, two five-star hotels, an IMAX cinema and a water park with an artificial beach.
The construction of the basketball palace, designed for 18 thousand, was completed by the start of the Games in 2008. It was in this sports facility that the preliminary and final basketball competitions of the Olympics took place. Among the architectural features, it is worth highlighting the extremely unusual façade made of special artistic wood panels.
6. New terminal of Beijing International Airport
The new terminal, built for the Olympic Games according to the design of the legendary Baron Norman Foster, has colossal dimensions - 3.25 km long and an area of 1.3 million square meters, making it the largest structure in the world. It is interesting that the British architect tried to put into his brainchild all the understanding of Chinese traditional architecture - the red and gold color scheme, the sharp bend of the ceilings and the general silhouette, similar to that of a dragon, give the building oriental features.
7. Taipei 101 skyscraper in Taipei
Skyscraper "Taipei 101" in Taipei
"Taipei 101" against the backdrop of a picturesque sunset
The 509-meter skyscraper, built in 2003 in Taipei, is the fifth tallest building in the world. On the lower floors there are various shopping centers and service premises, while the upper floors are occupied by the offices of the largest corporations from around the world. It is extremely interesting that the Taipei 101 skyscraper has the fastest elevators in the world, rising at a speed of 60.6 km/h. Taipei Tower is considered the main symbol of Taiwan and one of the most important architectural structures in all of China.
The 27-story horseshoe-shaped building of the world famous Sheraton hotel chain in Huzhou was completed in 2013. Due to its shape, the building received the nickname "horseshoe". It looks especially mesmerizing at night, reflecting in Lake Tahu and forming the silhouette of the number “8” with its reflection. It is worth noting that this beautiful modern hotel is one of the ten most expensive in the world.
9. Olympic Stadium "Bird's Nest" in Beijing
Olympic Stadium "Bird's Nest" in Beijing
Bird's Nest in Beijing
Beijing's main Olympic venue was built ahead of the 2008 Games. The stadium bowl has a very interesting and unusual appearance, which was made possible thanks to the construction of high-quality steel coated with polymers. A fan entering the stadium for the first time will be surprised by the thoughtfulness and integrity of the main symbol of the new Beijing - even the lamps along the paths leading to the entrances to the stadium look like miniature bird's nests.
In 2009, the construction of a unique CCTV headquarters building in the Chinese capital was completed. The new CCTV headquarters, located on 20 hectares of land, is considered the most significant project of the famous Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas. The modern skyscraper consists of two towers (54 and 44 floors), the height of the larger one is 234 m. The two buildings are connected to each other using horizontal structures at the level of the top floors and at the base. Interestingly, because of such an unusual shape, the structure received the nickname “big pants”.
The world's sixth tallest building was completed in 2008. The peculiarities of the Chinese landscape forced chief architect Dafydd Malott to create a structural system capable of withstanding an earthquake of up to 7 points. The 101-story giant includes all kinds of shops, restaurants, conference rooms, offices of various companies and the highest observation deck located on the 100th floor. The unofficial name of the complex is “opener”.
12. Vostok Sports Center in Shanghai
Vostok Sports Center in Shanghai
The main building of the Vostok sports center
The Vostok Sports Center, designed primarily to host all kinds of water sports competitions, is a complex of a multifunctional stadium, a special indoor water sports center, an outdoor swimming pool and a large media center. German architects from DMP designed all these structures in the same style, and each of them resembles seashells. The main stadium is designed for 18 thousand people, the other two can accommodate about five thousand spectators.
Built in 2010, Cube Tube is located in the new economic center of Zhejiang Province. The building, consisting of office and entertainment parts, was built using a system of rectangular modules, which are used both as windows with terraces and as interior decoration. Cube Tube has become the most significant site in Jinhua, attracting many tourists to enjoy the "square magic".
The Galaxy Soho multifunctional complex, designed by the inimitable Zaha Hadid in 2010, has become a real decoration of Beijing. The complex consists of five dome-shaped structures without right angles, up to 67 m high, smoothly connected to each other at different levels by a system of covered and open passages. The first floors are occupied by restaurants and shops, and the upper floors are occupied by offices of large companies. Galaxy Soho was Hadid's first work in China.
The modern glass museum building is a place for thematic exhibitions and presentations of products made from the most popular and fashionable materials. Particular attention should be paid to the unusual facade of the building - the outer walls are covered with polished and enameled dark glass. On the facade you can read words in different languages, which in one way or another relate to the transparent material.
The Sanlitun Soho complex, designed by the famous Japanese architect Kengo Kuma, is a sunkun-type garden surrounded by various buildings in the image of the traditional quarters of old Beijing. The Japanese also used the principles of human scale and very high building density. The new complex was divided into four sectors according to the parts of the world, and the transitions between them are a system of winding labyrinths. Of particular interest are also the Sanlitun Soho buildings, lined with multi-colored acrylic panels that change color when the lighting changes.
17. Multifunctional complex "Circle" in Guangzhou
Multifunctional complex "Circle" in Guangzhou
"Circle" in Guangzhou
The 33-storey building with a height of 138 m was built in 2013 in Guangzhou according to the design of the Italian Giuseppe Di Pasquale. In the center of the “Circle” there is a round hole with a diameter of about 50 m. When the building is reflected in the river, an image is obtained similar to the number 8, which is considered lucky among the Chinese. The Guangzhou complex is considered the largest circular building in the world.
18. Guotai Arts Center in Chongqing
Guotai Art Center in Chongqing
Gotai Arts Center
The incredible Guotai Arts Center, completed in February 2013, is located in the heart of the developing city of Chongqing. The building consists of two parts - the Grand Theater and the Chongqing Art Museum. Interestingly, the author of this amazing project, Jing Quan, decided to use the traditional Chinese wind instrument “sheng” as the main idea.
19. House of Piano and Violin in Huainan
Piano and Violin House in Huainan
"Piano and violin" with night lighting
The Piano and Violin House is an incredible building that was built in 2007 in the small city of Huainan. It serves as an exhibition hall dedicated to the planned development of the city's newly created Shannan area. A transparent violin serves as an entrance area with escalators and stairs, while the main building of the complex is a huge piano. It is curious that the building, built on a scale of 1:50, gained incredible popularity among tourists and became almost the main “romantic” building in the country.
20. Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai
Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai
"Oriental Pearl" with Shanghai in the background
The 468-meter Oriental Pearl TV Tower is the third tallest building in Asia (468 meters high) and the fifth tallest TV tower in the world. The giant sphere, which houses a revolving restaurant, dance floor and bar, has a diameter of 45 meters and is located 263 meters above the ground. Particularly popular among tourists is the observation deck with a glass floor, where you can feel like you are soaring above this huge metropolis.
The building of the ultra-modern shopping and entertainment complex Hanjie Wanda Square cannot leave anyone indifferent. 4 of the 6 floors are hidden under an amazing textured shell of patterned glass and stainless steel. The complex follows all the canons of traditional Chinese architecture, transferring them to a modern perspective. The building becomes especially impressive at night thanks to LED lighting that emphasizes its shape.
The main attraction of modern Shanghai, the Mao Jin Tower is one of the tallest in Asia. The main element of this building is the number 8, which the Chinese associate with prosperity. The building's 88 floors are divided into 16 segments, each 1/8 shorter than the sixteen-story base, which is formed by an octagonal concrete frame surrounded by eight composite and eight external steel columns. The building houses offices, a five-star hotel, restaurants and an observation deck on the 88th floor.
Beijing's Linked Hybrid residential complex, designed by American architect Steven Holl and completed in 2009, is a system of eight towers connected by air bridges. The ensemble includes 750 apartments, a cinema, various shops, a hotel, restaurants and even a kindergarten with a school for children living in the residential complex. The air bridges house a swimming pool, fitness center, tea rooms and cafes. linked Hybrid is an example of what an 11th century residential complex should be like.
The Lippo Plaza Hong Kong office complex was built in 1988 and designed by American architect Paul Rudolph. The complex consists of two towers located just a few tens of meters from each other, 48 and 44 floors high. The author of this controversial object had the original idea of creating a large complex of two towers, reminiscent of koalas hugging tree trunks. It is not surprising that people call this building after the main animal of China.
The National Aquatics Centre, also known as the Water Cube, was part of the larger Olympic construction site and was officially opened in 2008. Of course, the first thing worth noting is the unusual façade, reminiscent of a crystal lattice of water bubbles. This sports complex is an example of high energy efficiency - the surface of the building is capable of receiving solar energy and using it to heat water and premises.
Recently, in China, according to the design of the famous Chinese bureau MAD Architects, the construction of a new unique structure was completed - a museum in Ordos. The main feature of the museum located on the hill is its wavy structure made of metal plates, which, in addition to its aesthetic component, protects the building from changes in the weather. The original object attracts hundreds of tourists every day who want to get acquainted with this masterpiece of modern architecture.
After numerous failures and freezing of construction even at the design stage, the main theater in China was finally built in the early 2000s. Resembling either a huge drop of water or a flying saucer that landed in the Chinese capital, this incredible structure immediately fell in love with the majority of local residents and guests of the Middle Kingdom. The theater is a dome-shaped structure, 212 meters long and approximately 47 meters high, made entirely of metal and glass. The building is located on the surface of an artificial lake, and the entrance to it is underwater tunnels with a transparent ceiling.
Modern architecture in China is constantly being updated with new masterpieces, as evidenced by and. Obviously, such luxurious architecture requires considerable funds. You will learn how financially secure Chinese cities are from our review. The architecture of neighboring Japan also evokes particular delight and respect among specialists, the main achievements of which will be discussed in our article.
The earliest architectural monuments of China date back to the Neolithic period (III - early II millennium BC), when the population changed their nomadic lifestyle to a sedentary one. Such structures of the Neolithic period are round in plan, covered with branches and grass, semi-dugouts of a frame-post structure. The earthen floor was covered with several layers of clay, which was fired for strength. The walls were built from vertically placed poles, also coated with clay. The inclined entrance to the dwelling was on the south side.
