During the time of Ivan III, there were already three independent Tatar hordes within what is now Russia. Golden Horde, exhausted by strife, lived out its life. Next to it in the 15th century. The Crimean Horde was formed in the Black Sea region, in which the Girey dynasty (descendants of Azi-Girey) established itself. In Kazan, Golden Horde immigrants founded, also in the middle of the 15th century, a special horde, uniting Finnish foreigners under Tatar rule: Mordovians, Cheremis, Votyaks. Taking advantage of disagreements and constant civil strife among the Tatars, Ivan III gradually achieved that he subjugated Kazan to his influence and made the Kazan khan or “tsar” his assistant (at that time Muscovites called khans tsars). Ivan III formed a strong friendship with the Crimean Tsar, since both of them had a common enemy - the Golden Horde, against which they acted together. As for the Golden Horde, Ivan III stopped all dependent relations with it: he did not give tribute, did not go to the Horde, and did not show respect to the khan. They said that once Ivan III even threw the Khan’s “basma” to the ground and trampled with his foot. that sign (in all likelihood, a gold plate, a “token” with an inscription) that the khan presented to his ambassadors to Ivan as proof of their authority and power.
The weak Golden Horde Khan Akhmat tried to act against Moscow in alliance with Lithuania; but since Lithuania did not give him reliable help, he limited himself to raids on the Moscow borders. In 1472, he came to the banks of the Oka and, having plundered, went back, not daring to go to Moscow itself. In 1480 he repeated his raid. Leaving the upper reaches of the Oka to his right, Akhmat came to the river. Ugra, in the border areas between Moscow and Lithuania. But even here he did not receive any help from Lithuania, and Moscow met him with a strong army. On the Ugra, Akhmat and Ivan III stood against each other - both hesitant to start a direct battle. Ivan III ordered the capital to be prepared for a siege, sent his wife Sophia from Moscow to the north and himself came from the Ugra to Moscow, fearing both the Tatars and his own brothers (this is perfectly shown in the article by A.E. Presnyakov “Ivan III on the Ugra” ). They were at odds with him and instilled in him the suspicion that they would betray him at the decisive moment. Ivan's prudence and slowness seemed to the people cowardice, and simple people, preparing for the siege in Moscow, were openly indignant at Ivan. The spiritual father of the Grand Duke, Archbishop Vassian of Rostov, both in word and in a written “message,” exhorted Ivan not to be a “runner,” but to bravely stand against the enemy. However, Ivan did not dare to attack the Tatars. In turn, Akhmat, having stood on the Ugra from summer until November, waited for snow and frost and had to go home. He himself was soon killed in strife, and his sons died in the fight against the Crimean Horde, and the Golden Horde itself finally disintegrated (1502). This is how it ended for Moscow" Tatar yoke", which subsided gradually and in its last time was nominal. But the troubles from the Tatars did not end for Rus'. Both the Crimeans, the Kazanians, the Nagai, and all the small nomadic Tatar hordes close to the Russian borders and the “Ukrainians” constantly attacked These Ukrainians burned, destroyed homes and property, took people and livestock with them. The Russian people had to fight this constant Tatar robbery for about three more centuries.
Ivan III's relations with Lithuania under Grand Duke Kazimir Jagailovich were not peaceful. Not wanting the strengthening of Moscow, Lithuania sought to support Veliky Novgorod and Tver against Moscow, and raised the Tatars against Ivan III. But Casimir did not have enough strength to wage an open war with Moscow. After Vytautas, internal complications in Lithuania weakened it. The increase in Polish influence and Catholic propaganda created many disgruntled princes in Lithuania; they, as we know, went into Moscow citizenship with their estates. This further diminished the Lithuanian forces and made it very risky for Lithuania to openly clash with Moscow. However, it became inevitable after the death of Casimir (1492), when Lithuania elected a Grand Duke separately from Poland. While Casimir's son Jan Albrecht became king of Poland, his brother Alexander Kazimirovich became king of Lithuania. Taking advantage of this division, Ivan III started a war against Alexander and achieved that Lithuania formally ceded to him the lands of the princes who moved to Moscow (Vyazma, Novosilsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Belevsky), and in addition, recognized for him the title of “Sovereign of All Rus'” . The conclusion of peace was secured by the fact that Ivan III gave his daughter Elena in marriage to Alexander Kazimirovich. Alexander was himself a Catholic, but promised not to force his Orthodox wife to convert to Catholicism. However, he found it difficult to keep this promise due to the suggestions of his Catholic advisers.
