A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself.
Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).
| Predominant and fashionable colors | Rich colors; green, pink, purple with gold accent, sky blue |
| Classicism style lines | Strict repeating vertical and horizontal lines; bas-relief in a round medallion; smooth generalized drawing; symmetry |
| Form | Clarity and geometric shapes; statues on the roof, rotunda; for the Empire style - expressive pompous monumental forms |
| Characteristic interior elements | Discreet decor; round and ribbed columns, pilasters, statues, antique ornaments, coffered vault; for the Empire style, military decor (emblems); symbols of power |
| Constructions | Massive, stable, monumental, rectangular, arched |
| Windows | Rectangular, elongated upward, with a modest design |
| Classic style doors | Rectangular, paneled; with a massive gable portal on round and ribbed columns; with lions, sphinxes and statues |
Directions of classicism in architecture: Palladianism, Empire style, neo-Greek, “Regency style”.
The main feature of the architecture of classicism was the appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
The emergence of the classicism style
In 1755, Johann Joachim Winckelmann wrote in Dresden: “The only way for us to become great, and if possible inimitable, is to imitate the ancients.” This call to renew modern art, taking advantage of the beauty of antiquity, perceived as an ideal, found active support in European society. The progressive public saw in classicism a necessary contrast to court baroque. But the enlightened feudal lords did not reject imitation of ancient forms. The era of classicism coincided in time with the era of bourgeois revolutions - the English one in 1688, the French one 101 years later.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
Historical characteristics of the classicism style
By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe.
Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.
From Rococo forms, initially marked by Roman influence, after the completion of the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin in 1791, a sharp turn was made towards Greek forms. After the wars of liberation against Napoleon, this “Hellenism” found its masters in K.F. Schinkel and L. von Klenze. Facades, columns and triangular pediments became the architectural alphabet.
The desire to translate the noble simplicity and calm grandeur of ancient art into modern construction led to the desire to completely copy the ancient building. What F. Gilly left as a project for a monument to Frederick II, by order of Ludwig I of Bavaria, was carried out on the slopes of the Danube in Regensburg and received the name Walhalla (Walhalla “Chamber of the Dead”).
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.
Architects Napoleonic France took inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and the Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style.
In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities.
In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.
In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon.
In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux Arts).
Princely palaces and residences became the centers of construction in the classicist style; Marktplatz (marketplace) in Karlsruhe, Maximilianstadt and Ludwigstrasse in Munich, as well as construction in Darmstadt, became especially famous. The Prussian kings in Berlin and Potsdam built primarily in the classical style.
But palaces were no longer the main object of construction. Villas and country houses could no longer be distinguished from them. The scope of state construction included public buildings - theaters, museums, universities and libraries. To these were added buildings for social purposes - hospitals, homes for the blind and deaf-mute, as well as prisons and barracks. The picture was complemented by country estates of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, town halls and residential buildings in cities and villages.
The construction of churches no longer played a primary role, but remarkable buildings were created in Karlsruhe, Darmstadt and Potsdam, although there was a debate about whether pagan architectural forms were suitable for a Christian monastery.
Construction features of the classicism style
After the collapse of the great historical styles that had survived centuries, in the 19th century. There is a clear acceleration in the process of architecture development. This becomes especially obvious if we compare the last century with the entire previous thousand-year development. If early medieval architecture and Gothic cover about five centuries, Renaissance and Baroque together - already only half of this period, then classicism took less than a century to take possession of Europe and penetrate overseas.
Characteristic features of the classicism style
With a change in the point of view on architecture, with the development of construction technology, and the emergence of new types of structures in the 19th century. There was also a significant shift in the center of world development of architecture. In the foreground are countries that did not experience the highest stage of Baroque development. Classicism reaches its peak in France, Germany, England and Russia.
Classicism was an expression of philosophical rationalism. The concept of classicism was the use of ancient form-formation systems in architecture, which, however, were filled with new content. The aesthetics of simple ancient forms and a strict order were put in contrast to the randomness and laxity of architectural and artistic manifestations of the worldview.
Classicism stimulated archaeological research, which led to discoveries about advanced ancient civilizations. The results of the archaeological expeditions, summarized in extensive scientific research, laid the theoretical foundations of the movement, whose participants considered ancient culture to be the pinnacle of perfection in the art of construction, an example of absolute and eternal beauty. The popularization of ancient forms was facilitated by numerous albums containing images of architectural monuments.
Types of classicism style buildings
The character of architecture in most cases remained dependent on the tectonics of the load-bearing wall and the vault, which became flatter. The portico becomes an important plastic element, while the walls outside and inside are divided by small pilasters and cornices. In the composition of the whole and details, volumes and plans, symmetry prevails.
The color scheme is characterized by light pastel tones. White color, as a rule, serves to identify architectural elements that are a symbol of active tectonics. The interior becomes lighter, more restrained, the furniture is simple and light, while the designers used Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs.
The most significant urban planning concepts and their implementation in nature at the end of the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries are associated with classicism. During this period, new cities, parks, and resorts were founded.
The Propylaea of the Bavarian architect Leo von Klenze (1784-1864) is based on the Athens Parthenon. This is the entrance gate to Königsplatz Square, designed according to the ancient model. Königsplatz, Munich, Bavaria.
