RUSSIAN SCHISM IN THE ORTHODOX CHURCH. CHURCH AND STATE IN THE 17TH CENTURY
1. Reasons for church reform
The centralization of the Russian state required the unification of church rules and rituals. Already in the 16th century. a uniform all-Russian code of saints was established. However, significant discrepancies remained in the liturgical books, often caused by copyist errors. Eliminating these differences became one of the goals of the system created in the 40s. XVII century in Moscow, a circle of “zealots of ancient piety”, consisting of prominent representatives of the clergy. He also sought to correct the morals of the clergy.
The spread of printing made it possible to establish uniformity of texts, but first it was necessary to decide on which models to base corrections on.
Political considerations played a decisive role in resolving this issue. The desire to make Moscow (“Third Rome”) the center of world Orthodoxy required rapprochement with Greek Orthodoxy. However, the Greek clergy insisted on correcting Russian church books and rituals according to the Greek model.
Since the introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus', the Greek Church has experienced a number of reforms and differed significantly from the ancient Byzantine and Russian models. Therefore, part of the Russian clergy, led by “zealots of ancient piety,” opposed the proposed transformations. However, Patriarch Nikon, relying on the support of Alexei Mikhailovich, decisively carried out the planned reforms.
2. Patriarch Nikon
Nikon comes from the family of the Mordovian peasant Mina, in the world - Nikita Minin. He became Patriarch in 1652. Nikon, distinguished by his unyielding, decisive character, had enormous influence on Alexei Mikhailovich, who called him his “sobin (special) friend.”
The most important ritual changes were: baptism not with two, but with three fingers, replacement of prostrations with waist ones, singing “Hallelujah” three times instead of twice, the movement of believers in the church past the altar not with the sun, but against it. The name of Christ began to be written differently - “Jesus” instead of “Iesus”. Some changes were made to the rules of worship and icon painting. All books and icons written according to old models were subject to destruction.
4. Reaction to reform
For believers, this was a serious departure from the traditional canon. After all, a prayer pronounced not according to the rules is not only ineffective - it is blasphemous! Nikon’s most persistent and consistent opponents were the “zealots of ancient piety” (previously the patriarch himself was a member of this circle). They accused him of introducing “Latinism,” because the Greek Church since the Union of Florence in 1439 was considered “spoiled” in Russia. Moreover, Greek liturgical books were printed not in Turkish Constantinople, but in Catholic Venice.
5. The emergence of a schism
Nikon's opponents - the "Old Believers" - refused to recognize the reforms he carried out. At the church councils of 1654 and 1656. Nikon's opponents were accused of schism, excommunicated and exiled.
The most prominent supporter of the schism was Archpriest Avvakum, a talented publicist and preacher. A former court priest, a member of the circle of “zealots of ancient piety” experienced severe exile, suffering, and the death of children, but did not give up his fanatical opposition to “Nikonianism” and its defender, the tsar. After 14 years of imprisonment in an “earth prison,” Avvakum was burned alive for “blasphemy against the royal house.” The most famous work hundred-belief literature became the “Life” of Avvakum, written by himself.
6. Old Believers
The Church Council of 1666/1667 cursed the Old Believers. Brutal persecution of schismatics began. Supporters of the split hid in the hard-to-reach forests of the North, Trans-Volga region, and the Urals. Here they created hermitages, continuing to pray in the old way. Often, when the tsarist punitive detachments approached, they staged a “burning” - self-immolation.
The monks of the Solovetsky Monastery did not accept Nikon’s reforms. Until 1676, the rebellious monastery withstood the siege of the tsarist troops. The rebels, believing that Alexei Mikhailovich had become a servant of the Antichrist, abandoned the traditional Orthodox prayer for the Tsar.
The reasons for the fanatical persistence of the schismatics were rooted, first of all, in their belief that Nikonianism was the product of Satan. However, this confidence itself was fueled by certain social reasons.