Fate Grand Duchess Elena Ivanovna was very sad, and her father in vain demanded better treatment from Alexander. On the other hand, Alexander was also offended by the Moscow Grand Duke. TO Ivan III Orthodox princes from Lithuania continued to apply for service, explaining their reluctance to remain under Lithuanian rule by persecution of their faith. Thus, Ivan III received Prince Belsky and the princes of Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov with huge estates along the Dnieper and Desna. War between Moscow and Lithuania became inevitable. It went on from 1500 to 1503, with the Livonian Order taking the side of Lithuania, and the Crimean Khan taking the side of Moscow. The matter ended with a truce, according to which Ivan III retained all the principalities he had acquired. It was obvious that Moscow at that moment was stronger than Lithuania, just as it was stronger than the order. The Order, despite some military successes, also concluded a not particularly honorable truce with Moscow. Before Ivan III, under pressure from the west, the Moscow principality yielded and lost; now Moscow Grand Duke he himself begins to attack his neighbors and, increasing his possessions from the west, openly expresses his claim to annex all Russian lands to Moscow.
While fighting with his western neighbors, Ivan III sought friendship and alliances in Europe. Under him, Moscow entered into diplomatic relations with Denmark, with the emperor, with Hungary, with Venice, with Turkey. Strengthened Russian state gradually entered the circle of European international relations and began its communication with cultural countries West.
Domestic policy of Ivan III
The cherished goal of Ivan III’s activities was to gather lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleologue, strongly supported her husband’s desire to expand the Moscow state and strengthen autocratic power.
For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away lands and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wanted to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Marfa Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor.
Novgorod entered into an agreement with Casimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod comes under his supreme authority, but at the same time retains some independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince.
Twice Ivan III Vasilyevich sent ambassadors to Novgorod with good wishes to come to their senses and enter the lands of Moscow, the Metropolitan of Moscow tried to convince the Novgorodians to “correct themselves,” but all in vain. Ivan III had to make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue.
In 1477, Ivan III Vasilyevich demanded from Novgorod full recognition him as his master, which caused a new rebellion, which was suppressed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III in 1479 replaced the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilus, resettled the unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands.
With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other appanage principalities: Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands(1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the Ryazan prince, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later acquired the city by inheritance from his nephews.
Ivan acted inhumanely with his brothers, taking away their inheritances and depriving them of the right to any participation in state affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoi and his sons were arrested and imprisoned.
Foreign policy of Ivan III.
Ivan III, having assumed his great reign, for the first time since Batu’s invasion, refused to go to the Horde to receive a label. In an attempt to once again subjugate Rus', which had not paid tribute since 1476, Khan Akhmat in 1480 sent a large army to the Moscow principality. At this moment, the forces of Moscow were weakened by the war with the Livonian Order and the feudal rebellion of the younger brothers of the Grand Duke. In addition, Akhmat enlisted the support of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir. However, the Polish forces were neutralized thanks to the peace treaty of Ivan III with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. After Akhmat’s attempt to cross the river. Ugra in October 1480, accompanied by a 4-day battle, began the “standing on the Ugra”. The "Ugorshchina", during which the forces of the parties were located on different banks of the Oka tributary, ended on November 9-11, 1480 with the flight of the enemy. Thus, victory on the river. Ugra marked the end of the 240-year Mongol-Tatar yoke.
No less important was the success in the wars with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (1487-1494; 1500-1503), thanks to which many western lands went to Rus'.
As a result of victories over external enemies, Ivan III was able to destroy most of the estates and thereby greatly strengthen central government and the role of Moscow.
During the reign of Ivan III in 1502, the Golden Horde ceased to exist.
Moscow and Lithuania often fought over Russian lands located under Lithuania and Poland. As the power of the Great Sovereign of Moscow strengthened, more and more Russian princes and their lands moved from Lithuania to Moscow.