Classicism begins its chronology in the 16th century during the Renaissance, partially returns to the 17th century, actively develops and gains positions in architecture in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Between early and late classicism, the dominant positions were occupied by the Baroque and Rococo styles. The return to ancient traditions, as an ideal model, occurred against the backdrop of a change in the philosophy of society, as well as technical capabilities. Despite the fact that the emergence of classicism is associated with archaeological finds that were made in Italy, and the monuments of antiquity were located mainly in Rome, the main political processes in the 18th century took place mainly in France and England. Here the influence of the bourgeoisie increased, the ideological basis of which was the philosophy of enlightenment, which led to the search for a style reflecting the ideals of the new class. Antique forms and organization of space corresponded to the ideas of the bourgeoisie about the order and correct structure of the world, which contributed to the emergence of features of classicism in architecture. The ideological mentor of the new style was Winckelmann, who wrote in the 1750s and 1760s. works “Thoughts on the imitation of Greek art” and “History of the arts of antiquity”. In them he spoke of Greek art, filled with noble simplicity, calm majesty, and his vision formed the basis of admiration for ancient beauty. The European enlightener Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (Lessing. 1729 -1781) strengthened the attitude towards classicism by writing the work “Laocoon” (1766). Enlighteners of the 18th century, representatives of progressive thought in France returned to the classics, as a direction directed against the decadent art of the aristocracy, which they considered Baroque and Rococo. They also opposed the academic classicism that ruled during the Renaissance. In their opinion, the architecture of the era of classicism, true to the spirit of antiquity, should not mean a simple repetition of ancient models, but be filled with new content, reflecting the spirit of the times. Thus, the features of classicism in the architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries. consisted in the use of ancient shaping systems in architecture, as a way of expressing the worldview of the new bourgeois class and, at the same time, supporting the absolutism of the monarchy. As a result, France during the Napoleonic period was at the forefront of the development of classical architecture. Then - Germany and England, as well as Russia. Rome became one of the main theoretical centers of classicism.
Residence of the kings in Munich. Residenz München. Architect Leo von Klenze.
The philosophy of architecture of the era of classicism was supported by archaeological research, discoveries in the field of development and culture of ancient civilizations. The results of the excavations, presented in scientific works, albums with images, laid the foundations of a style whose adherents considered antiquity to be the height of perfection, a model of beauty.
Features of classicism in architecture
In the history of art, the term “classic” means the culture of the ancient Greeks of the 4th-6th centuries. BC In more in a broad sense it is used to refer to art Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The features of classicism in architecture draw their motifs from the traditions of antiquity, personified by the facade of a Greek temple or a Roman building with a portico, colonnades, triangular pediment, division of walls with pilasters, cornices - elements of the order system. The facades are decorated with garlands, urns, rosettes, palmettes and meanders, beads and ionics. The plans and facades are symmetrical relative to the main entrance. The coloring of the facades is dominated by a light palette, despite the fact that white serves to focus attention on architectural elements: columns, porticoes, etc., which emphasize the tectonics of the structure.
Tauride Palace. St. Petersburg. Architect I. Starov. 1780s
Characteristic features of classicism in architecture: harmony, orderliness and simplicity of forms, geometrically correct volumes; rhythm; balanced layout, clear and calm proportions; the use of elements of the order of ancient architecture: porticos, colonnades, statues and reliefs on the surface of the walls. A feature of classicism in the architecture of different countries was the combination of ancient and national traditions.
London's Osterley Mansion is a park in the classicist style. It combines the traditional order system of antiquity and echoes of Gothic, which the British considered a national style. Architect Robert Adam. Start of construction - 1761
The architecture of the era of classicism was based on norms brought into a strict system, which made it possible to build according to the drawings and descriptions of famous architects not only in the center, but also in the provinces, where local craftsmen acquired engraved copies of exemplary designs created great masters, and built houses on them. Marina Kalabukhova
Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and fine arts), Yu. K. Zolotov (Architecture and fine arts: European fine arts), E. I. Gorfunkel (Theater), P. V. Lutsker (Music)Authors: N. T. Pakhsaryan (General works, Literature), T. G. Yurchenko (Literature: classicism in Russia), A. I. Kaplun (Architecture and fine arts); >>
CLASSICISM (from Latin classicus - exemplary), style and artist. direction in literature, architecture and art 17 – beginning. 19th centuries K. is continuously associated with the era Renaissance; occupied, along with Baroque, an important place in the culture of the 17th century; continued its development during the Age of Enlightenment. The origin and spread of calculus is associated with the strengthening of the absolute monarchy, with the influence of the philosophy of R. Descartes, and with the development of the exact sciences. Based on rationalism. K.'s aesthetics - the desire for balance, clarity, and logical artistic design. expressions (largely taken from Renaissance aesthetics); conviction in the existence of universal and eternal, not subject to historical. changes to the rules of art. creativity, which is interpreted as skill, mastery, and not a manifestation of spontaneous inspiration or self-expression.
Having accepted the idea of creativity as an imitation of nature, dating back to Aristotle, the classicists understood nature as an ideal norm, which had already been embodied in the works of ancient masters and writers: an orientation toward “beautiful nature,” transformed and ordered in accordance with the immutable laws of art, thus suggested imitation of ancient models and even competition with them. Developing the idea of art as a rational activity based on the eternal categories of “beautiful”, “expedient”, etc., K. more than other artists. directions contributed to the emergence of aesthetics as a generalizing science of beauty.
Center. the concept of K. - verisimilitude - did not imply the exact reproduction of empirical data. reality: the world is recreated not as it is, but as it should be. The preference for a universal norm as “due” to everything particular, random, and concrete corresponds to the ideology of an absolutist state expressed by K., in which everything personal and private is subordinated to the indisputable will of the state. authorities. The classicist portrayed not a specific, individual personality, but an abstract person in a universal, ahistorical situation. moral conflict; hence the classicists’ orientation toward ancient mythology as the embodiment of universal knowledge about the world and man. Ethical K.'s ideal presupposes, on the one hand, the subordination of the personal to the general, passions to duty, reason, and resistance to the vicissitudes of existence; on the other hand, restraint in the manifestation of feelings, adherence to moderation, appropriateness, and the ability to please.