Among the schismatics there were many clergy. For an ordinary priest, innovations meant that he had lived his entire life incorrectly. In addition, many clergy were illiterate and unprepared to master new books and customs. The townspeople and merchants also widely participated in the schism. Nikon had long been in conflict with the settlements, objecting to the liquidation of the “white settlements” belonging to the church. The monasteries and the patriarchal see were engaged in trade and crafts, which irritated the merchants, who believed that the clergy was illegally invading their sphere of activity. Therefore, the posad readily perceived everything that came from the patriarch as evil.
Among the Old Believers there were also representatives of the ruling classes, for example, Boyarina Morozova and Princess Urusova. However, these are still isolated examples.
The bulk of the schismatics were peasants, who went to monasteries not only for the right faith, but also for freedom, from lordly and monastic exactions.
Naturally, subjectively, each Old Believer saw the reasons for his departure into schism solely in his rejection of the “Nikon heresy.”
There were no bishops among the schismatics. There was no one to ordain new priests. In this situation, some of the Old Believers resorted to “rebaptizing” the Nikonian priests who had gone into schism, while others abandoned the clergy altogether. The community of such schismatic “non-priests” was led by “mentors” or “readers” - the most knowledgeable believers in the Scriptures. Outwardly, the “non-priest” trend in the schism resembled Protestantism. However, this similarity is illusory. Protestants rejected the priesthood on principle, believing that a person does not need an intermediary in communication with God. The schismatics rejected the priesthood and the church hierarchy forcibly, in a random situation.
The ideology of the schism, based on the rejection of everything new, the fundamental rejection of any foreign influence, secular education, was extremely conservative.
7. Conflict between the church and secular authorities. Fall of Nikon
The question of the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities was one of the most important in the political life of the Russian state in the 15th-17th centuries. The struggle between the Josephites and non-covetous people was closely connected with it. In the 16th century The dominant Josephite trend in the Russian church abandoned the thesis of the superiority of church power over secular power. After Ivan the Terrible's reprisal against Metropolitan Philip, the subordination of the church to the state seemed final. However, the situation changed during the Time of Troubles. The authority of the royal power was shaken due to the abundance of impostors and a series of perjuries. The authority of the church, thanks to Patriarch Hermogenes, who led the spiritual resistance to the Poles and suffered martyrdom from them, becoming the most important unifying force, increased. The political role of the church increased even more under Patriarch Filaret, the father of Tsar Michael.
The powerful Nikon sought to revive the relationship between secular and ecclesiastical authorities that existed under Filaret. Nikon argued that the priesthood is higher than the kingdom, since it represents God, and secular power is from God. He actively intervened in secular affairs.
Gradually, Alexey Mikhailovich began to feel burdened by the power of the patriarch. In 1658 there was a break between them. The Tsar demanded that Nikon should no longer be called the Great Sovereign. Then Nikon declared that he did not want to be a patriarch “in Moscow” and left for the Resurrection New Jerusalem Monastery on the river. Istra. He hoped that the king would yield, but he was mistaken. On the contrary, the patriarch was required to resign so that a new head of the church could be elected. Nikon replied that he did not renounce the rank of patriarch, and did not want to be patriarch only “in Moscow.”
Neither the tsar nor the church council could remove the patriarch. Only in 1666 a church council was held in Moscow with the participation of two ecumenical patriarchs - Antioch and Alexandria. The council supported the tsar and deprived Nikon of his patriarchal rank. Nikon was imprisoned in a monastery prison, where he died in 1681.
The resolution of the “Nikon case” in favor of the secular authorities meant that the church could no longer interfere in state affairs. From that time on, the process of subordinating the church to the state began, which ended under Peter I with the abolition of the patriarchate, the creation of the Holy Synod headed by a secular official and the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into a state church.
The events, called church schism by historians, took place in the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich. The reforms that led to a split in the church were carried out by Patriarch Nikon. What is their essence and why did a split occur within the Orthodox faith?