After Casimir's death, Lithuania and Poland were again divided between his sons, Alexander and Albrecht, respectively. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander married the daughter of Ivan III Elena. Relations between son-in-law and father-in-law deteriorated, and in 1500 Ivan III declared war on Lithuania, which was successful for Rus': parts of the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov principalities were conquered. In 1503, a truce agreement was signed for 6 years. Ivan III Vasilievich rejected the offer of eternal peace until Smolensk and Kyiv are returned.
As a result of the war of 1501-1503. the great sovereign of Moscow forced the Livonian Order to pay tribute (for the city of Yuryev).
During his reign, Ivan III Vasilyevich made several attempts to subjugate the Kazan kingdom. In 1470, Moscow and Kazan made peace, and in 1487, Ivan III took Kazan and enthroned Khan Makhmet-Amen, who had been a faithful novice of the Moscow prince for 17 years.
Reforms of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'” began to be formalized, and in some documents he calls himself Tsar.
For internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed a Code of Civil Laws (Code). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local management systems appeared.
The adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Rus'. The law limited the output of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's Day).
Results of the reign of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the territory of Rus' expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state.
The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
During the reign of Ivan III, the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe were built.
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The cherished goal of Ivan III’s activities was to gather lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleologue, strongly supported her husband’s desire to expand the Moscow state and strengthen autocratic power.
For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away lands and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wanted to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Marfa Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor.
Novgorod entered into an agreement with Casimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod comes under his supreme authority, but at the same time retains some independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince.
Twice Ivan III Vasilyevich sent ambassadors to Novgorod with good wishes to come to his senses and enter the lands of Moscow, the Metropolitan of Moscow tried to convince the Novgorodians to “correct”, but all in vain. Ivan III had to make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue.
In 1477, Ivan III Vasilyevich demanded that Novgorod fully recognize him as its master, which caused a new rebellion, which was suppressed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III in 1479 replaced the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilus, resettled the unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands.
With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other appanage principalities: Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands (1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the Ryazan prince, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later acquired the city by inheritance from his nephews.
Ivan acted inhumanely with his brothers, taking away their inheritances and depriving them of the right to any participation in state affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoi and his sons were arrested and imprisoned.
Foreign policy of Ivan III.
During the reign of Ivan III in 1502, the Golden Horde ceased to exist.
Moscow and Lithuania often fought over Russian lands located under Lithuania and Poland. As the power of the Great Sovereign of Moscow strengthened, more and more Russian princes and their lands moved from Lithuania to Moscow.
After Casimir's death, Lithuania and Poland were again divided between his sons, Alexander and Albrecht, respectively. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander married the daughter of Ivan III Elena. Relations between son-in-law and father-in-law deteriorated, and in 1500 Ivan III declared war on Lithuania, which was successful for Rus': parts of the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov principalities were conquered. In 1503, a truce agreement was signed for 6 years. Ivan III Vasilyevich rejected the proposal for eternal peace until Smolensk and Kyiv were returned.
As a result of the war of 1501-1503. the great sovereign of Moscow forced the Livonian Order to pay tribute (for the city of Yuryev).
During his reign, Ivan III Vasilyevich made several attempts to subjugate the Kazan kingdom. In 1470, Moscow and Kazan made peace, and in 1487, Ivan III took Kazan and enthroned Khan Makhmet-Amen, who had been a faithful novice of the Moscow prince for 17 years.
Reforms of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'” began to be formalized, and in some documents he calls himself Tsar.
For internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed a Code of Civil Laws (Code). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local management systems appeared.
The adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Rus'. The law limited the output of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's Day).
Results of the reign of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the territory of Rus' expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state.
The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
During the reign of Ivan III, the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe were built.
Reforms and oprichnina of Ivan 4 the Terrible. The problem of expanding the borders of the Russian state.
With the crowning of Ivan IV (January 16, 1547), the reforms were led by Elected Rada. The main directions of reforms (1547 - 1560) were finance, the system of central and local government, the army and military construction, and church life. They were distinguished by their legal orientation and involvement in state building based on the ideology of national unity of all classes of society.
In the 50s, the organization of a local government system was undertaken in the black-plow districts of the North and cities. It consisted of limiting the power of administration representatives (governors and volosts) in favor of the created local government bodies - zemstvos, to which the majority of administrative functions were transferred. The reform was based on the zemstvo tradition that had developed in certain lands of the Russian state.