K. strictly subordinated creativity to the rules of the genre-style hierarchy. A distinction was made between “high” (e.g., epic, tragedy, ode - in literature; historical, religious, mythological genre, portrait - in painting) and “low” (satire, comedy, fable; still life in painting) genres, which corresponded to a certain style, range of themes and heroes; a clear distinction between the tragic and the comic, the sublime and the base, the heroic and the ordinary was prescribed.
From ser. 18th century K. was gradually replaced by new trends - sentimentalism , pre-romanticism, romanticism. Traditions of K. in the end. 19 – beginning 20th centuries were resurrected in neoclassicism .
The term “classicism”, which goes back to the concept of classics (exemplary writers), was first used in 1818 by Italian. critic G. Visconti. It was widely used in the polemics between classicists and romantics, and among the romantics (J. de Staël, V. Hugo, etc.) it had a negative connotation: classicism and the classics who imitated antiquity were opposed to the innovative romanticism. lit-re. In literary and art criticism, the concept of “K.” began to be actively used after the works of scientists cultural-historical school and G. Wölfflin.
Stylistic trends similar to those of the 17th and 18th centuries are seen by some scientists in other eras; in this case, the concept “K.” interpreted in expanded form. sense, denoting stylistic. a constant that is periodically updated on various stages of the history of art and literature (for example, “ancient K.”, “Renaissance K.”).
Literature
Origins of lit. K. - in normative poetics (Yu. Ts. Scaliger, L. Castelvetro, etc.) and in Italian. literature of the 16th century, where a genre system was created, correlated with the system of linguistic styles and focused on ancient examples. The highest flowering of K. is associated with the French. lit-roy 17th century The founder of K. poetics was F. Malherbe, who carried out the regulation of lit. language based on live spoken speech; the reform he carried out was consolidated by Franz. academy. In their most complete form, the principles of lit. K. were set out in the treatise “Poetic Art” by N. Boileau (1674), which summarized the artist. the practice of his contemporaries.
Classical writers treat literature as an important mission of embodying in words and conveying to the reader the requirements of nature and reason, as a way to “educate while entertaining.” K.'s literature strives for a clear expression of significant thought, meaning (“... meaning always lives in my creation” - F. von Logau), she refuses stylistic. sophistication, rhetoric decorations The classicists preferred laconicism and metaphor to verbosity. complexity - simplicity and clarity, extravagant - decent. Following established norms did not mean, however, that the classicists encouraged pedantry and ignored the role of the artist. intuition. Although the rules were presented to the classicists as a way to restrain creativity. freedom within the boundaries of reason, they understood the importance of intuitive insight, forgiving talent to deviate from the rules if it is appropriate and artistically effective.
The characters in K. are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which helps to transform them into universal human types. Favorite collisions are the clash of duty and feelings, the struggle of reason and passion. At the center of the works of classicists is heroic. personality and at the same time a well-bred person who stoically strives to overcome his own. passions and affects, to curb or at least realize them (like the heroes of the tragedies of J. Racine). Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” plays not only a philosophical and intellectual role in the worldview of K.’s characters, but also an ethical one. principle.
Based on lit. theories of K. - hierarchical. genre system; analytical breeding according to different works, even artistic. worlds, “high” and “low” heroes and themes is combined with the desire to ennoble “low” genres; for example, rid satire of crude burlesque, comedy - of farcical features (“high comedy” by Molière).
Ch. A place in K.'s literature was occupied by drama based on the rule of three unities (see. Three unities theory). Its leading genre was tragedy, the highest achievements of which were the works of P. Corneille and J. Racine; In the first, tragedy takes on a heroic quality, in the second, it becomes lyrical. character. Dr. “high” genres play a much smaller role in literature. process (J. Chaplain’s unsuccessful experiment in the genre of epic poem was subsequently parodied by Voltaire; solemn odes were written by F. Malherbe and N. Boileau). At the same time it means. “low” genres are developing: irocomic poem and satire (M. Renier, Boileau), fable (J. de La Fontaine), comedy. Small didactic genres are being cultivated. prose - aphorisms (maxims), “characters” (B. Pascal, F. de La Rochefoucauld, J. de Labruyère); oratorical prose (J.B. Bossuet). Although K.'s theory did not include the novel in the system of genres worthy of serious criticism. comprehension, psychological M. M. Lafayette’s masterpiece “The Princess of Cleves” (1678) is considered an example of classicism. novel.
In con. 17th century there has been a decline in literature. K., however archaeological. interest in antiquity in the 18th century, excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, creation of I.I. Winkelmann ideal image of the Greek antiquity as “noble simplicity and calm grandeur” contributed to its new rise during the Enlightenment. Ch. The representative of the new culture was Voltaire, in whose work rationalism and the cult of reason served to substantiate not the norms of absolutist statehood, but the right of the individual to freedom from the claims of the church and state. Enlightenment K., actively interacting with other lit. directions of the era, is based not on “rules”, but rather on the “enlightened taste” of the public. Turning to antiquity becomes a way of expressing Franz’s heroism. revolutions of the 18th century in the poetry of A. Chenier.
In France in the 17th century. K. has developed into a powerful and consistent artist. system, had a noticeable impact on Baroque literature. In Germany, poetry arose as a conscious cultural effort to create “correct” and “perfect” poetry worthy of other European literatures. school (M. Opitz), on the contrary, was drowned out by the Baroque, the style of which was more consistent with the tragic. the era of the Thirty Years' War; a belated attempt by I. K. Gottsched in the 1730s–40s. send it literary ru along the path of classicism. canons caused fierce controversy and was generally rejected. Self-sufficient. aesthetic the phenomenon is Weimar classicism J. W. Goethe and F. Schiller. In Great Britain, early K. is associated with the work of J. Dryden; its further development proceeded in line with the Enlightenment (A. Pope, S. Johnson). K con. 17th century K. in Italy existed in parallel with Rococo and was sometimes intertwined with it (for example, in the works of the Arcadia poets - A. Zeno, P. Metastasio, P. Y. Martello, S. Maffei); educational K. is represented by the work of V. Alfieri.