A more complete picture of the Neolithic culture is given by the discovery in 1953-1965. ancient settlement in the village of Banpo near the city of Xi'an, located on the banks of the Chan River. The remains of 40 dwellings had a rectangular square and circular plan. Quadrangular, with rounded corners in plan, the buildings were erected in loess pits 1 m deep. The ground parts of the adobe walls were reinforced by a wooden frame. The walls have retained a careful coating of clay mixed with straw. The log rafters were also covered with clay: the covering consisted of poles and baked tiles. The entrances were on the south side, which later became a tradition in Chinese architecture. Inside the structures, one to four wooden pillars with a diameter of 15-20 cm supported the roof.
Among the buildings of Banpo, a large rectangular building (12.5 x 20 m) stands out. Its massive adobe walls, about a meter thick, were strengthened by a wooden frame. The roof was supported by four powerful wooden pillars (0.5 m in diameter). It is assumed that this building served as a meeting place for members of the clan or was the dwelling of the tribal leader.
In Banpo, round and oval buildings were also discovered, about 5 m in diameter, some of which were not buried in the ground. The walls were about 20 cm thick and consisted of vertically placed wooden poles coated with clay, reinforced with pillars driven into the ground. The wooden parts of the walls and roof were tied with hemp or grass ropes. The covering was supported by two to six internal pillars. The entrances of the building protruded forward like a vestibule.
During the Late Neolithic, buildings with lime coating appeared, in which a layer of white lime was carefully applied to the earthen floor of the semi-dugouts, which served as the name for this type of dwelling.
In the south, in the Yangtze River Delta, above-ground dwellings with bamboo mat roofs were discovered.
There is no doubt that the Neolithic culture that developed in the Yellow River basin communicated with other centers of early Chinese culture, located not only in the north, but also in the southern regions of the country.
Architecture of the Shang Yin period (XV-XII centuries BC)
By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. development of agriculture in the river basin area. The Yellow River leads to the formation of tribal associations, among which the most significant were the Shang (Yin) tribes. Having subjugated the weaker tribes, the Shan by the 16th century. BC e. becomes the dominant tribe, ancient Chinese legends attribute to it the creation of a dynasty and state. Around the end of the 16th century. BC e. The early slave state of Shang emerged, known in later chronicles as Yin. The state of Yin, located along the middle reaches of the river. Yellow River, in its heyday, covered with its influence the modern provinces of Henan, Shanxi, partly Shaanxi, Hebei, Shandong and part of the river valley. Huai. Due to frequent natural disasters and constant raids by nomads, the Yin moved their capital at least six times.
During the Shang Yin period, large settlements and cities arose. Excavations at the site of the former capital of Ao in the territory of modern Zhengzhou (Henan Province), which existed until the end of the 14th century. BC e., show that the city was large in size. The surviving remains of powerful adobe walls (about 16.5 m thick at the base) extend far beyond the walls surrounding the modern city of Zhengzhou.
Of even greater importance are excavations at the site of the modern village of Xiaotun, in the northwestern part of Henan province, where in the middle of the 14th century. BC e. The new capital of the Shang kingdom was founded - the city of Yin.
A city was discovered on the banks of the Huanypuy River, occupying more than 2.5 km 2. It was protected from raids by nomads and neighboring tribes by a high adobe wall and a ditch filled with water.
A reflection of the class stratification of society is revealed by the remains of buildings in the city of Yin. The buildings along the paved road in the center of the city were built on solid stone foundations and apparently served as the homes of the slave-owning nobility, while the simple adobe buildings with a wooden frame, in which the ordinary population lived, were built on compacted earth without foundations.
In the northern part of the capital, in the center there was a temple and a palace of the rulers - the Vanir. On both sides of the palace there were craft quarters, and closer to the palace there were bronze foundries and quarters run by the state and the king, where precious stone carvers worked. Large palace buildings have been discovered in other parts of the city. The nobles' quarters had running water. Water was supplied to large buildings from a special reservoir through wooden gutters, covered at the top with boards and coated with clay at the joints. Sewer drains were also discovered.
On the site of the largest building - the palace of the rulers - a rectangular earthen platform covered with pebbles (27 x 9 m) has been preserved. Traces of burnt wood indicate the existence of pillars arranged in three rows at equal distances from each other and supporting the beams and roof. The bases of the column shafts, made of flat round boulders or in the form of bronze disks, have been preserved. A staircase was also discovered that led to a basement underneath the building, intended for slave servants or storage of supplies.
Judging by the images of buildings on oracle bones, the palaces had a high gable roof with pediments at the ends. Skeletons of buried people were discovered in the foundations of the ancestral temple.
This fragmentary information allows us to recreate the general compositional scheme of the building of the Shang Yin period, on the basis of which subsequent classical architectural traditions developed.
The remains of above-ground structures of the Shang Yin period, as well as the underground tombs of rulers in the vicinity of the last capital and in Wuguantsun, allow us to draw a conclusion about the early formation of the architectural forms of China, which developed in subsequent centuries.
Architecture of the Zhou period (XI-III centuries BC)
In the 12th century. BC e. on the northwestern border of the Shang kingdom, a powerful alliance of nomadic tribes led by the Zhou tribe strengthens. Contact with the higher Yin culture contributed to the gradual transition of the Zhou people in the 12th century. BC e. to a sedentary lifestyle.
In the 11th century BC e. The Shang kingdom was significantly weakened by long wars with nomadic tribes. The Zhou people, together with the nomads, invaded the kingdom of Shang Yin, and in the middle of the 11th century. BC e. it fell under their blows.
The Zhou rulers, the Wangs, founded their state in the Wei River basin with the capital of Haojing, located west of the modern city of Xi'an. One of the capitals of “Western Zhou” - Fengjing was founded on the western bank of the Fenghe River.
In the initial period, the Zhou state achieved significant power in economics and political relations. Agriculture became the main occupation of the population, which was facilitated by the use of the achievements of the conquered Yin. Trade and craft became of great importance.
During the first period of Zhou rule, known as “Western Zhou” (1027-771 BC), the territory of the state expanded significantly, reaching modern Gansu province in the west. In the south, the border ran along the southern bank of the Yangtze.
Information about the architecture of “Western Zhou” is very sparse. From written sources it is known that palaces and temples were built in Haojing, Wangcheng and other cities, which indicates the further development of architecture, the basic principles of which were formed in the previous Shang Yin period. The capitals were surrounded by fortified adobe walls to protect the population from raids by nomads.
Near Xi'an and other settlements that existed during the "Western Zhou" period, gray tiles decorated with delicate geometric patterns were discovered. It can be assumed that such tiles were used only in the construction of palaces and temples.
In the 8th century BC e. continuous wars with nomads forced the Zhou rulers in 770 BC. e. flee to the east, where a new capital was founded on the site of the city of Wangcheng - Loi (or Dongdu - the eastern capital). It was located near the modern city of Luoyang on the northern bank of the Luo River and existed until 509 BC. e.
Since the transfer of the capital of the Zhou people to Loyi, the period of “Eastern Zhou” begins (770-256 BC). Due to the appearance in the 6th century. BC e. Agriculture develops, dams and irrigation canals are built.
During this period, economic growth causes significant development of science and art. During the “Eastern Zhou” period, the two most famous and significant philosophical systems of China took shape - Taoism and Confucianism.
Confucianism - an ethical and political doctrine received its name from the name of its founder - the philosopher Kun fu-tzu (teacher Kun), in the European transcription of Confucius, who lived in 551-479. BC e. The basis of his teaching was the defense of the morality of the slave-owning aristocracy and the assertion of the power of the superior over the inferior in society and the family. The teachings of Confucius gradually by the 2nd century. BC e. turned into a state doctrine, the dominant ideology of the nobility, which determined the development of social thought, science and art in the next 2000 years. Confucianism had a significant impact on the architecture of China, expressed in the formation of stable principles of architectural structures, subject to the rules of strict regulation according to the social status of the owner of the house. This to a certain extent limited the creativity of the architects.
Information about the architecture of the Eastern Zhou period is preserved only in written sources, which indicate the existence of large cities with numerous streets on which noble palaces and temples were located.
The capital of Loyi was built according to a plan, the basic principles of which are reported in the chapter of Kao-kung-tzu (on technology) of the book Zhou-li (Rites of Zhou), written in the 3rd century. BC e. The text indicates that the capital was designed according to the established plan. The city had a square plan, each side of which was 9 li long (about 2.25 km). It was surrounded by a fortress wall, which had three gates on each side. Loi was intersected by nine latitudinal and nine meridional streets, the width of 9 chariot axles (23 m). In the center of the city was the ruler's palace with the royal court in front. On the right side of the palace there was a temple of the deities of the earth and grains, and on the left there was a temple in honor of the ancestors of the ruler - the van. Behind the palace premises there was a market. The system of symmetrical city planning, which developed in ancient times, has been preserved for two millennia.
The construction of the dwellings of ordinary townspeople, as excavations show, was carried out, as before, using a frame system, with layer-by-layer compaction of clay walls.
Architecture of the Warring States period (403-221 BC)
The process of the formation of feudal relations in China took place over a number of centuries in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. The Warring States period (Zhangguo) is usually seen as a time of complex political events and major social upheavals. By the V-IV centuries. BC e. The Zhou kingdom finally lost its political prestige and occupied only a small area with its capital in Loyi. During this period, seven large kingdoms emerged on the territory of China (Qin, Chu, Qi, Zhao, Wei, Han and Yan) and a number of small ones, which waged continuous wars among themselves.
In the V-III centuries. BC e. Significant changes are taking place in the class structure of Chinese society: the hereditary slave-owning aristocracy is losing its dominant position. New forces come to power, sometimes emerging from the lower strata: large landowners, merchants who own large valuables and many slaves, moneylenders. Crafts and trade are developing, cities are growing. As chronicles report, individual cities at this time reached unprecedented sizes.