Important changes have taken place in central government. Instead of the two previous institutions - the Sovereign's Palace and the Treasury, which had blurred, intertwined management functions, a whole system of specialized orders was created:
The petitioner performed the functions of the office and was in charge of complaints addressed to the king and the investigation into them; - The Ambassador was in charge foreign policy; - Local - service land ownership; - Robber - fighting crime; - Discharge - military affairs and the appointment of a governor; - Streletsky - with an army of archers, etc.
The New Code of Law (1550) incorporated the norms of all the main sections of the then law; streamlined and supplemented the previous Code of Law (1497), including articles on the rules for the transfer of peasants. In general, the Code of Law reflected the centralization of the state; it differed from the previous one in better systematization of legal material and consideration of judicial practice.
Great importance had military reforms. In 1550, a streltsy army was formed, armed with both cold and firearms. By the end of the 16th century. The number of the Streltsy army increased from 6 to 25 thousand people; it formed the basis of the army’s fighting strength. In addition, localism was limited - during military campaigns, local disputes were prohibited.
In 1555 – 1556 a document was adopted regulating military service feudal lords - “Code of Service”. From 150 dessiatines of land belonging to them, boyars and nobles had to exhibit one mounted warrior and regularly appear at military reviews. In addition to streamlining the military service system, this also meant the extension of compulsory military service to patrimonial landowners.
Serious changes have occurred in tax system countries. A common taxation unit for the entire state was established - the “large plow” (equal to 400 - 800 acres of land). Subsequently it was formed tax- a complex of natural and monetary duties of the country's population in favor of the state. A unified system of weights and measures was also introduced.
In 1551, a Council of the Russian Church took place, which went down in history as the Council of the Hundred Heads (its decisions were formulated in 100 chapters). "Stoglav"– code of legal norms inner life Russian clergy and its relationship with society and the state. A uniform procedure for the performance of church rites was established throughout the country.
In 1560, the policy of Ivan IV changed - the Elected Rada was dispersed, the reforms were curtailed.
Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible
Oprichnina- state policy of terror that reigned in Rus' at the end of the 16th century during the reign of Ivan 4.
The essence of the oprichnina was the seizure of property from citizens in favor of the state. By order of the sovereign, special lands were allocated, which were used exclusively for the royal needs and the needs of the royal court. These territories had their own government and were closed to ordinary citizens. All territories were taken from the landowners with the help of threats and force.
The word "oprichnina" comes from the Old Russian word "oprich", which means "special". Also called oprichnina was that part of the state that had already been transferred to the sole use of the tsar and his subjects, as well as oprichniki (members of the sovereign's secret police). The number of oprichnina (royal retinue) was about a thousand people.
Reasons for introducing the oprichnina
Tsar Ivan the Terrible was famous for his stern disposition and military campaigns. The emergence of the oprichnina is largely connected with the Livonian War.
In 1558, he started the Livonian War for the right to take possession of the Baltic coast, but the course of the war did not go as the sovereign would have liked. Ivan repeatedly reproached his commanders for not acting decisively enough, and the boyars did not at all respect the tsar as an authority in military matters. The situation is aggravated by the fact that in 1563 one of Ivan’s military leaders betrays him, thereby increasingly undermining the tsar’s trust in his retinue.
Ivan 4 begins to suspect the existence of a conspiracy between the governor and the boyars against his royal power. He believes that those around him dream of ending the war, overthrowing the sovereign and installing Prince Vladimir Staritsky in his place. All this forces Ivan to create a new environment for himself that would be able to protect him and punish everyone who goes against the king. This is how oprichniki were created - special warriors of the sovereign - and the policy of oprichnina (terror) was established.
Years of life: 1440-1505. Reign: 1462-1505
Ivan III is the eldest son of the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily II the Dark and Grand Duchess Maria Yaroslavna, daughter of the Serpukhov prince.
In the twelfth year of his life, Ivan married Maria Borisovna, princess of Tver, and in the eighteenth year he already had a son, Ivan, nicknamed Young. In 1456, when Ivan was 16 years old, Vasily II the Dark appointed him as his co-ruler, and at 22 he became the Grand Duke of Moscow.