In Russia, culture was established in the 1730s–1750s. under the influence of Western Europeans. K. and the ideas of the Enlightenment; at the same time, it clearly shows a connection with the Baroque. Will distinguish. features of Russian K. – pronounced didacticism, accusatory, socially critical. orientation, national-patriotic. pathos, reliance on people. creativity. One of the first principles of K. in Russian. the soil was moved by A.D. Cantemir. In his satires, he followed N. Boileau, but, creating generalized images of human vices, adapted them to his fatherland. reality. Kantemir introduced into Russian. Literature of new poems. genres: transcriptions of psalms, fables, heroic. poem (“Petrida”, unfinished). The first classic example. a commendable ode was created by V.K. Trediakovsky(“Solemn Ode on the Surrender of the City of Gdansk,” 1734), the theoretician who accompanied it. “Discourse on ode in general” (both of them, following Boileau). The odes of M. V. Lomonosov are marked by the influence of Baroque poetics. The most complete and consistent Russian. K. is represented by the work of A.P. Sumarokov. Having laid out the basic provisions of the classic doctrines in written in imitation of Boileau’s treatise “Epistole on Poetry” (1747), Sumarokov sought to follow them in his works: tragedies focused on the work of the French. classicists of the 17th century. and the dramaturgy of Voltaire, but converted to them. to national events history; partly - in comedies, the model for which was the work of Moliere; in satires, as well as fables, which brought him the fame of the “northern La Fontaine.” He also developed a song genre that was not mentioned by Boileau, but was included by Sumarokov himself in the list of poetic songs. genres. Until the end 18th century the classification of genres proposed by Lomonosov in the preface to the collected works of 1757, “On the Use of Church Books in the Russian Language,” retained its significance, which correlated three styles theory with specific genres, associating heroic with the high “calm”. poem, ode, solemn speeches; with the average - tragedy, satire, elegy, eclogue; with low – comedy, song, epigram. A sample of the irocomic poem was created by V. I. Maikov (“Elisha, or the Irritated Bacchus,” 1771). The first completed heroic. “Rossiyada” by M. M. Kheraskov (1779) became an epic. In con. 18th century principles of classicism dramaturgy manifested itself in the works of N. P. Nikolev, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, V. V. Kapnist. At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. K. is gradually being replaced by new trends in lit. developments associated with pre-romanticism and sentimentalism, however, it retains its influence for some time. Its traditions can be traced back to the 1800s–20s. in the works of Radishchev poets (A. Kh. Vostokov, I. P. Pnin, V. V. Popugaev), in lit. criticism (A.F. Merzlyakov), in literary-aesthetic. program and genre-stylistic. the practice of the Decembrist poets, in the early works of A. S. Pushkin.
Architecture and fine arts
K. trends in Europe. lawsuits began to emerge already in the 2nd half. 16th century in Italy - in architecture. theory and practice of A. Palladio, theoretical. treatises by G. da Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the writings of J. P. Bellori (17th century), as well as in aesthetic. academic standards Bologna school. However, in the 17th century. K., which developed into an acute polemic. interaction with the Baroque, only in French. artist culture has developed into a coherent style system. Prem. In France, K. was also formed. 18 - early. 19th centuries, which became a pan-European style (the latter in foreign art history is often called neoclassicism). The principles of rationalism underlying K.’s aesthetics determined the view of art. the work as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. The orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring examples, also determined the normative requirements of K.’s aesthetics and the regulation of art. rules, a strict hierarchy of genres is depicted. art (the “high” genre includes works on mythological and historical subjects, as well as the “ideal landscape” and ceremonial portrait; the “low” genre includes still life, everyday genre, etc.). Consolidation of theoretical K.'s doctrines were promoted by the activities of the royal academies founded in Paris - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
Architecture K., in contrast to the Baroque with its dramatic style. conflict of forms, energetic interaction of volume and spatial environment, based on the principle of harmony and internal. completeness as dep. buildings and ensemble. The characteristic features of this style are the desire for clarity and unity of the whole, symmetry and balance, and certainty of plasticity. forms and spatial intervals that create a calm and solemn rhythm; a proportioning system based on multiple ratios of integers (a single module that determines the patterns of shape formation). The constant appeal of K.'s masters to the heritage of ancient architecture implied not only the use of its departments. motives and elements, but also comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of architecture. language K. became architectural order, proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not obscure the overall structure of the structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. K.'s interiors are characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, K.'s masters fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real.
An important place in the architecture of Kazakhstan belongs to the problems urban planning. Projects for “ideal cities” are being developed, and a new type of regular absolutist residence city is being created (Versailles). K. strives to continue the traditions of antiquity and the Renaissance, laying the basis for his decisions on the principle of proportionality to man and, at the same time, the scale that the architet gives. the image has a heroically elevated sound. And although rhetorical. the splendor of the palace decor comes into conflict with this dominant tendency; the stable figurative structure of K. preserves the unity of the style, no matter how diverse its modifications in the historical process. development.