In recent years, archaeologists in China have discovered ancient cities that were known from written sources. In each of the capitals of individual kingdoms, majestic palaces and temples were built. The enrichment of the slave-owning nobility and merchants also contributed to the construction of rich dwellings.
Excavations at the site of the capital of the Qi kingdom (Shandong province) discovered the remains of powerful adobe walls and individual ruins. Like other large cities, Linzi was built according to traditions that emerged during the Zhou period, but at the same time its layout is distinctive; Thus, the walls encircling it on four sides on the southern side form roundings at an angle of 70°.
In Hebei province, remains of the walls of the second capital of the Yan kingdom, the city of Xiadu, were found, reaching 8 m in height. In the central part of the city, adobe foundations of noble palaces were discovered in more than 50 places, indicating a large scale of construction.
Excavations at the site of the capital of the Zhao kingdom in the city of Handan revealed ancient city walls (7 m high), which enclosed the city on four sides, each stretching more than a kilometer. Traces of two or three gates on each side of the city have also been preserved. The central, wide, stone-paved street ran from south to north, and was lined with temples, palaces, and homes of the nobility. The base of the ceremonial buildings were high earthen platforms-stylobates, lined with hollow bricks with relief ornamental designs on one of the sides. The height of the base of one of the palaces reached 18 m. The palace building consisted of a number of separate rooms connected by a long corridor. Wooden pillars of residential buildings and remains of adobe walls have been preserved. Roof tiles covered with a brownish-red glaze were discovered.
Evidence of the development of architecture during the Warring States period are the surviving descriptions of magnificent palaces and their interior decoration. Information about the construction of multi-story buildings and nine-tier towers has been preserved.
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Images of various buildings and structures on bronze vessels also give an idea of the architecture of the period under consideration. The bottom of the large bronze bowl is finely engraved with a complex three-story structure built using post-and-beam construction, consisting of a series of pillars (Fig. 1). Topped with intricately carved brackets, the pillars support the heavy gable tile roof. With this design, the walls did not bear the weight of the roof and served only as light partitions between the pillars. The roof ridge on both sides is decorated with figures apparently associated with magical beliefs. Chinese scholars suggest that in the middle of the Zhou period, a special type of capital in the form of brackets - dougong - had already been created.
The bronze vessels contain images of two- and three-story open buildings (a type of pavilion for festivities). These laconic in nature, but accurate in design, images of various structures also give an idea of the existence of developed architectural forms during the “Warring States” period.
The construction of one of the famous ancient monuments, the Great Wall of China (“Wall of Ten Thousand Li”), also dates back to the time of the “Warring States.” Separate sections of the wall appear along the northern borders as early as the 4th century. BC BC, when large trading cities and settlements began to grow and develop on the plain of central China, which were often attacked by the cavalry of nomads who raided from behind the Yinshan mountain range.
The most powerful kingdoms - Zhao, Yan, Wei and Qin, located near the northern border, began to build adobe protective walls along the mountain range. Around 353 BC e. The Wei kingdom built a wall along the border with the Qin kingdom. Around 300 BC e. walls were erected in the kingdoms of Qin and Zhao, and around 290 BC. e. A wall was built in the state of Yan. Later, all these parts of the adobe walls were combined into one whole.
The remains of surviving structures and written sources containing information about large cities and various buildings during the “Warring States” period testify to both the intensive development of construction technology and the formation of the basic principles of Chinese architecture, which developed in the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. based on earlier traditions and has achieved significant progress and high artistic significance.
Architecture of the period of centralized empires
The existence of separate kingdoms on the territory of China, their rivalry with each other and constant wars - all this greatly hampered the development of the country, without creating conditions for wide exchange of goods and carrying out various transformations throughout the country: the construction of irrigation structures, laying roads, unifying the monetary system and a number of others events.
At the end of the 4th century. BC e. Among the individual kingdoms, the kingdom of Qin in the north-west of the country achieved great political power, whose economy developed successfully, which was also facilitated by trade with the northern nomadic peoples. In the kingdom of Qin back in the 4th century. BC e. Significant reforms were carried out in the field of economics and public administration. The most important reform was the establishment of private ownership of land with the free sale and purchase of land plots, which contributed to the ruin of communal landowners. In general, the reforms led to an increase in the military power of the Qin kingdom.
Back in the 4th century. BC e. Qin troops made a number of successful campaigns against individual kingdoms. Conquests continued into the 3rd century. BC e., as a result of which most of the territory of ancient China came under the rule of the Qin kingdom. The policy of unifying the country into a single powerful state was completed at the end of the 3rd century. BC e., when the head of the kingdom was Ying Zheng, who proclaimed himself in 221 BC. e. emperor with the title Qin Shi Huangdi (First Qin Emperor). The Qin despotism was a slave state.
During the Qin period (221-207 BC), further expansion of the state's borders continued, especially in the south, where it reached modern Vietnam. In this regard, the sphere of influence of Chinese culture is expanding.
Under Qin Shi Huang, the borders of the former separate states were eliminated, and in 215 BC. e. the old fortress border walls and individual fortifications inside the state were destroyed.
In order to further centralize the state, Qin Shi Huang carried out a number of administrative reforms. First of all, the administrative division of the empire into 36 regions was carried out. From 221 a single coin was introduced. Uniform legislation and writing are also being introduced, and measures of length, weight and volume are unified. Under Qin Shi Huang, the construction of main roads began, which reached a width of 50 steps and were lined with trees. New cities were built, in which the development of crafts and trade was strongly encouraged. Irrigation canals were built and new lands were developed. All these measures were carried out in the interests of the new ruling elite - large landowners, which caused discontent among the old aristocracy, which had lost its dominant position.
The struggle of ideologies led to the fact that in 213 BC. Confucian books and historical records of all kingdoms were burned, and the defenders of Confucianism were exterminated.
Architectural monuments of this short but eventful period have almost not reached our time, but thanks to their description preserved in the “Historical Notes” (“Shiji”) of the historian Sima Qian (146-86 BC), it is possible to compile an idea of the monumental architecture of this period. “Historical Notes” contain numerous information about the grandiose buildings of the Qin period, the construction of palaces and the burials of Qin Shi Huang.
The unification of the country into a powerful empire created great opportunities for the development of construction and architecture.
In order to prevent conspiracies by the former rulers of the kingdoms and the nobility, 120 thousand noble families from six large kingdoms were transported to the capital Xianyang to be under constant supervision of the imperial court. All the palaces of the rulers in the capitals of the kingdoms, which were distinguished by local features, were dismantled and transported to Xianyang, where they were restored, and all local features and details of the buildings were preserved.
In an effort to consolidate his conquests and show the power and strength of the empire, Qin Shi Huang built numerous palaces that were significantly superior both in scale and in the variety of construction techniques to the palaces of the rulers of individual kingdoms.
The capital is Xianyang, founded in the middle of the 4th century. BC e. on the northern bank of the Wei-he River (10 km north-west of Xi'an), was significantly reconstructed during the reign of Qin Shi Huang and began to be considered one of the largest cities of antiquity. Excavations have established that the river eroded the southern part of the city, while the northern part was preserved over an area of more than 10 km 2. Over a distance of 1.5 km, the remains of adobe city walls reaching a height of 7 m were discovered, as well as traces of the drainage system, earthen stylobates of buildings and bricks that were used to cover the floors of the front buildings. The city had a length of about 300 li (75 km). As Sima Qian points out, along the entire bank of the Weihe River “palaces and houses were crowded together, covered galleries and embankments-passages between them stretched.” The city consisted of many streets, green parks and alleys, among which were located palaces of the nobility, dwellings of citizens, as well as shopping and craft districts.
During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, 270 palaces were built in Xianyang and its environs. In total, according to Sima Qian, 700 palaces were built in the empire.
According to excavations, palaces of the nobility and large public buildings, as before, were erected from valuable imported wood on high earthen platforms-stylobates.
According to records, the palaces of Xianyang were erected as large ensembles, consisting of a number of buildings connected by courtyards and long two-tiered galleries that served as passages. Such ensembles appeared in Chinese architecture during this period and remained until the end of the 19th century.
During the collapse of the Qin Empire, the city of Xianyang was burned and destroyed. Among the building fragments preserved in the ground, bronze animal masks, richly inlaid with gold, were discovered, which indicates the splendor of the decoration of the palaces. Of particular interest are fragments of wall paintings found inside one of the buildings, made in yellow, blue and black paints and being the earliest examples of Chinese mural painting.
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In Xianyang and its environs, fragments of tiles that covered the roofs of palaces and round or semicircular ceramic decorations that completed the lower edge of the roof slope and were decorated with relief images of dragons, deer and turtles are also found. A rare example of such round tiles was found near the burial of Qin Shi Huang. This is a large circle (51.6 cm in diameter), only half preserved, made of light gray clay and decorated on the front side with a relief geometric pattern (Fig. 2). The design is close to the ornamental forms of wooden and lacquer items from the Warring States period.
The most significant building of the Qin period, according to Sima Qian's description, was the majestic Efangong Palace - a grandiose complex consisting of 100 different buildings and structures. Construction began in 212 BC. e., lasted until the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 207 BC. e. and was not completed, and the buildings that were built were destroyed by fire.
Efangong Palace was located on the southern bank of the Weihe River, which isolated it from the urban areas of Xianyang, which were located on the northern bank. For its construction, a special construction duty was established, and hundreds of thousands of people participated in the construction of buildings, walls and parks.
Individual palace buildings were located in such a way as to recreate the arrangement of stars in the sky in their overall composition. On the main axis of the ensemble, which traditionally ran from south to north, the main building was built - the “Hall of State” in the form of a pavilion, standing on a high earthen stylobate and stretching from west to east for more than 800 m and about 170 m from north to south. The hall of the Efangun Palace housed banners 16 meters high; about 10 thousand people could be in it at the same time. To this pavilion, from the foot of a high embankment, there was a passage that surrounded it - a gallery for chariots, which, gradually rising, led to the entrance tower on the South Mountain.