As mentioned above, all reforms were carried out by Nikon, who took the post of patriarch in 1652. Reforms in worship were required to support the theory that Moscow was the “third Rome.”
What happened during the schism cannot be called global Orthodox reforms. These are only actions necessary to eliminate disagreements between the Greek canonical services to God and their inaccurate translations, which subsequently took hold in Rus'. Nikon understood that the difference in many rituals was significant in conveying their deep meaning, which is why he forced compliance with the canon to be re-checked, after which the liturgical books were rewritten and corrections were made to them.
The most important reforms in Orthodoxy are the following:
It was necessary to be baptized with three, not two fingers;
The name of God's son was now written "Jesus" rather than "Jesus";
There was a strict ban on using Western methods in icon painting.
These reforms, according to Nikon, made the Orthodox faith in Rus' not just canonical, but more true from the point of view sacred meaning rituals But the patriarch met with mass protest against the advancing reform. It came from those people who considered the actions of the patriarch only an attack on the pure Orthodox faith.
Nikon still did not stop in his intentions. The Tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich, also supported him. All reforms took place without accepting objections and were imposed in an extremely despotic manner.
The church schism was very acute. All those who resisted were executed, or sent to distant monasteries, which was the practice then. Basically, of course, the infidels were dealt with.
It was customary to call all those who objected not heretics, but schismatics. After all, they still followed the true Orthodox faith, but at the same time they did not support the canon at all, they deviated from it. Despite the same religion as was accepted, only a few were able to escape the harsh execution of the new patriarch.
Not even all church ministers supported the new patriarch. If we talk briefly about the church schism, the entire uprising was provoked mainly by Nikon’s opponent, Avvakum. He also perceived what was happening as a distortion and mockery of faith and church service, but at the same time he did not remain silent - he organized his own sermons and held conversations with people about the “disfigurement” of the true faith. No one could convince Avvakum, and in the end, so that the archpriest would not interfere with the reform movement, he was cut off.
If we talk about the process of church schism more briefly, it all took place over about 8-10 years. During this time, almost all existing church books were rewritten, which told about the rituals and customs that had undergone reform. Old models were unconditionally burned. All liturgical scriptures were revised, and all classes, under threat of death, were instructed to follow unconditionally modified rites.
There were popular uprisings, the largest of which is considered to be the protest of the Solovetsky Monastery, which lasted eight whole years. There were also minor uprisings, but none remained unsuppressed. By the end of the reform, Nikon himself was not just a patriarch, but the first adviser to the tsar, and he replaced the sovereign when he left the capital on important matters.
Of course, long-term rule by a despot is impossible. Nikon's reign was also quite short. He made more and more demands on the king, who constantly did not comply with them. The consequence was Nikon's defrocking and exile. However, all the reforms he carried out as patriarch were preserved, despite the resulting schism in the Orthodox faith.
It is also worth noting that schismatics still exist, but now no one infringes on their vision of faith. There are small settlements in Siberia consisting entirely of descendants of those who participated in the riots during the schism of the church.
Conducted church reforms. Baptism with three fingers was introduced, bows from the waist instead of bows to the ground, icons and church books were corrected according to Greek models. These changes caused protest among wide sections of the population. But Nikon acted harshly and without diplomatic tact, as a result provoking a church schism.
1666-1667: Church Council took place. He supported church reform, deepening the schism in the Russian Orthodox Church.
The increasing centralization of the Moscow state required a centralized church. It was necessary to unify it - the introduction of the same text of prayer, the same type of worship, the same forms of magical rituals and manipulations that make up the cult. For this purpose, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, Patriarch Nikon carried out a reform that had significant influence on further development Orthodoxy in Russia. The changes were based on the practice of worship in Byzantium.