Formation of K. in the French. architecture is associated with the works of J. Lemercier and F. Mansart. The appearance of buildings is what builds. the techniques at first resemble the architecture of 16th century castles; a decisive turning point occurred in the work of L. Lebrun - primarily in the creation of the palace and park ensemble of Vaux-le-Vicomte, with the solemn enfilade of the palace itself, the impressive paintings of C. Le Brun and the most characteristic expression of the new principles - the regular parterre park of A. Le Nôtre. The programmatic work of Kazakh architecture was the East. façade of the Louvre, realized (from the 1660s) according to the plans of C. Perrault (characteristically, the projects of J. L. Bernini and others in the Baroque style were rejected). In the 1660s. L. Levo, A. Le Nôtre and C. Lebrun began to create the ensemble of Versailles, where K.'s ideas are expressed with particular completeness. Since 1678, the construction of Versailles was led by J. Hardouin-Mansart; According to his projects, the palace was significantly expanded (wings were added), the center. the terrace was converted into a Mirror Gallery - the most representative part of the interior. He also built the Grand Trianon Palace and other buildings. The ensemble of Versailles is characterized by a rare stylistic feature. integrity: even the jets of fountains were combined into a static shape, like a column, and trees and bushes were trimmed in a geometric shape. figures. The symbolism of the ensemble is subordinated to the glorification of the “Sun King” Louis XIV, but its artistic and figurative basis was the apotheosis of reason, powerfully transforming the natural elements. At the same time, the emphasized decorativeness of the interiors justifies the use of the stylistic term “baroque classicism” in relation to Versailles.
In the 2nd half. 17th century New planning techniques are emerging that provide for organic connection of mountains developments with elements of the natural environment, the creation of open areas that spatially merge with the street or embankment, ensemble solutions for the key elements of the mountains. structures (Place Louis the Great, now Vendôme, and Place des Victories; architectural ensemble Homes for the disabled, all - J. Hardouin-Mansart), triumphal entrance arches (Gate of Saint-Denis designed by N. F. Blondel; all - in Paris).
Traditions of K. in France of the 18th century. were almost uninterrupted, but in the 1st half. centuries the Rococo style prevailed. In mid. 18th century K.'s principles were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the need to develop a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal environment for the house was a landscape (garden and park) environment. Huge influence on the 18th century. had a rapid development of knowledge about Greek. and Rome antiquities (excavations of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelman, J. V. Goethe, and F. Milizia made their contribution to the theory of calculus. In French K. 18th century new architects have been identified. types: elegant and intimate mansion (“hotel”), formal society. building, open area connecting main. highways of the city (Place Louis XV, now Place de la Concorde, in Paris, architect J. A. Gabriel; he also built the Petit Trianon Palace in Versailles Park, combining harmonious clarity of form with lyrical sophistication of design). J. J. Souflo implemented his project c. Sainte-Genevieve in Paris, drawing on the experience of the classic. architecture
In the era before Franz. revolution of the 18th century, a desire for austere simplicity and a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture appeared in architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the late phase of Cartoon - French. Empire style (1st third of the 19th century), in which magnificent representativeness increases (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin).
At 17 – beginning. 18th centuries K. was formed in the architecture of Holland (J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it. Cross connections with the French. and gol. K., as well as with the early Baroque, affected the short heyday of K. in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th century - early. 18th centuries (N. Tessin the Younger). At 18 – beginning. 19th centuries K. also established itself in Italy (G. Piermarini), Spain (X. de Villanueva), Poland (J. Kamsetzer, H. P. Aigner), and the USA (T. Jefferson, J. Hoban). For him. architecture K. 18 – 1st floor. 19th centuries Characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly, the historicism of L. von Klenze. In the works of K.F. Schinkel the harsh monumentality of the images is combined with the search for new functional solutions.
K ser. 19th century K.'s leading role fades away; they are replacing him historical styles(see also Neo-Greek style, Eclecticism). At the same time, the artist the tradition of K. comes to life in the neoclassicism of the 20th century.
Fine arts K. normative; its figurative structure has clear signs of a social utopia. The iconography of K. is dominated by ancient legends, heroic. deeds, historical plots, i.e. interest in the destinies of human communities, in the “anatomy of power.” Not content with simply “portraiting nature,” Kazan artists strive to rise above the concrete and individual—to the universally significant. The classicists defended their idea of art. truth, which did not coincide with the naturalism of Caravaggio or little Dutch. The world of reasonable actions and bright feelings in K.’s art rose above imperfect everyday life as the embodiment of the dream of the desired harmony of existence. Orientation towards a lofty ideal also gave rise to the choice of a “beautiful nature”. K. avoids the random, deviant, grotesque, rude, repulsive. Tectonic classic clarity architecture corresponds to a clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. Plastic surgery, as a rule, is designed for fixed. point of view, it is distinguished by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of figures usually does not disrupt their plasticity. isolation and calm statuesqueness. In painting K. main. elements of form – line and chiaroscuro; local colors clearly identify objects and landscape plans, which brings the spatial composition of a painting closer to the composition of a scenic one. sites.
The founder and greatest master of the 17th century. was French. thin N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of philosophy and ethics. content, harmony and rhythm. structure and color. High development in K. painting of the 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity. Most means. French masters K. in sculpture 17 – beginning. 18th centuries there were P. Puget (heroic theme), F. Girardon (search for harmony and laconicism of forms). In the 2nd half. 18th century French sculptors again turned to socially significant themes and monumental solutions (J.B. Pigalle, M. Clodion, E.M. Falconet, J.A. Houdon). Citizen pathos and lyricism were combined into mythological. paintings by J. M. Vien, decorative landscapes by Y. Robert. Painting so-called revolutionary K. in France is represented by the works of J. L. David, historical. and whose portrait images are marked by courageous drama. In the late period of French. K. painting, despite the appearance of the department. major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic. or salon art .
International Center K. 18 – beginning. 19th centuries became Rome, where academics dominated art. a tradition with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (painters A. R. Mengs, J. A. Koch, V. Camuccini, sculptors A. Canova and B. Thorvaldsen). B will depict. lawsuit in it. K., contemplative in spirit, stands out portraits of A. and V. Tishbein, mythological. cardboards by A. Ya. Carstens, plastics by I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch; in decorative and applied art - furniture by D. Roentgen. In Great Britain, close to K are the graphics and sculpture of J. Flaxman, and in decorative and applied art - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory.