As a youth, Ivan took part in campaigns against the Tatars (1448, 1454, 1459), saw a lot, and by the time he ascended the throne in 1462, Ivan III already had an established character and was ready to make important government decisions. He had a cold, reasonable mind, a cool disposition, iron will, was distinguished by his special lust for power. By nature, Ivan III was secretive, cautious and did not rush towards his intended goal quickly, but waited for an opportunity, chose the time, moving towards it with measured steps.
Outwardly, Ivan was handsome, thin, tall and slightly stooped, for which he received the nickname “Humpbacked”.
The beginning of Ivan III's reign was marked by the release of gold coins, on which the names of Grand Duke Ivan III and his son Ivan the Young, heir to the throne, were minted.
The first wife of Ivan III died early, and the Grand Duke entered into a second marriage with the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, Zoya (Sophia) Palaeologus. Their wedding took place in Moscow on November 12, 1472. She immediately became involved in political activity, actively helping her husband. Under Sophia, he became more severe and cruel, demanding and power-hungry, demanded complete obedience and punished for disobedience, for which Ivan III first of the kings was called Terrible.
In 1490, Ivan III's son from his first marriage, Ivan the Young, unexpectedly died. He left behind a son, Dmitry. The Grand Duke was faced with the question of who should inherit the throne: his son Vasily from Sophia or his grandson Dmitry.
Soon a conspiracy against Dmitry was discovered, the organizers of which were executed, and Vasily was taken into custody. On February 4, 1498, Ivan III crowned his grandson as king. This was the first coronation in Rus'.
In January 1499, a conspiracy against Sophia and Vasily was discovered. Ivan III lost interest in his grandson and made peace with his wife and son. In 1502, the Tsar put Dmitry into disgrace, and Vasily was declared Grand Duke of All Rus'.
The Great Sovereign decided to marry Vasily to a Danish princess, but the Danish king avoided the proposal. Fearing that he would not have time to find a foreign bride before his death, Ivan III chose Solomonia, the daughter of an insignificant Russian dignitary. The marriage took place on September 4, 1505, and on October 27 of the same year, Ivan III the Great died.
Domestic policy of Ivan III
The cherished goal of Ivan III’s activities was to gather lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleologue, strongly supported her husband’s desire to expand the Moscow state and strengthen autocratic power.
For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away lands and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wanted to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Marfa Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor.
Novgorod entered into an agreement with Casimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod comes under his supreme authority, but at the same time retains some independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince.
Twice Ivan III Vasilyevich sent ambassadors to Novgorod with good wishes to come to his senses and enter the lands of Moscow, the Metropolitan of Moscow tried to convince the Novgorodians to “correct”, but all in vain. Ivan III had to make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue.
In 1477, Ivan III Vasilyevich demanded that Novgorod fully recognize him as its master, which caused a new rebellion, which was suppressed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III in 1479 replaced the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilus, resettled the unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands.
With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other appanage principalities: Yaroslavl (1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands (1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the Ryazan prince, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later acquired the city by inheritance from his nephews.
Ivan acted inhumanely with his brothers, taking away their inheritances and depriving them of the right to any participation in state affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoi and his sons were arrested and imprisoned.
Foreign policy of Ivan III.
During the reign of Ivan III in 1502, the Golden Horde ceased to exist.
Moscow and Lithuania often fought over Russian lands located under Lithuania and Poland. As the power of the Great Sovereign of Moscow strengthened, more and more Russian princes and their lands moved from Lithuania to Moscow.
After Casimir's death, Lithuania and Poland were again divided between his sons, Alexander and Albrecht, respectively. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Alexander married the daughter of Ivan III Elena. Relations between son-in-law and father-in-law deteriorated, and in 1500 Ivan III declared war on Lithuania, which was successful for Rus': parts of the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversky and Chernigov principalities were conquered. In 1503, a truce agreement was signed for 6 years. Ivan III Vasilyevich rejected the proposal for eternal peace until Smolensk and Kyiv were returned.
As a result of the war of 1501-1503. the great sovereign of Moscow forced the Livonian Order to pay tribute (for the city of Yuryev).