In addition to changes in church books, innovations concerned the order of worship:
The sign of the cross had to be made with three fingers, not two;
The religious procession around the church should be carried out not in the direction of the sun (from east to west, salting), but against the sun (from west to east);
Instead of bows to the ground, bows should be made from the waist;
Sing Hallelujah three times, not two and some others.
The reform was proclaimed at a solemn service in the Moscow Assumption Cathedral on the so-called Week of Orthodoxy in 1656 (the first Sunday of Great Lent).
Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich supported the reform, and the councils of 1655 and 1656 approved it.
However, it aroused protest from a significant part of the boyars and merchants, the lower clergy and peasantry. The protest was based on social contradictions that took a religious form. As a result, a split in the church began.
Those who did not agree with the reforms were called schismatics or Old Believers. The schismatics were led by Archpriest Avvakum and Ivan Neronov. The means of power were used against schismatics: prisons and exile, executions and persecution. Avvakum and his companions were stripped of their hair and sent to the Pustozersky prison, where they were burned alive in 1682; others were caught, tortured, beaten, beheaded and burned. The confrontation was especially brutal in the Solovetsky Monastery, which held a siege from the tsarist troops for about eight years.
Patriarch Nikon tried to establish the priority of spiritual power over secular power, to place the patriarchate above autocracy. He hoped that the tsar would not be able to do without him, and in 1658 he pointedly renounced the patriarchate. The blackmail was not successful. The local council of 1666 condemned Nikon and deprived him of his rank. The Council, recognizing the independence of the patriarch in resolving spiritual issues, confirmed the need to subordinate the church to royal authority. Nikon was exiled to the Belozersko-Ferapontov Monastery.
Results of church reform:
1) Nikon’s reform led to a split in the church into the mainstream and the Old Believers; to transform the church into part of the state apparatus.
2) church reform and schism were a major social and spiritual revolution, which reflected tendencies towards centralization and gave impetus to the development of social thought.
The significance of his reform for the Russian Church is enormous to this day, since the most thorough and ambitious work was carried out to correct Russian Orthodox liturgical books. It also gave a powerful impetus to the development of education in Rus', the lack of education of which immediately became noticeable during the implementation of church reform. Thanks to this same reform, some international ties were strengthened, which later helped the emergence of progressive attributes of European civilization in Russia (especially during the time of Peter I).
Even such a negative consequence of Nikon’s reform as a schism had, from the point of view of archaeology, history, culture and some other sciences, its “pluses”: the schismatics left behind a huge number of ancient monuments, and also became the main component of the new one that arose in the second half XVII century, class - merchants. During the time of Peter I, schismatics were also cheap labor in all the emperor’s projects. But we must not forget that the church schism also became a schism in Russian society and divided it. Old Believers have always been persecuted. The split was a national tragedy for the Russian people.
The Orthodox schism became one of the leading events in Russian history. The schism of the 17th century was caused by the difficult times of the time and imperfect views. The great turmoil that covered the state at that time became one of the reasons for the church schism.
The church schism of the 17th century influenced both the worldview and cultural values of the people. The history of the schism dates back to 1666, because in those days mass unrest was caused by instability, the ban on the use of Old Believer literature, etc. All these events became the causes of the church schism.
The Russian schism is a significant event in the history of the church. The split in the Orthodox Church was a consequence of the difficult times that the great power was going through. The Time of Troubles could not but affect the situation in Russia and the history of the schism of the church.
The person who influenced the church schism is Nikon. This is the patriarch who took office in 1652 and a little later began the reform that led to the schism of the 17th century. The indignation of the masses in connection with it caused such a violent reaction and subsequently the Orthodox schism. The first opponents of Nikon's split were his former friends, who had previously been his like-minded people and participated in the “circle of zealots of piety.” However, a split occurred in the relationship: Nikon took the path of reforming the views of the people of the entire power.