The heyday of culture in Russia dates back to the last third of the 18th – first third of the 19th centuries, although already the beginning. 18th century noted creative appeal to the city planner. French experience K. (the principle of symmetrical axial planning systems in the construction of St. Petersburg). Rus. K. embodied a new historical concept, unprecedented for Russia in scope and ideological content. stage of the heyday of Russian secular culture. Early Russian K. in architecture (1760–70s; J.B. Wallen-Delamote, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plasticity. the richness and dynamics of forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo.
The architects of the mature era of Kazakhstan (1770–90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created the classic. types of metropolitan palace-estate and comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of country noble estates and in the new, ceremonial development of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major contribution of the Russian. K. in world art. culture. Russian arose in estate construction. a variant of Palladianism (N. A. Lvov), a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, G. Quarenghi). Feature of Russian K. - an unprecedented scale of state. urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of centers of Kaluga, Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl, etc. were formed; the practice of “regulating” mountains. plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of capitalism with the historically established planning structure of the Old Russian city. Turn of the 18th–19th centuries. marked by the largest urban planning. achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg was formed (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. F. Thomas de Thomon, later K. I. Rossi). On others he will build towns. At the beginning, “classical Moscow” was formed, which was built up during its restoration after the fire of 1812 with small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of the late Moscow. K. – D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev. Buildings of the 1st third of the 19th century. belong to the Russian style. Empire style (sometimes called Alexander's classicism).
B will depict. art-ve development rus. K. is closely connected with St. Petersburg. AH (founded in 1757). The sculpture is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative plasticity, forming a finely thought-out synthesis with architecture, full of citizens. pathos with monuments imbued with elegiac. enlightenment of tombstones, easel sculpture (I.P. Prokofiev, F.G. Gordeev, M.I. Kozlovsky, I.P. Martos, F.F. Shchedrin, V.I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). In painting, K. manifested himself most clearly in the works of history. and mythological genre (A.P. Losenko, G.I. Ugryumov, I.A. Akimov, A.I. Ivanov, A.E. Egorov, V.K. Shebuev, early A.A. Ivanov; in scenography - in creativity P. di G. Gonzago). Some features of K. are also inherent in the sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, landscapes by F. M. Matveev. In decorative and applied art in Russian. K. artists stand out. modeling and carved decor in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc.
Theater
The formation of theatrical cinema began in France in the 1630s. The activating and organizing role in this process belonged to literature, thanks to which the theater established itself among the “high” arts. The French saw examples of theatrical art in Italy. "scientific theater" of the Renaissance. Since the court society was the setter of tastes and cultural values, then on stage. The style was also influenced by court ceremonies and festivals, ballets, and receptions. The principles of theatrical theater were developed on the Parisian stage: in the Marais Theater headed by G. Mondori (1634), in the Palais Cardinal (1641, from 1642 Palais Royal), built by Cardinal Richelieu, whose structure met the high requirements of Italy. scenic technology; in the 1640s The Burgundy Hotel became the venue for the theater theater. Simultaneous decoration gradually, towards the middle. 17th century, was replaced by picturesque and unified perspective decoration (palace, temple, house, etc.); a curtain appeared that rose and fell at the beginning and end of the performance. The scene was framed like a painting. The game took place only on the proscenium; the performance was centered on several protagonist figures. Archit. the backdrop, a single scene of action, a combination of acting and pictorial plans, and an overall three-dimensional mise-en-scène contributed to the creation of the illusion of verisimilitude. In the stage K. 17th century There was a concept of the “fourth wall”. “He acts this way,” F. E. d’Aubignac wrote about the actor (“Practice of the Theatre,” 1657), “as if the audience did not exist at all: his characters act and speak as if they were really kings, and not Mondori and Bellerose, as if they were in Horace's palace in Rome, and not in the Burgundy Hotel in Paris, and as if they were seen and heard only by those who are present on the stage (i.e. in the place depicted)."
In the high tragedy of K. (P. Corneille, J. Racine), the dynamics, entertainment and adventure plots of A. Hardy's plays (which made up the repertoire of the first permanent French troupe of V. Leconte in the first third of the 17th century) were replaced by statics and in-depth attention to the spiritual world of the hero, the motives of his behavior. The new dramaturgy demanded changes in the performing arts. The actor became the embodiment of ethics. and aesthetic the ideal of the era, creating with his play a close-up portrait of his contemporary; his costume, stylized as antiquity, corresponded to modern times. fashion, plastic art was subject to the requirements of nobility and grace. The actor had to have the pathos of an orator, a sense of rhythm, musicality (for the actress M. Chanmele, J. Racine wrote notes over the lines of the role), the skill of an eloquent gesture, the skills of a dancer, even physical skills. power. K.'s dramaturgy contributed to the emergence of a school of stage drama. declamation, which united the entire set of performing techniques (reading, gesture, facial expressions) and became the basis. will express. means of French actor. A. Vitez called declamation of the 17th century. "prosodic architecture". The performance was built in a logical way. interaction of monologues. With the help of words, the technique of arousing emotions and controlling them was practiced; The success of the performance depended on the strength of the voice, its sonority, timbre, mastery of colors and intonations.
The division of theatrical genres into “high” (tragedy at the Burgundian Hotel) and “low” (comedy at the Palais Royal in the time of Moliere), the emergence of roles was consolidated by the hierarchy. the structure of the K theater. Remaining within the boundaries of “ennobled” nature, the performance pattern and outline of the image were determined by the individuality of the largest actors: J. Floridor’s manner of recitation was more natural than that of the excessively posing Bellerose; M. Chanmele was characterized by a sonorous and melodious “recitation,” and Montfleury had no equal in the affects of passion. The subsequently formed idea of the canon of theatrical K., which consisted of standard gestures (surprise was depicted with hands raised to shoulder level and palms facing the audience; disgust - with the head turned to the right and hands pushing away the object of contempt, etc. ), refers to the era of decline and degeneration of style.