During his reign, Ivan III Vasilyevich made several attempts to subjugate the Kazan kingdom. In 1470, Moscow and Kazan made peace, and in 1487, Ivan III took Kazan and enthroned Khan Makhmet-Amen, who had been a faithful novice of the Moscow prince for 17 years.
Reforms of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the title of “Grand Duke of All Rus'” began to be formalized, and in some documents he calls himself Tsar.
For internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed a Code of Civil Laws (Code). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local management systems appeared.
The adoption of the Code of Laws of Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Rus'. The law limited the output of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's Day).
Results of the reign of Ivan III
Under Ivan III, the territory of Rus' expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state.
The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Rus' from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.
During the reign of Ivan III, the Assumption and Annunciation Cathedrals, the Faceted Chamber, and the Church of the Deposition of the Robe were built.
The main goal in the life of Ivan III was the creation of a unified Russian state under the supreme authority of one ruler, a state strong enough to exist in a hostile world. It was towards achieving this goal that all his actions were aimed both within the country and abroad. We, therefore, cannot draw a sharp line between his national and foreign policies. When he became the Grand Duke of Moscow, Great Russia was still fragmented, and the traditions of the Kyiv period were alive. Not only the rulers of local great principalities, such as Tver, Ryazan or Novgorod land, but even the younger Moscow princes themselves did not want to recognize the supreme power of Ivan III.
When it became clear to the Russian opponents of Ivan III that their forces were not enough to resist the strengthening of the grand ducal power, they turned to Lithuania and the Golden Horde for help. Ivan III considered this a betrayal and combined the interests of his Russian national policy with foreign diplomacy. This could not but affect the course of the struggle between him and his opponents in Rus'.
Interweaving of internal and external problems is especially clear in the case of the fall of Novgorod. Ivan III may have preferred to bring Novgorod under his rule gradually, but Novgorod's alliance with Lithuania pushed him to act quickly and decisively. Likewise, attempts by the Tver Grand Duke and the younger Moscow princes (including Ivan's own two brothers) to unite with Casimir of Lithuania only forced Ivan to urgently take tough measures. Thus, the process of unification of Great Russia depended on the successes of Ivan III both in foreign and domestic policy.
After achieving virtual independence from the Golden Horde under Ivan III's father Vasily II, around 1452, Muscovy became important factor international politics of Western Eurasia and of Eastern Europe, and during the reign of Ivan III its importance in this capacity constantly grew. After the fall of Novgorod, the borders of the Muscovite state extended to the shores of the Gulf of Finland, and Muscovy became a Baltic power.
The borders of the country, with the exception of the Far North, were not safe at that time: the country was surrounded from the east and west by states, many of which were its actual or potential enemies. The Muscovite army was not strong enough to resist all enemies at the same time. Therefore, the government of Muscovy constantly faced a diplomatic task: to prevent the formation of any coalitions of opponents of Moscow among foreign countries, and when such a coalition nevertheless took shape, destroy the alliance of potential or actual enemies with a separate agreement with some of them and oppose the enemy bloc with your own. In this way, Ivan III often managed to deal with his enemies separately, and this policy was the secret of many of his successes.
It should be noted that very often foreign countries themselves sought support from Ivan III, thereby complicating the diplomatic situation. Ivan, in turn, always sought to use such situations to his advantage, but always refused to participate in matters that, from his point of view, were contrary to the true interests of Moscow. Thus, he remained indifferent to all attempts on the part of the pope and the German emperor to involve him in a war with Turkey, with which he, on the contrary, tried to establish friendly relations.
To understand the complex diplomatic moves of both Ivan and his opponents, it is necessary to briefly outline the circle of foreign powers surrounding Muscovy. Let's start with the Tatar khanates in the east and south. The Khanate of Tyumen in Western Siberia did not pose an immediate threat to Muscovy; on the contrary, in certain situations it was useful to Moscow during its conflicts with the Golden Horde, from which the main danger initially came. Later, the Kazan Khanate began to cause the greatest concern. The behavior of the rulers of the Nogai Horde, which controlled the territory east of the Lower Volga and the Yaik basin (Ural River), was difficult to predict.
In the south, the Crimean Khan owned not only the Crimean Peninsula itself, but also part of the steppes between the Lower Dnieper and the Sea of Azov. In 1475, the Khan of Crimea was forced to recognize the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan and become his vassal. In addition, the Turks completely subjugated the important trading city of Caffa (modern Feodosia) in the Crimea, as well as Kerch (in the strait of the same name) and Azov (at the mouth of the Don).