Currently, near the village of Efang-tsun (15 km west of Xi'an), a dilapidated earthen embankment has been preserved, 7 m high and 1000 m long, which, apparently, was the stylobate of the main building of the Efang-gun Palace. The embankment consists of densely compacted earth layers about 4-5 cm thick. The lines and embankments that define the contours of the entire grandiose structure of antiquity, which rightfully received the name “City of Palaces” in the history of China, have also been preserved.
From the Efangun Palace, a bridge was thrown across the Weihe River, connecting it with the city on the left bank. The bridge was built as a two-story covered gallery and was considered a marvel of architectural skill. Poets compared it to a gallery built in the skies of the Milky Way.
No less grandiose and significant in scale was the burial of Qin Shi Huang, located near the modern city of Xianyang, at the northern foot of Mount Linshan. The notes of Sima Qian preserve a detailed description of this underground palace and the majestic embankment above it, in the construction of which, which lasted 37 years, 700 thousand slaves, soldiers and forced farmers took part. A high earthen mound remains, the outline of which resembles a pyramid, reaching 34 m in height, 560 m in length and 528 m in width, while records indicate that the height of the tomb mound reached 166 m with a perimeter of 2.5 km. Thousands of diggers dug a complex drainage system deep into the earth to drain groundwater, as evidenced by fragments of pentagonal-shaped ceramic pipes.
The description of Sima Qian indicates that the underground burial of Qin Shi Huang was made of stone, and the seams were filled with molten copper to make it waterproof. The burial consisted of a large hall, where the ashes of the emperor rested, and 100 various auxiliary rooms. The location and purpose of the tomb's premises corresponded to the layout of the palace interiors.
The walls of the premises were plastered with lime mortar mixed with rice water. A detailed description of the interior decor of the main central hall has been preserved. The floor was designed to resemble the relief of the earth with mountains, valleys, rivers and seas. The ceiling imitated the vault of heaven, on which numerous stars made of precious stones and pearls shimmered and shimmered. Whale oil burned in the lamps illuminating the hall. Many rooms of the tomb were filled with jewelry and art objects. In one of the halls there were 100 sculptures depicting officials of various ranks. Many servants, slaves and imperial concubines were buried with Qin Shi Huang. To prevent the secret of the location of the doors from being revealed, thousands of murdered builders were added to them. To preserve the tomb, automatic crossbows were installed at its doors.
In the IV-III centuries. BC e. there is progress in engineering and construction technology. The use of blocks and various lifting devices made it possible to erect monumental structures made of stone: watchtowers, fortress walls and other defensive buildings.
The unification of China into a single empire created an even greater need than in the previous period to build powerful fortifications to fight the nomads advancing from the north and northeast. In 221 BC. e. By order of Qin Shi Huang and under the leadership of the commander Meng Tian, the construction of the Great Wall of China began along the Ininan mountain range. For this purpose, the already existing border walls, built in the 4th century, were used and combined into a single whole. BC e. and earlier.
The Great Wall of China was built over the course of 10 years in a desolate mountainous area where there were no good roads. Some of its sections were built in places where there was no water, and the builders constantly experienced severe hardships. Written sources indicate that about 300 thousand soldiers, slaves and free farmers took part in the construction of the wall.
The wall in some places runs along a mountain range with high peaks and deep gorges and always follows the bends and slopes of the mountain spurs. It rises rapidly to the peaks, then descends steeply, merging into one with the harsh mountain landscape.
During the Qin period, the Great Wall of China ran somewhat further north than it does now, from Liaodong Bay in the east to Lintao in Gansu Province. In some places, some parts of the Qin period wall have been preserved. No exact measurements of the wall were taken. It is generally accepted that it has a length of over 4000 km.
The material for the construction of the eastern part of the wall during the Qin period was large stone slabs, which were tightly fitted to each other and laid over layers of well-compacted earth. In other areas, especially in the west (in the modern provinces of Gansu and Shaanxi), where there was no stone, the wall was a massive earthen mound. Later, the Great Wall of China was lined with stone and gray brick. The building was repeatedly completed and restored.
The height of the wall is not the same everywhere, on average it is about 7.5 m. Together with the battlemented parapet on the northern (outer), higher side, it reaches about 9 m. The width along the ridge is 5.5 m, and at the base - 6 .5 m. The massive battlements of the parapet with viewing slots and loopholes have a simple rectangular shape. Along the entire wall, every 120-200 m at a distance of an arrow, there are towers in which there were soldiers guarding the border. Stone towers, rising 3.5-4 m above the wall, vary in architectural forms. The most common is a two-story tower, rectangular in plan, the upper floor of which looks like a platform with a superstructure and large arched embrasures. Every 10 km on the wall, in addition to the towers, signal towers were erected, on which fires were lit when enemy units appeared.
It is possible that some towers, smaller in width than the wall, were built before the construction of the wall, which later absorbed them. These towers are not as evenly spaced as later ones. It is possible that they were built on the border as sentinel or signal towers (Fig. 3).
There are 12 gates in the wall through which roads to the north (now leading to Mongolia) passed. Later, fortress outposts were built near these gates, surrounded by additional walls.
The majestic Chinese Wall, despite its defensive purpose, is a remarkable monument to the ancient architecture of China. Its calm, monumental forms blend harmoniously with the mountain landscape. The wall forms an inextricable whole with the harsh nature surrounding it. The strict outlines of the towers accentuate the high points of the mountain range, completing the ascents and emphasizing the overall monumental character of the fortress structure.
In 210 BC. e. After the death of Qin Shi Huangdi and the accession of his son Er Shi Huangdi to the throne, the ruin of the community and the concentration of land in the hands of large landowners intensified even more. This led to the first popular uprising in Chinese history under the leadership of Chen Sheng, Wu Guang and Liu Bang, which swept the entire country in 209-206. BC e. The communal rebels were joined by aristocrats - people from former kingdoms. At the head of the nobility was a descendant of the military leaders of the kingdom of Chu, commander Xiang Yu. Another rebel detachment was commanded by Liu Bang, who in 207 BC. e. captured Xianyang. The Qin Dynasty ceased to exist. Xiang Yu's troops plundered and burned the capital. The fire destroyed the magnificent palace ensembles and residential areas.
In 202 BC. e. Liu Bang achieved final victory and assumed the title of emperor (known in history as Gao Zu). He started a new dynasty, the "Western Han" (206 BC - 8 AD). The second, or "Eastern Han", reigned from 25 to 220 AD. e. There was a new unification of the country, which had disintegrated after the collapse of the Qin dynasty, into a single empire.
The capital of the new dynasty was initially Luoyang, and then the capital became Chang'an ("Eternal Peace"), in the valley of the Weihe River near Qin Xianyang.
During the Han period, the country's borders again expanded significantly. Broad economic ties, as well as the development of culture - all this created enormous authority for China among other peoples of the ancient world. Feudal relations are being formed. The hereditary land ownership of the old aristocracy was even more absorbed by the official bureaucracy, landowners and merchants, whose fields were cultivated by impoverished farmers and partly by slaves, and later by tenant-sharecroppers.
Trade and crafts have achieved great development in the cities. At the end of the 2nd century. BC. a caravan route to the West was mastered, called the Great Silk Road, along which caravans with silk, ceramics, iron, varnish and other valuable products were sent from the capital Chang'an to the distant states of Central Asia. This route passed through the areas of nomadic tribes united in the Hunnic tribal union, and the caravans were constantly attacked by nomads. A series of campaigns against the Huns (Xiongnu) at the end of the 2nd century. BC. strengthened the position of the Silk Road. Through Parthia and Syria, which had connections with the Hellenistic world, Chinese goods reached Alexandria and Rome.
In the 1st century BC e., after China captured a number of southern regions, in addition to the land route, the sea route to India was also opened. The Han Empire, thanks to its successful campaigns and the development of trade relations, turned into a powerful state and China entered the world stage for the first time.
Agriculture achieved significant success thanks to the construction of canals and the spread of new iron tools. There was a flourishing of culture and art. Invention of paper in the 2nd century. BC e. led to the further development of writing.
After the collapse of the Qin dynasty, Confucianism again took a dominant position in the field of ideology, meeting the interests of large landowners. Confucian dogmas about the divine nature of imperial power and the reverence of elders in the family and rank became the indisputable basis of the feudal ideology of China.
In the 1st century BC e. Buddhism begins to penetrate from India through Central Asia to China in the 2nd century. n. e. The first Buddhist temple was built in Luoyang.
Along with idealistic philosophical systems, new materialist teachings also appear. The atheistic treatise “Lunheng” (“Critical Reasonings”) by the materialist philosopher Wang Chun, which proclaimed the fight against mysticism and superstition, has been preserved.
In art and architecture, traditions that had developed during the period of individual kingdoms continued to develop. Reflecting the views of the new class elite, many of whose representatives came from the people's environment, art and architectural decor almost completely lose their cult character.
In the I-II centuries. The main features of the national style of Chinese art and architecture begin to take shape; thanks to trade relations with Central Asia, Iran and other countries, new motifs and images are enriched.
As evidenced by written sources, as well as ceramic models and images of various structures on stone reliefs, the architecture of the Han period was rich and varied. Fortress walls were erected, multi-story pavilions of palaces and temples were built, galleries, stone and wooden bridges, high towers and ceremonial stone pylons, as well as rich underground tombs, consisting of many rooms, were built.
The use of a modular system in the construction of dwellings dates back to the Han period. The social status of the owner of the house was also taken into account, obliging the architects to erect structures in accordance with the rank of the homeowner. The influence of folk architecture was evident in the development of wooden structures and in the decoration of ceremonial buildings. The experience of the people was expressed in a special system of “feng shui” (wind-water), according to which the choice of place for a building or burial took place. It was necessary to have a good knowledge of the terrain, the movement and direction of the wind, and the river level; there should have been a river in front of the house and mountains behind it. The facade had to face south so that the sun's rays would heat the house in winter. The Feng Shui system, although it contained a number of superstitions associated with the pseudoscientific theory of geomancy, was basically based on folk observations and experience.