In the 20th century French The director's theater became closer to the European one, and the stage theater. the style has lost its national character. specifics. Nevertheless it means. events in French theater 20th century correspond with the traditions of China: performances by J. Copo, J. L. Barrault, L. Jouvet, J. Vilar, Vitez’s experiments with the classics of the 17th century, productions by R. Planchon, J. Desart, etc.
Having lost in the 18th century. the significance of the dominant style in France, K. found successors in other Europe. countries. J. W. Goethe consistently introduced the principles of cinema in the Weimar theater he led. Actress and entrepreneur F. K. Neuber and actor K. Eckhoff in Germany, English. actors T. Betterton, J. Quinn, J. Kemble, S. Siddons promoted K., but their efforts, despite their personal creativity. achievements turned out to be ineffective and were ultimately rejected. Scenic K. became the object of pan-European controversy thanks to the Germans, and after them the Russians. Theater theorists received the definition of “false-classical theater.”
musical tragedy 2nd floor 17 – 1st half. 18th centuries (creative collaboration of librettist F. Kino and composer J.B. Lully, operas and opera-ballets by J.F. Rameau) and in Italian. opera seria, which has taken a leading position among musical and dramatic films. genres of the 18th century (in Italy, England, Austria, Germany, Russia). The rise of the French music The tragedy occurred at the beginning of the crisis of absolutism, when the ideals of heroism and citizenship during the struggle for a national state were replaced by a spirit of festivity and ceremonial officialdom, a craving for luxury and refined hedonism. The severity of the typical K. conflict of feeling and duty in the context of mythological. or the knightly-legendary plot of the muses. tragedy decreased (especially in comparison with tragedy in the dramatic theater). Associated with the norms of cinema are the requirements of genre purity (the absence of comedic and everyday episodes), unity of action (often also of place and time), and a “classical” 5-act composition (often with a prologue). Center. position in music dramaturgy is occupied by recitative - the element closest to rationalism. verbal-conceptual logic. In intonation the sphere is dominated by those related to natural human speech is declamatory and pathetic. formulas (interrogative, imperative, etc.), at the same time, rhetorical ones are excluded. and symbolic figures typical of baroque opera. Extensive choral and ballet scenes with fantastic performances. and pastoral-idyllic. themes, general orientation towards entertainment and entertainment (which eventually became dominant) were more consistent with the traditions of the Baroque than with the principles of classicism.Traditional for Italy were the cultivation of singing virtuosity and the development of decorative elements inherent in the opera seria genre. In line with K.’s demands put forward by some representatives of Rome. Academy "Arcadia", northern Italian. early librettists 18th century (F. Silvani, G. Frigimelica-Roberti, A. Zeno, P. Pariati, A. Salvi, A. Piovene) expelled the comic from serious opera. and everyday episodes, plot motifs associated with the intervention of the supernatural or fantastic. strength; the range of subjects was limited to historical and historical-legendary ones; moral and ethical themes were brought to the fore. problematic. In the center of the artist. concepts of early opera seria - sublime heroic. the image of a monarch, less often a state. figure, courtier, epic. hero demonstrating positivity. qualities of an ideal personality: wisdom, tolerance, generosity, devotion to duty, heroic. enthusiasm. The traditional Italian style was preserved. operas had a 3-act structure (5-act dramas remained experiments), but the number of characters was reduced, and intonation was typified in the music. will express. means, forms of overture and aria, structure of vocal parts. A type of dramaturgy, entirely subordinate to the muses. tasks, developed (from the 1720s) by P. Metastasio, with whose name the pinnacle stage in the history of opera seria is associated. In his stories, the classicist pathos is noticeably weakened. A conflict situation, as a rule, arises and deepens due to a protracted “misconception” ch. actors, and not due to a real conflict between their interests or principles. However, a special predilection for the idealized expression of feelings, for noble impulses human soul, albeit far from a strict rational justification, provided an exception. the popularity of Metastasio's libretto for more than half a century.
The culmination in the development of music. The culture of the Enlightenment era (in the 1760s–70s) became creative. collaboration of K.V. Gluck and librettist R. Calzabigi. In Gluck's operas and ballets, classicist tendencies were expressed in emphasized attention to ethics. problems, the development of ideas about heroism and generosity (in musical dramas of the Parisian period - in direct reference to the theme of duty and feelings). K.'s norms also corresponded to genre purity and the desire for maximization. concentration of action, reduced to almost one dramatic. collisions, strict selection will express. funds in accordance with the objectives of a specific drama. situation, the ultimate limitation of the decorative element, the virtuoso principle in singing. The educational nature of the interpretation of images was reflected in the interweaving of the noble qualities inherent in classicist heroes with naturalness and freedom of expression of feelings, reflecting the influence of sentimentalism.
In the 1780s–90s. in French music revolutionary tendencies find expression in the theater. K., reflecting the ideals of Franz. revolutions of the 18th century Genetically related to the previous stage and presented in Chap. arr. generation of composers - followers of Gluck's opera reform (E. Megul, L. Cherubini), revolutionary. K. emphasized, first of all, the civic, tyrant-fighting pathos, previously characteristic of the tragedies of P. Corneille and Voltaire. Unlike the works of the 1760s and 70s, in which the resolution is tragic. conflict was difficult to achieve and required the intervention of external forces (the tradition of “deus ex machina” - Latin “god from the machine”), for the works of the 1780–1790s. the denouement through the heroic has become characteristic. an act (refusal to obey, protest, often an act of retaliation, murder of a tyrant, etc.) that created a bright and effective release of tension. This type of drama formed the basis of the genre "operas of salvation", which appeared in the 1790s. at the intersection of the traditions of classicist opera and realism. bourgeois drama .