To the west of Muscovy was Lithuania, and behind it was Poland. In the north-west, after the fall of Novgorod, Livonia became a neighbor of Muscovy. It was not a unified state. From a military point of view, German control over this territory was exercised by the Livonian branch of the Teutonic Order, but the Archbishop of Riga did not depend on the master of the order, and the Livonian cities (Riga, Dorpat and others) had their own rights. Finland at that time belonged to Sweden. Novgorod and Moscow subsequently controlled the entire course of the Neva River to its mouth, but the Swedes controlled the northern coast of the Gulf of Finland. At that time, Sweden had no access to the shores of Lake Ladoga; Swedish borders did not then even reach the Arctic Ocean. Pechora Bay belonged to the Russians - in this area Muscovy bordered on Norway.
It should be noted that in case of any clash of interests of the German Empire and Poland, the emperor was inclined to seek rapprochement with Muscovy. Moreover, under King Matthew Corvinus (1458-90), Hungary, which was between the Turks and the Habsburgs, in turn, also tried to establish ties with Moscow.
As for the Tatar khanates, Ivan III's policy was aimed at using one or more of them against the rest. He eventually managed to establish friendly relations with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. Casimir of Lithuania, for his part, entered into an agreement with the Khan of the Golden Horde, Akhmat. Each of them from time to time tried to hedge their bets by conducting separate negotiations with a representative of the other side, which mostly led to nothing, but sometimes jeopardized the whole plan.
Commercial interests played an important role in the diplomacy of Ivan III (both in the East and in the West). Kazan and Crimea were significant centers of international trade and annually attracted a large number of Russian merchants. The Moscow government made significant efforts to support them and keep trade routes open. The khans of the Golden Horde remained able to block the road from Moscow to Crimea along the Don whenever they wished, which they actually did quite often. Moscow merchants then had to get to Crimea by the western route, through the territory of the Middle Dnieper, which was under the control of Lithuania. As a matter of fact, control over these routes played a significant role in Moscow’s clashes with the Golden Horde and Lithuania.
In the policy of Ivan III in the Baltic region, commercial interests are also clearly visible. The main goal of Ivan III was to destroy the monopoly of the Hanseatic League in Russian trade in the Baltic. This eventually led to a rapprochement with Denmark.
Both in the 15th and in 16th centuries Religious conflicts were a significant factor in international politics. The main difference between the Byzantine-Russian world and the Western world was, of course, the difference between Greek Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. The Union of Florence, although it did not prevent the fall of Constantinople, nevertheless served as the basis for further attempts to establish papal authority over the East Slavic Church. These attempts, however, did not lead to anything concrete until the Church Union of Brest in 1596. Not only Moscow immediately rejected the Union, but most of the clergy and parishioners of Western Rus' firmly opposed every new Uniate step in the Russian lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
In the struggle between Roman Catholicism and Greek Orthodoxy, Ivan III acted as a defender of Orthodoxy and a determined opponent of Roman Catholicism. As we saw above, thanks to this position he was able to undermine the unity of the Novgorodians. She also attracted the sympathy of some Western Russian princes, which served his interests in clashes with Lithuania.
On the contrary, Ivan III never mixed religion with politics in his relations with the Eastern world, and in his dealings with the Tatars carefully avoided any interference with their religious beliefs - not a single attempt was ever made to forcefully convert any of his Muslim vassals to Christianity.
Another manifestation of Ivan III’s religious tolerance was his friendly attitude towards the Jews. 105 Judah Hosea Kokos served as Ivan III's trade and diplomatic representative in Crimea in the seventies and eighties. In 1484 and again in 1487, Ivan III invited another Jew to Moscow, Zechariah, who at that time was also a representative in Crimea. 106 For several years, Ivan III did not want to take any tough measures against the spread of the so-called “heresy of the Judaizers.” Only towards the end of his life, when his son Vasily became his co-ruler (1502), Ivan was forced to withdraw his silent patronage from both the “Judaizers” and the Trans-Volga elders (hermits from beyond the Volga) of the mystical movement in the Russian Orthodox Church.