During the Han period, there were many cities and settlements. Of greatest interest are the excavations of the capital city of Chang'an, located in the center of the Guanzhong Plain, on the right bank of the Weihe River, near Xi'an. The capital existed since 202 BC. e. to 8 AD e.; Luoyang later became the capital again.
Chang'an was a large city, its perimeter occupied more than 25 km (Fig. 4). In the southeastern corner, the city wall formed a recess, and the northwestern part of it had a bend in accordance with the bend of the bank of the Weihe River, which flowed nearby. According to historical information, the walls of the capital were built under the second emperor, Hui Di (195-188 BC), of the Han Dynasty, who was dissatisfied that the previously built palaces were not enclosed by city walls. To build the fortress walls (which were 12 m high, 16 m wide at the base, and about 26 km long), 290 thousand peasants and slaves and more than 20 thousand prisoners were rounded up.
Each of the four sides of the wall had three gates with three separate passages, reaching 8 m in width, so that 12 carts could pass simultaneously along the road laid from the gate to the city center. The city walls consisted of layers of compacted earth, with wooden towers above the gates. On one of the reliefs of this time, an image of a city gate with towers has been preserved (Fig. 5). In addition to powerful walls, Chang'an was surrounded by a huge moat filled with water, through which stone bridges 19 m wide led to the gate.
The streets were laid out according to the traditional planning scheme. Nine streets crossed the city from south to north and nine from west to east, forming 60 separate “li” blocks (later, from the Tang period, such city blocks began to be called “fan”), enclosed by adobe walls with gates on each of the four sides , closed for the night.
Large palaces and administrative buildings were located freely. As the mounds of stylobates indicate, the five main imperial palaces were not in the center, but in the southeastern and southwestern parts of the city, while other palaces, about 40 in number, were also haphazardly interspersed into the structure of the city. The city had 9 markets and artisans' quarters.
In Chang'an, pentagonal ceramic water pipes and roof tiles with herringbone grooves were found, as well as round roof slope decorations covered with images of animals, flowers and inscriptions. Large hollow bricks decorated with relief images were discovered.
The main material for the construction of public buildings and ordinary dwellings was wood. During the construction of buildings, a stylobate was erected, on which wooden pillars were installed to support the roof. Stylobates, the height of which depended on the rank of the owner of the house, were built from the ground, on which a layer of small pebbles was laid, protecting the wood from dampness. The pillars divided the pavilion into three longitudinal naves (xian), and narrow passages were formed on the sides of the hall. The walls did not carry a roof, but only played the role of partitions, filling the gaps between the pillars, which made it possible to distribute doors and windows depending on the conditions of natural light.
The pairing of load-bearing and filling parts of wooden structures was achieved using a special dougong system, which originally arose in folk construction. Later, the dougong system was allowed to be used only in rich ceremonial buildings, and its use was prohibited in people's homes. This rational system of post-and-beam structures was combined with the perfect skill of carpenters who knew how to identify the artistic significance of individual structures and details.
One of the most important parts of the Chinese building was the high gable roof with a large offset, decorated with a strongly accentuated ridge. The large roof projection protected the house from the hot rays of the sun in summer, and in winter, when the sun was low, it did not interfere with the heating of the building. In ceremonial, rich buildings, the roof was covered with flat and semi-cylindrical tiles, forming concave and convex rows. The edges of the roof were completed with round or semicircular tiled decorations with relief designs. They fit well into the ends of the tiles, forming a wavy line along the edge.
The Han period dates back to the construction of the main type of building in the form of a rectangular one-story pavilion - “dian”, oriented along the south-north axis.
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Usually the pavilions - "dian" were one-story, large ceremonial buildings were two- and three-story, as can be seen on the burial reliefs of the Wu family (147-168) (in Shandong province; Fig. 6). The same images show supporting pillars topped with complex capitals with a double row of douguns, and supports with caryatids on the sides of the pavilion. There were reception halls on the upper floors of the pavilions, and utility rooms on the lower floor. Stairs without railings, judging by the reliefs of the burial of the Wu family, rose steeply to the upper floors. The floors of the lower rooms were earthen. Inside, the walls of the pavilions were decorated with paintings, items made of carved jade and tortoiseshell, and details made of bronze and gold. The outer walls of buildings were also sometimes decorated with paintings.
The pavilions of the palace and temple ensembles were located along the axis, one after the other. They were separated by wide courtyards paved with stone slabs, and were closed on the east and west by galleries that served as transitions between the main buildings. The expansion was carried out by increasing the number of buildings and courtyards.
The bright polychrome painting of individual parts of the building, the pillars sparkling with red varnish, the glazed roof tiles and the whiteness of the stone-lined stylobate - all this contributed to the harmonious combination of the building with the environment.
The home of a middle-income family occupied a rectangular area within a city rectangular block and consisted of two to four buildings separated by courtyards and a garden. One of the burial reliefs in Inan (Shandong Province) preserves an image of a residential complex (Fig. 7). A wide gate is visible (usually they were located on the south side), leading to the first courtyard, where service buildings were located on two sides - a kitchen, storerooms, a gatekeeper's room, etc. Covered by a gable roof, the gate on the north side of the first courtyard led to the second courtyard, where The main building of the complex is a rectangular pavilion, which housed a reception hall and living rooms for the owner and his family. On the eastern and western sides there were also buildings enclosing the space of the courtyard. The openings of the complex were facing the inner courtyards, forming blank wall masses on the outer city side. The walls of the dwellings consisted of a wooden frame filled with broken clay. The roofs were covered with straw or reeds. The floors were usually earthen. A similar complex that developed during the Han period has been preserved in Chinese housing construction to the present day.
The dwellings of wealthier citizens were sometimes built of brick and covered with tiles. When building a house, the architects had to coordinate the dimensions, coloring and all details with the accepted system of ranks and ranks of the owners.
Ceramic models of buildings discovered in burials of the Han period and images of buildings on reliefs give an idea of the different types of residential architecture with their features in different regions of the country. In the north, the buildings differed from the southern buildings in their massiveness and more strict forms. Rectangular in plan, the models appear to be two-story, although they do not have interfloor ceilings. The openings are rectangular in shape. Along the main facade at the second floor level you can often see balconies with openwork fencing.
The facades of buildings on models of houses that were found in the vicinity of Beijing near Qinghe are decorated with zoomorphic masks of a fantastic animal - “bise”, which protects the house from the invasion of evil forces and misfortunes (Fig. 8).
In central China, in the Henan province, excavations discovered a model of a multi-story building reaching 155 cm in height (Fig. 9). This tall, rectangular building has four floors, topped by a small quadrangular tower. In front of the building there is a small courtyard surrounded by walls. Double gates lead to the courtyard. On the sides of the gate there are tall rectangular pylons with protruding hipped roofs. The first two floors of the house are distinguished by massive walls decorated with paintings on the facades. Two small square windows on the second floor are placed high above the ground. Between the windows and along the edges of the facade there are brackets with two rows of douguns supporting the third floor balcony, fenced with light openwork railings, running along the main facade. The roof eaves are supported by douguns extending from the wall. Apparently, the third floor room was used for relaxation on hot days. The fourth floor is smaller in volume than the lower floors. It also has a balcony that runs around three sides of the building. The predominance of straight lines in the architectural appearance of the house is softened by painting on the facade and the openwork pattern of the balcony railings.
Judging by the richness of decorations and the complex shape of the douguns, it can be assumed that such a dwelling could only belong to a representative of the nobility.
The city of Fanyue - modern Guangzhou (Canton) during the Han period achieved great economic development and was a major cultural center. Ships from many countries around the world arrived at the port of Fanyue, which also led to the prosperity of the city. Burials near Guangzhou revealed many architectural patterns that were very different from those found in the north and central regions of the country. The earliest models of the 1st century. n. e. imitate rectangular two-story houses with gable straight roofs. The lower floor, with openwork bars instead of walls, served as a stable, and the upper, higher one, reaching two-thirds of the height of the entire building, was intended for housing.
The walls of the southern houses, in contrast to the northern ones, are lighter; sometimes on all sides, not only on the first, but also on the second floor, they look like openwork gratings, which obviously served for better air circulation in a hot climate (Fig. 10). This type of house with openwork walls remains in the south to this day.
The most interesting in composition are the models of Guangzhou estates. From the outside, blank walls with bars at the top are visible. Four low square turrets with hipped roofs located in the corners protrude above the walls of the estate. From both facades, gates lead to an internal narrow courtyard, on the sides of which there are residential and service premises. The residential building has two floors. In all rooms of the model there are figures of people, which make it possible to determine the purpose of the rooms.
Models of rectangular and circular pile dwellings were also discovered in Guangzhou.
In the graves of the Han period, various models of barns, pigsties, courtyard wells and high multi-story towers were also discovered, which later served as the prototype of pagodas.
Historical records preserve numerous information about the existence during the Han period of multi-story towers - “tai” and “lou”, which were built near palaces and served as observation and watchtowers. On a brick from a burial of the 1st century. in the province of Sichuan, a relief image of a rich estate has been preserved, in the courtyard of which a two-story wooden tower rises (Fig. 11). An idea of this type of structure is given by numerous ceramic models discovered in the burials of the nobility. Among them, a four-tiered tower from a burial near Wangdu (Hebei Province) is especially interesting (Fig. 12).
Protruding roofs and wraparound balconies with openwork railings add elegance to the fundamentally simple building, softening the clarity of the divisions of its facades. Large brackets protruding from the walls support roof extensions, the ends of the ribs of which bend upward. This peculiar shape of the roofs served as the beginning of subsequent construction techniques, when the corners of the roofs receive a curve characteristic of Chinese architecture, similar to the “raised wings of a bird.” The tower was a watchtower, behind small round observation windows and bars on the floors shooters could be placed. The bypass balconies also served for observation.