At first glance, it may seem that the reasons for the split lie only at the basis of Nikon’s reform, but this is not so. Thus, just emerging from the time of troubles, before the beginning of the history of the split, Russia was still experiencing rebellious sentiments, which was one of the reasons for the split. There were other reasons for Nikon’s church schism that led to protests: the Roman Empire ceased to be united, and the current political situation also influenced the emergence of an Orthodox schism in the future.
The reform, which became one of the causes of the church schism of the 17th century, had the following principles:
1. The reasons for the church schism arose, in particular, due to the ban on Old Believer books and the introduction of new ones. So, in the latter, instead of the word “Jesus” they began to write “Jesus”. Of course, these innovations did not become the main help for the emergence of Nikon’s church schism, but together with other factors they became provocateurs of the church schism of the 17th century.
2. The reason for the schism was the replacement of the 2-finger cross with the 3-finger cross. The reasons for the split were also provoked by the replacement of knee bows with waist bows.
3. The history of the schism had another help: for example, religious processions began to be held in the opposite direction. This little thing, along with others, pushed the beginning of the Orthodox schism.
Thus, the prerequisite for the emergence of Nikon’s church schism was not only reform, but also unrest and the political situation. The history of the split had serious consequences for people.
separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of a part of believers who did not recognize the church reform of Patriarch Nikon (1653 - 1656); religious and social movement that arose in Russia in the 17th century. (See diagram “Church Schism”)
In 1653, wanting to strengthen the Russian Orthodox Church, Patriarch Nikon began implementing church reform designed to eliminate discrepancies in books and rituals that had accumulated over many centuries, and to unify the theological system throughout Russia. Some of the clergy, led by archpriests Avvakum and Daniel, proposed to rely on ancient Russian theological books when carrying out the reform. Nikon decided to use Greek models, which, in his opinion, would facilitate the unification under the auspices of the Moscow Patriarchate of all Orthodox churches Europe and Asia and thereby strengthen his influence on the king. The Patriarch was supported by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, and Nikon began reform. The Printing Yard began publishing revised and newly translated books. Instead of the Old Russian one, Greek rituals were introduced: two fingers were replaced by three fingers, a four-pointed cross was declared a symbol of faith instead of an eight-pointed one, etc. The innovations were consolidated by the Council of the Russian Clergy in 1654, and in 1655 approved by the Patriarch of Constantinople on behalf of all Eastern Orthodox churches.
However, the reform, carried out hastily and forcefully, without preparing Russian society for it, caused strong confrontation among the Russian clergy and believers. In 1656, the defenders of the old rites, whose recognized leader was Archpriest Avvakum, were excommunicated from the church. But this measure did not help. A movement of Old Believers arose, creating their own church organizations. The schism acquired a massive character after the decision of the Church Council of 1666-1667. about the executions and exiles of ideologists and opponents of the reform. Old Believers, fleeing persecution, went to the distant forests of the Volga region, the European north, and Siberia, where they founded schismatic communities - monasteries. The response to persecution was also mass self-immolation and starvation.
The Old Believers movement also acquired a social character. The old faith became a sign in the struggle against the strengthening of serfdom.
The most powerful protest against church reform manifested itself in the Solovetsky uprising. The rich and famous Solovetsky Monastery openly refused to recognize all the innovations introduced by Nikon and to obey the decisions of the Council. An army was sent to Solovki, but the monks secluded themselves in the monastery and put up armed resistance. The siege of the monastery began, which lasted about eight years (1668 - 1676). The monks' stand for the old faith served as an example for many.
After the suppression of the Solovetsky uprising, the persecution of schismatics intensified. In 1682, Habakkuk and many of his supporters were burned. In 1684, a decree followed, according to which the Old Believers were to be tortured, and if they did not conquer, they were to be burned. However, these repressive measures did not eliminate the movement of supporters of the old faith; their number in the 17th century. constantly grew, many of them left Russia. In the 18th century There has been a weakening of the persecution of schismatics by the government and the official church. At the same time, several independent movements emerged in the Old Believers.