Written information about the five palace ensembles of Chang'an has been preserved; in total there were about 40 palaces in the city. Intensive construction began in 202 BC, when Chang'an was declared the capital. Palace ensembles already existed before the construction of city walls. The two main ensembles of Weiyanggong and Changlegun in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the city did not follow the traditional axial layout. To the north were less significant palaces.
The Changle Gong palace ensemble, occupying a ninth of the city's territory (its perimeter was 10 km), was originally built in the Qin period and was called "Xinle". From the descriptions it is known that the main pavilion of Changlegun Palace was 160 m long and 64 m wide. In addition to this majestic building, the palace had seven more pavilions, surrounded by a park with a pond and a swimming pool.
More detailed information has been preserved regarding the Weiyanggong Palace, which in its size, richness of architectural techniques and splendor of decoration surpassed all previous palace ensembles. According to Sima Qian, construction of the palace began in 200 BC. e. in the southwestern part of the city, where the solemn huge “Hall of State”, an arsenal and numerous residential buildings, as well as utility buildings, were built.
The palace consisted of 43 pavilions - dians. The main pavilion, the “Hall of State,” intended for ceremonies, rose on an earthen stylobate; the length of the building reached 160 m and a width of 48 m. High walls surrounded the palace buildings and a park with artificial hills and 13 bathing ponds. On the northern and eastern sides of the Weiyanggong ensemble there were monumental gates flanked by high towers. They were probably close to the image of the front gate on a brick from a burial in Sichuan province.
The huge earthen stylobate of the Weiyanggong Palace, reminiscent of a rectangular hill in plan, has survived to this day. Excavations discovered at the site of the palace simple tiles and massive round reliefs decorating the slopes with images of animals, birds, flowers and benevolent inscriptions (see Fig. 2).
Later, at the end of the 1st century. BC e. two pleasure palaces were erected near the capital, and one of them, “Jianzhang,” according to Sima Qian’s story, located 15 km from the city, was connected to the Weiyanggong Palace by a two-story covered gallery that passed through the city walls and moat surrounding the capital .
The growth of internal contradictions caused by the enrichment of large landowners and the ruin of the peasantry led to an uprising of the masses - the “Red Brow Rebellion” (17-27), which caused the death of the “Western Han” dynasty. The magnificent palaces of Chang'an were destroyed and burned.
In 25, relying on large landowners, power was seized by a representative of the aristocratic family, Liu Xiu, who appropriated the title of emperor and founded a new dynasty (“Eastern Han”, 25-220). During this period, successful campaigns were made. The Huns, who had prevented Chinese caravans from entering the West for decades, were defeated and trade ties with rich countries were restored. The flourishing economy contributed to the rise of cultural life.
The capital was moved from Chang'an to Luoyang, which already in the 8th century. BC e. was the capital of the Zhou Dynasty.
The layout of Luoyang was in keeping with the traditions of Chinese urban planning. The city was built in the form of a rectangle with intersecting latitudinal and meridional streets. As in Chang'an, the construction of imperial palaces began in Luoyang already in 25, among which the nearby grandiose palaces of Chundedian and Deyandian stood out. The walls of the latter's hall were richly decorated with paintings, jade carvings and gold details. The splendor and splendor of the palace are sung in solemn odes of that time.
Judging by the surviving records, the new capital could not compare with the old one. The palaces and architectural structures of Luoyang were significantly inferior to the magnificent palaces of Chang'an.
In ancient times in China, in addition to wood, stone and brick were used in the construction of fortresses, towers, bridges, stylobates and especially burials. Prayer houses, pylons that stood in pairs at the entrance to the burial, stands with the biography of the deceased, fences - all this was built of stone and decorated with carvings. Underground tombs were lined with brick or stone.
During the Han period, in the center of the burial field, selected according to the Feng Shui system, a high truncated pyramid on a square base was erected. All structures of the funeral ensemble, according to established traditions, were located along the north-south axis. From the southern side, a “road of spirits” led to the burial pyramid, closed on both sides by stone pylons, similar in shape to the towers at the main entrance to the palace ensembles and the pylons flanking the facades of the front pavilions.
Further, the “road of spirits” was decorated with figures of lions or tigers standing on its sides, and at the pyramid itself - steles. In front of the pyramid there were also small stone open pavilions (Fig. 13). Pavilions in Shandong province and elsewhere imitate wooden structures in stone.
Initially, wooden pylons, known from records and drawings, were built near palaces and rich dwellings. According to their architectural forms, wooden watchtowers are closely adjacent to these pylons.
So far, 23 stone pylons have been discovered, dating from the late Han period and later. Pylons are divided into funerary and temple. Usually their height reaches 4-6 m. There are monolithic pylons and those made of large stone blocks.
The pylons are distinguished by exceptional clarity of divisions. They consist of a low rectangular base, a rectangular pillar and a projecting cornice with a covering. Some have additional adjacent pillars that act as buttresses. Coinciding in shape with the pillar, they are inferior to it in size. The additional pillar is called the “child of the pylon.”
Many pillars are decorated with relief and engraved images, inscriptions and rectangular recesses. The cornices consist of a series of dougongs carved into stone, closely replicating the wooden structures of the Han period. Roofs above the eaves imitate a tiled roof with a wavy line along the edges of the slope.
The pylons of Sichuan province have the greatest artistic value, the composition of which is based on the principle of synthesis of architectural and sculptural forms. An example is the pylon on the road leading to the burial of Zhao Chia-ping (Sichuan Province). The slender, rectangular pillar of the pylon widens slightly at the bottom and is topped by a gradually protruding cornice (Fig. 14). Under the cornice there is a kind of frieze with figures of demonic monsters, which with their long paws support the corner dougongs, imitating the wooden forms characteristic of the Han period in the form of two long curved gongs. The latter are located parallel to the wall and visually support the massive upper part with dynamic high-relief images of hunting scenes, racing horsemen, and fighting animals.
According to traditions, on the eastern pillar on the southern side, in low relief, the figure of the “red bird of the south” with outstretched wings is carved; the other sides of the pylons are decorated with animal figures symbolizing the cardinal directions - “blue dragon”, “white tiger”, etc.
Near the village of Yaocai (Sichuan Province) there are monumental pylons of the burial of Gao Yi, the height of which reaches 5.88 m (Fig. 15). In front of the pylons there are figures of two winged lions. Here, near the pylons, a high stele (2.75 m high) has been preserved, the inscription on which indicates that the entire funeral complex was completed in 209. On the eastern and western sides, buttresses of the same shape, but smaller in size, are tightly adjacent to the pylons.
Imitating in its upper part the wooden pylons that stood in front of the palaces and had an observation room in place of the cornice, the pylon builder Gao Yi created a complex composition in stone in the form of a five-part cornice, the “tiers” of which gradually protrude one above the other. Douguns under the eaves resemble wooden structures. In general, the pylons of Gao Yi’s burial, despite their somewhat restless silhouette, are distinguished by their majestic forms.
Stone pylons are remarkable not only as architectural monuments of the Han period, but also as structures that give an idea of the developed system of wooden structures.
After the Han period, stone pylons were not built at burials and temples; they were replaced by “hua-biao” columns, preserved from burials of the 4th-5th centuries.
Numerous underground tombs of the nobility give an idea of the remarkable skill of the builders of brick and stone structures of the Han period. The tombs were built deep underground and usually consisted of a series of rooms. In the last centuries BC. they were laid out from huge hollow or solid bricks, at the beginning of our era. - from smaller bricks. In early Han burials, bricks were laid flat, and from the end of the 1st century. BC e. was placed vertically or mixed masonry was used. At the same time, wedge bricks for laying vaults appeared.
At the beginning of our era, stone and brick tombs had box vaults, and later ones had stepped hipped roofs. The earthen floors of burials are usually tightly compacted; in rich burials they are paved with large stone slabs.
In the stone burials of the nobility of the first centuries AD, walls, beams, columns, ceilings and door lintels were decorated with bas-reliefs or paintings.
Near the city of Baoding in Wangdu County (Hebei Province) there is a large brick tomb richly decorated with murals. According to the inscription discovered here, the burial in Wangdu was built for the court eunuch Song-Cheng, who lived under Emperor Shun-di (126-144).
This large underground structure, stretching 20 m from south to north, consists of three halls, a number of side rooms and is distinguished by the complexity of its plan (Fig. 16). The burial begins with a narrow passage on the south side, which is closed by a double-leaf stone door leading to the first hall, oriented from south to north, like a conference room in the official residence of a noble dignitary. On the eastern and western sides of the hall, narrow corridors lead to small side rooms, rectangular in plan, intended for various items of grave goods: utensils, ceramic figures of people and animals, models of buildings and furniture.
Behind the first hall, a passage in the northern wall leads to the second, highest rectangular hall, stretching from west to east and also having two small rectangular rooms on the sides. This hall reaches 4 m in height, while the other halls are only 2.5 m in height, and the transitions between them are 1.5 m.
From the second, middle hall, where the sarcophagi were located, a wide passage leads to the last hall, elongated along the south-north axis and closed on the northern wall by a small niche.
The strong walls of all rooms, made of mixed brickwork, have box vaults; the vaulted passage from the first hall to the second has an elevated outline. All entrance openings are covered, in addition to the main arch, with unloading arches. The vaults of the halls and walls are covered with yellowish limestone, on which paintings depicting officials going to a reception are made.
The burial of an unknown nobleman in Inan (Shandong Province) was built in a mountainous region. The burial, built of stone and consisting of a number of rooms, apparently reproduced the house of a noble person of the Han period (Fig. 17). The walls, columns and lintels of doors and passages are covered with reliefs showing the life of the nobility. Particularly valuable are images of a complex of architectural structures: a residential building, a temple and other buildings.
According to traditions, the burial in Inani (8.7 x 7.55 m) is located along the south-north axis and consists of three halls and five side rooms, two of which are on the west side, and three on the east. In the center of each there is a column. A long rectangular room in the northeast corner, connected to the central hall, served as a utility room.
The main southern portal (1.43 x 2.6 m) is divided by a quadrangular pillar and decorated with carved slabs. In the center of the front rectangular hall there is a low octagonal column covered with reliefs with a massive base. The capital of the dhow has a cubic shape, from which two massive gun brackets emerge in the northern and southern directions; in the central part it has a short square pillar that, together with the diverging brackets, supports the floor beam. The stepped ceiling of the first hall consists of stone slabs laid in the shape of rectangles with rhombuses inscribed in them with squares in the central part, which increases the height of the hall to 2.8 m.
The middle hall (3.81 x 2.36 m) also has entrances separated by pillars on the south and north sides. The side rooms are connected to the main hall. In this hall, there is also an octagonal column erected in the center with a capital and two branches - gunas, oriented along the main axis of the burial. On both sides of the branches there are curved sculptural images of winged monsters hanging upside down, which visually form additional support for the protruding floor beam dividing the hall into western and eastern parts.
Each half of the hall has stepped ceilings consisting of concentric rectangles with two squares in the center, which allowed the builders to raise the hall to 3.12 m.
The third hall (3.55 m in length) is a low room (height 1.87 m), divided into two parts by an original massive frame, into which a capital with douguns is inserted, which has two extending brackets depicting monsters of a zoomorphic nature. The Dougong does not have a pillar here, and its capital is placed directly on the bottom of the frame. The ceilings of both halves of the hall are also stepped; they consist of rectangles with three squares in the center, on which lattices in diamond shapes and relief multi-petal flowers painted with pink paint are carved. In this room, divided by a partition, there were wooden sarcophagi.
In the first and middle halls, the floors are paved with stone slabs, and in the back and side rooms, an additional stone flooring 29 cm high is laid over the stone slabs.
The burial at Inan demonstrates the great technical knowledge and remarkable understanding of the past by the builders of the Han period. The tomb, with its numerous images, shows a brilliant synthesis of decoration and architectural forms.
In Sichuan province, burials were discovered carved into the hard clay slopes of the mountains (Fig. 18). In some cases in Sichuan, natural caves were used for burial. Some burial crypts reach 30 m in depth and 2 m in height. They usually consist of two rectangular rooms located one behind the other. In the main hall (about 4 x 5 m) there is a stone bed of the deceased. The burial chambers are decorated with architecturally designed passages; the openings are flanked by columns, the douguns of which visually support the door cornice. Sometimes the pillar in the center of the hall has dougongs characteristic of the Han period with two massive curved brackets.
The brick tombs of Sichuan are covered with vaults, the walls of some of them are decorated to panel height with friezes made of large square bricks, covered with embossed reliefs depicting scenes from the life of the deceased.
All architectural monuments of the Han period that have survived to this day testify to the great achievements of the architects of ancient China. Already in this early period, the main types of Chinese architecture took shape with their inherent design features, which were developed in subsequent centuries.
Chapter “Architecture of China” in the book “General History of Architecture. Volume I. Architecture of the Ancient World." Author: O.N. Glukhareva; edited by O.Kh. Khalpakhchna (ed.), E.D. Kvitnitskaya, V.V. Pavlova, A.M. Pribytkova. Moscow, Stroyizdat, 1970
1. Introduction.
Over the course of thousands of years, China has developed a vibrant culture.
Chinese culture was influenced by the attitude towards nature as an organic whole, living according to its own laws.
It was nature and the laws of its development that were at the center of creative searches, which for a long time determined the features of the development of all types of art without exception. Human life in China was measured against the life of nature, its cycles, rhythms, and states. In Greece, man was “the measure of all things,” but in China he is only a small particle of nature.
Confucianism and Buddhism have influenced Chinese culture. Many Chinese achievements date back to the Middle Ages.
China has surpassed all countries in the world,
He reached the top in all arts.
2. Masterpieces of Chinese architecture.
The peculiarity of Chinese architecture is that the architects could find the most picturesque and natural place for architecture. Monasteries rise at the top of mountains, Chinese temples and pagodas are built in hard-to-reach places, stone steles rise along the edges of roads, and luxurious palaces of emperors are erected in the center of bustling cities.
It stretches for 5 km along the northwestern border The great Wall of China. Its construction dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries and was completed in the 15th century. Its purpose is to protect the Chinese state from attacks by nomadic tribes from the north. A road 5-8 meters wide was laid along its top for the advancement of troops. This structure was designed to protect the power of the Chinese state.
One of the most common buildings has become pagoda - a memorial tower erected in honor of the deeds of great people.
The pagoda is distinguished by its grandiose dimensions and reaches a height of 50 meters. The appearance of the pagoda is simple, and almost no decorative elements are used in it. A distinctive feature of the pagoda is the pointed edges of the roof. This makes the building lighter and emphasizes its upward direction.
The 64-meter Dayanta Pagoda (Great Wild Goose Pagoda) is one of the best examples of Chinese style in architecture. The name of the pagoda goes back to the legend of the famous pilgrim who, during his journey from India to China, was helped to find his way by wild geese. They indicated the place for the construction of the pagoda. Dayanta, against the backdrop of a vast mountain range, rises above the outskirts of the city of Xi'an - the former capital of the Chinese state. Seven floors, separated from each other by cornices, taper towards the top of the pagoda, emphasizing its aspiration to the sky. That is why from a distance it gives the impression of heaviness and massiveness.
Thanks to its elongated proportions, the pagoda appears light and graceful.
The illusion of height is created by windows rounded at the top. In the simple and straight lines of the pagoda, the architect was able to express the sublime spiritual impulse and greatness of his time.
Buddhist cave temples located in the mountains have become an extraordinary phenomenon in architecture. Cave Buddhist
Monastery Yungang belongs to the masterpieces of world architecture. A 60 m high cliff stretches for almost 2 km, in which there are over 20 caves at various heights. Some of them reach a height of 15 m. And are deepened into the rock by 9-10 m. Each of the caves is dedicated to a specific Buddhist god. Inside there are many images of sculptures and reliefs on themes of Buddhist tales and legends. Outside, the rock is decorated with sculptural monuments, bas-reliefs, and statues. The cave temple amazes with its grandeur.
The main form of religious and residential buildings in China is a rectangular pavilion, the main feature of which is carved brackets supporting the roof. A high 2-, 3-, 4-slope roof is a characteristic element of Chinese Architecture. Inside, the building is divided into 2 or 3 naves, and outside it has a gallery with pillars that also support the roof.
Such a roof protected from snow and rain. The roof slopes had a strictly curved shape, its ends bent upward. Ceramic figurines depicting fantastic animals and dragons were mounted on the roof ridges, and later bells were hung.
The emblem of China has become Sky Temple in Pekin. 2-tier conical roof, glazed blue tiles conical roofs represent like a dazzling mountain peak.
The grandiose complex is dedicated to ancient religious cults associated with harvesting. In which heaven and earth were revered. It was this circumstance that determined the originality of the architectural design. Enclosed by walls, it includes 3 main shrines: a round wooden temple of Prayers for the Harvest, a temple of the Firmament and a white marble altar where sacrifices were made to the spirits of Heaven. There is a lot of symbolism in this architectural temple: the square area of the palace symbolizes the Earth, the temple buildings and the altar. Framed by a round terrace - the sign of the Sun, the pointed peaks of the conical roofs represent
A continuous cycle of movements of natural elements. The viewer slowly walks between the arches, climbing numerous steps, gradually getting used to the rhythm of the ensemble, comprehending its beauty and grandeur.
Chinese gardening art has gained worldwide fame.
A true masterpiece of landscape art - Benhai complex in Beijing.
The symmetrical layout of the Imperial Garden includes slides made of massive stone blocks, bamboo groves, plantings of rare trees and shrubs. Elegant gazebos and pavilions with a fancy pattern of golden roofs along the banks of the
milking with goldfish. The names of the pavilions reflect the most important periods of the agricultural cycle (ten thousand autumns, ten thousand springs) - plowing and harvesting. About 700 mosaic panels made of multi-colored stones decorate the garden and park complex. They depict picturesque landscapes, exquisite plants, mythological heroes, scenes from theater and opera productions.
In the Imperial Garden there is a collection of stones of the most bizarre shapes, brought from different parts of China.
Next to these unusual exhibits, in winter, pine trees turn green and unfading bamboo rustles, and in spring, wild meihua plum and white-pink peonies bloom luxuriantly. At the beginning of autumn, the cinnamon tree exudes its aroma, and chrysanthemums captivate with their beauty.
3. Sculpture of China.
The sculpture has always been popular in China. It expressed the idea of power and unlimited power, back in the 3rd century. BC, when the state of Qin was formed.
During archaeological excavations in Shaanxi province, a 10,000-strong army made of terracotta was discovered in the underground corridors of burial complexes. Life-size soldiers and officers, archers and infantrymen, charioteers and horsemen, with full military equipment, demonstrated the power of the emperor who created the first Chinese power.
All figures are full of expression, verisimilitude and variety of movements. Military leaders are depicted frozen in solemn poses, archers pull a tight bowstring, soldiers kneeling on one knee are preparing to defeat an invisible enemy. A hierarchy of ranks emerged in the coloring book. 130 clay chariots and 500 sculpted horses were also discovered. The clay army, built in battle formation, faithfully guarded the peace of its ruler.
Funerary sculpture was further developed in the art of the 7th-13th centuries. The funeral ensemble near Xi'an, the capital of the Chinese Empire, was decorated with sculptural works in which scenes of court life were reproduced. Graceful dancers in the rhythms of dance, fashionable women in bright clothes, jugglers and musicians, servants and nomads.
A characteristic feature is the connection of the sculpture with the Buddhist religion. Here you can see terrible guards of the entrance, trampling dragons, Buddhist saints, a monumental image of Buddha. One of the most perfect sculptures is a 25-meter statue Buddha Vairocanna.(Lords of Cosmic Light), carved into the mountains in Lunmen Cave.
4. Genres of Chinese painting.
The desire to comprehend through particulars the universal laws of existence and the interrelation of phenomena is a characteristic feature of Chinese painting. It is mainly represented by vertical and horizontal scrolls made of silk and paper. Vertical scrolls were hung on the walls and did not exceed 3 m. Horizontal scrolls were intended for long-term viewing and reached several meters .Unfolding such a scroll, the viewer seemed to go on a journey.
Pictures were usually painted in ink or mineral paints, accompanied by calligraphic inscriptions.
The artist either quoted poetry or composed poetry himself.
Chinese painting is represented by various genres: landscape, everyday life, portrait, historical and everyday life. Of particular interest are images such as “mountains-water”, “flowers-birds”. Chinese artists knew how to express the idea of the boundlessness of the world. In the majestic image of the world of mountains, forests and rivers you can see small figures of travelers. They are not in a hurry, they are simply contemplating the beauty.
On a mountain top
I spend the night in an abandoned temple.
I can touch the twinkling stars with my hand.
I'm afraid to speak loudly:
With earthly words
I am the inhabitants of the sky
I don't dare disturb the peace
Li Bo. “Temple on the top of the mountain.”
This is how the Chinese poet Li Bo expressed the harmony between man and nature.
Landscape painting in China is not rich in colors. Often it is monochrome, but there are so many shades and combinations in it. The artists have achieved enormous skill in conveying aerial perspective. The format and compositional solution of the painting was carefully thought out. To depict a chain of mountains, a horizontal format of the scroll was chosen, for a mountainous area with pointed peaks of pine trees, a vertical format was chosen.
“You cannot give trees without number: it is more important to show how slender and lovely the mountains are. Among the rocks, overhanging and dangerous cliffs, it would be nice to shelter a strange tree. Distant mountains should be lowered and laid out, while nearby groves should be allowed to emerge sharply.”
There are many symbols in the landscapes of Chinese artists: a pair of ducks symbolized family happiness, a pheasant - a successful career, a lotus flower - a symbol of purity, flexible bamboo - wisdom and resistance to life's adversities, a pine tree - an allegory of longevity, a blooming meihua plum - a symbol of nobility and perseverance.
One of the soulful artists of lyrical landscape is Guo Xi. It is in the variability of nature that its beauty lies.
Ma Yun’s monochrome painting “Ducks, Rocks and Meihua” is exquisitely simple and laconic.
The portrait genre is one of the oldest in Chinese painting. It has been known since the 5th century. BC e., associated with the cult of ancestors. The image of the poet Li Bo is embodied in the portrait of Liang Kai.
China is a country that has always been rich in timber. Therefore, the ancient architects of this state preferred to erect buildings from wood. Since this material is not particularly durable, very few architectural monuments of this ancient state have survived to this day. Scientists were able to learn about their distinctive features mainly from ancient manuscripts and drawings.The main distinctive features of the architecture of Ancient China
. Using the rules of the Taoist teachings of Feng Shui in urban planning. All buildings faced the south - into the sun. This ensured the creation of the most comfortable temperature conditions in the rooms. The site was considered suitable for construction only if the combination of celestial bodies was favorable.The city walls were oriented to the cardinal points.
The height of all buildings was strictly regulated. The higher status a person had, the higher his house was and the closer it was to the city center - the imperial palace. The poor had the right to build only one-story houses.
The color of the roofs was also regulated. Gold paint was used for the ruler's palace. For churches - sky blue. The nobility painted their roofs green, and the poor painted their roofs grey.
The fortifications used a contrasting combination of a massive stone base and a light canopy made of wood, which protected warriors from enemy arrows. For example, the defensive walls of Beijing are built on this principle.
Temples (pagodas) were built on hills and located along a north-south axis. Their roofs were most often painted green and their walls red. Thus, the architects achieved a harmonious combination of the building with the spruce trees growing around.
The walls of the dwellings were not supporting structures. The roof rested on pillars, the space between which was filled with boards or raw bricks.
Perhaps the most important feature of a Chinese residential building is the original and spectacular curved pyramidal roof.
There are usually five rooms in a home.
The architecture of Ancient China is absolutely unique and original. Once upon a time, unusually beautiful buildings were built in this country, harmoniously blending into the surrounding landscape. Windows in adobe structures were often carved in the shape of flowers or leaves. The walls were painted in bright colors and decorated with patterns and ornaments.
the great Wall of China
Of course, the most famous monument of ancient Chinese architecture can be called the Great Wall of China. Its construction began in the 3rd century BC. e. on the initiative of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, founder of the famous dynasty. The reason for the construction was the desire to protect the country from nomadic tribes. During the Han Dynasty, this structure was expanded to the west. Only sections of the wall built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) have survived to this day. In those days, stone and brick were mainly used to construct various types of structures. These materials were held together with very high quality lime mortar. In ancient times, the wall was indeed practically impregnable. In different places there were passages that were tightly closed at night. They were not allowed to be opened under any pretext.Iron Pagoda
The Iron Pagoda was built in 1049 and is a thirteen-story octagonal tower 56.88 m high. It is one of the most important architectural monuments of the Song Dynasty. During its construction, glazed bricks with a special metallic sheen were used. Hence the name of the pagoda. The walls of this temple are covered with carvings of Buddha, singers, dancers, monks and dragons.Sky Temple
The Temple of Heaven is another famous architectural monument of Ancient China. It is otherwise called the Harvest Temple. It is located in central Beijing and is part of a temple complex covering an area of 267 hectares. It was built in 1420, during the Ming Dynasty, and was originally called the Temple of Heaven and Earth. The name changed after a separate Earth Temple was built. However, the original cult significance of this building was forever preserved in its architecture. The southern part of this building is made in the shape of a square, which symbolizes the earth, and the northern part is in the shape of a circle, which is a symbol of the sky. People prayed in this structure mainly to change the weather for a good harvest. Extraordinarily spectacular Chinese architecture is completely directed and subordinated to the forces of nature. The ancient architects of this state embodied in their creations all the features of the culture, mentality and traditions of the Chinese people.Over the long period of existence of the Middle State (as the Chinese call their homeland), numerous unique objects of architectural art were created, which still evoke admiration to this day. Among them are such masterpieces as magnificent palaces and a variety of ordinary residential buildings, beautiful in their color, towers and gazebos filled with poetry, skillful pagodas and bridges that stun the imagination of even modern engineers.
Temples, monasteries, religious buildings
Taoism is considered the original Chinese religion, but the Chinese also practiced other religions, such as Islam, Buddhism and even Christianity. Religious buildings of each religion differ significantly from each other and are called differently in Chinese. However, it is Buddhist temples that can be found anywhere in the country and, undoubtedly, are of high cultural, religious, architectural and artistic value.
Buddhism was brought to China from India, but Buddhist architecture generously absorbed national Chinese traditions. When building temples in ancient times, the same principle or plan was used: the main gate “shanmen” was located in the center of the front wall, and two bell towers were built in the temple courtyard, on both sides of the gate. If you follow further, then along the central axis there was the “Heavenly God Pavilion”, then the “Main Treasures Pavilion”, and the “Sutra Repository” in the third courtyard. On the sides of the courtyards there were cells and a refectory. In their architectural appearance, the Buddhist temples of China are close to the imperial palace buildings; they are just as brilliant and magnificent - this is an important difference between the Chinese Buddhist temple complexes.
As a rule, such structures were erected away from noisy settlements; such buildings can often be found in the mountains. Among these temples, four are the most famous: Wutaishan, Juhuashan, Emeishan, Putuoshan.
Chinese pagodas
Pagodas first appeared in the Indian architectural tradition. Initially, pagodas were erected in India at the burial sites of high-ranking monks; the ashes of the dead were stored in such buildings.
Chinese pagodas at first had the shape of a square, later hexagonal, octagonal and even round shapes began to be used, they were built from all kinds of materials: from wood to stone, and there are even pagodas made of iron and copper, as well as from brick. Number Ancient Chinese pagodas usually have an odd number of levels, with the most common buildings having 5-13 levels.
The most famous pagodas in China are: Wooden Pagoda in Shanxi Province, Big Cranes Pagoda in Xi'an, Iron Pagoda in Kaifeng, Fragrant Mountain Pagoda in Beijing, Kaiyuanxi Monastery Pagoda in Jinxian County.
The wooden 9-level pagoda in Shanxi province was built almost a thousand years ago and has a height of 70 meters. This is the oldest surviving wooden tower in the world, and it was built using a unique anti-seismic technology; in all these years, not a single earthquake has destroyed it.
Palaces
In order to emphasize the high position of the emperor, the style of palace buildings necessarily contains special grandeur and splendor.
Ancient Chinese palaces are usually divided into two parts - the ceremonial or official part, and the everyday or residential part. The plan of the palace was built around an axis, which determined the principle of arrangement of all other buildings.
The roofs of palaces were often multi-level, with corners curved upward, which were often decorated with figurines of birds and animals. Such roofs gave grace to the outline of the building and at the same time served protective functions - under such roofs the internal structures were more durable. Rainwater flowing from the roofs was diverted away from the walls and foundations, due to which the wooden walls did not deteriorate from moisture. The imperial palaces were covered with yellow tiles, which was a symbol of imperial power.
For many millennia, emperors did not spare human labor and material costs to build palaces that were striking in their scale. Unfortunately, most of them were victims of fire, since such buildings were traditionally built from wood. To this day, only the Gugong Palace in the center of Beijing has completely survived (another name for the palace ensemble is the “Forbidden City”). You can often see him in Chinese historical cinema. Now there is a state museum there. Emperors of the Ming and Jin dynasties lived in the Forbidden City. The Taihejian State Pavilion at Gugong Palace is the largest such pavilion in China.
Ancient architecture of China. Gugun Palace - courtyard