In Russia in music. in the theater, original manifestations of K. are isolated (the opera “Cephalus and Procris” by F. Araya, the melodrama “Orpheus” by E. I. Fomin, music by O. A. Kozlovsky for the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov, A. A. Shakhovsky and A. N. . Gruzintseva).
In relation to comic opera, as well as instrumental and vocal music of the 18th century, not associated with theatrical action, the term “K.” applied in means. at least conditionally. It is sometimes used in expand. sense to designate the initial stage of classical-romanticism. era, gallant and classical styles (see Art. Vienna Classical School, Classics in music), in particular in order to avoid judgment (for example, when translating the German term “Klassik” or in the expression “Russian classicism”, which applies to all Russian music of the 2nd half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. ).
In the 19th century K. in music theater gives way to romanticism, although dep. features of classicist aesthetics are sporadically revived (in G. Spontini, G. Berlioz, S. I. Taneyev, etc.). In the 20th century classicist artists the principles were revived again in neoclassicism.
With the coming to power of Catherine II, classicism began to develop in Russia - a style borrowed from Europe. Admiralty building in St. Petersburg.
By the middle of the 18th century in Russian society A worldview was formed that contributed to the development of classicism in Russian architecture, the ideas of rationalism were in fashion, and interest in antiquity increased. Another prerequisite for the establishment of a new style was the creation of an absolutist state of an enlightened monarchy.
This was a time of development of the country, large-scale construction, which required a more rational approach to the decoration of buildings, unification, which was ensured by the new style due to the simplicity of forms, severity of decoration, lack of excesses and the presence of uniform canons. State and public institutions, state and administrative buildings, palaces, as well as city and country estates.
Admiralty building in St. Petersburg. Construction began in 1704 according to the drawings of Peter I. In 1711, a tower with a spire with a boat was built in the center of the main facade. In 1732-1738. The stone building of the Admiralty was built. Arch. I.K.Korobov. The weather vane ship is raised on a spire to a height of 72 m.
The features of Russian classicism in architecture were determined by the personality of the emperor, his attitude to art, and the period of the country's development.
There are Catherine's early classicism, Catherine's strict classicism, and Alexander's classicism.
Architects, masterpieces of Russian classicism
Among the brightest representatives of the Russian style direction special attention creativity deserves: V. Bazhenova (1738 - 1799), M. Kazakova (1738 - 1812), I. Starova(1748 - 1808).
In the early period of classicism, they played a big role in its development. J. Vallin-Delamott, A. Kokorinov, who built the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg (1764 - 1788). In some elements of the facade, the influence of Baroque is still felt (there are concave and convex elements, stucco molding, statues), but pilasters have appeared on the facade, columns are dispersed along the entire facade.
Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. J. Vallin-Delamot, A. Kokorinov. 1764 - 1788
Architect Antonio Rinaldi built the Marble Palace in St. Petersburg (1768-1785).
Marble Palace. Arch. A. Rinaldi. 1768—1785
Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov
V. I. Bazhenov (1735 - 1799) received his education abroad, where at that time a new style was coming into fashion. Bazhenov returned to the country and began to introduce classicism in Russia.
By order of Catherine, he began redevelopment of the Grand Kremlin Palace in Moscow: the empress planned to turn the Kremlin into a kind of Roman Forum. Work on the design continued until Pugachev's uprising, then the design stopped.
The surviving drawings and projects, according to historians, had a great influence on further development Russian architecture. According to Bazhenov's designs, the palace was supposed to have long facades with colonnades on high plinths. According to his idea, the palace was to become the center of the square, where the College, the theater, stands for meetings, and the Arsenal would be located, which would realize the idea of the empress and reflect the idea of citizenship according to the Roman model.
One of the most famous buildings of Bazhenov in the style of Russian classicism - Pashkov's house in Moscow(1784 - 1786). The front entrance to the house faced Starovagankovsky Lane, the main facade of the building faced Mokhovaya Street. The building had two facades: a formal one, facing the roadway, and one for internal use, facing the courtyard. The house is decorated with a balustrade with vases, ornaments, pilasters of the order system, rustications with arches on the ground floor.
The building had a decorated round dome with paired columns. The side wings were apparently designed as a portico with a pediment. There are a variety of order solutions for different floors, wings and the main building. The building was built for the captain-lieutenant of the Semenovsky Life Guards Regiment, Pyotr Egorovich Pashkov, the son of the orderly of Peter I. In the novel by M.A. Bulgakov's "The Master and Margarita" the terrace of Pashkov's house is described as the meeting place of Woland and Azazello.
Pashkov's house. Moscow. 1784 - 1786 Arch. V. Bazhenov.
Other buildings of Bazhenov: a church in the village of Stoyanov, in the village of Bykovo, in the villages of Vinogradovo, Mikhalkov, Yushkov’s house on the corner of Myasnitskaya Street in Moscow with a semicircular rotunda facing the street. Under Paul I, Bazhenov took part in the work on the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg.
Mikhailovsky Castle was built as the ceremonial residence of Emperor Paul I. It was named in honor of Archangel Michael. Since 1823, the Nikolaev Engineering School was located here, and the castle began to be called “Engineering”. The palace combines features of Russian and European architecture.
The palace project was developed by the architect V. Bazhenov on behalf of Paul I. The construction was supervised by the architect V. Brenna. Paul I himself took part in the creation of the project. Among Brenn's assistants were F. Svinin and K. Rossi, E. Sokolov, I. Girsch and G. Pilnikov. Also at the stage of creating the project, A.-F.-G. Violier participated in it.
Engineering castle. Pavilion (1797-1801)
Matvey Fedorovich Kazakov
M. Kazakov is a bright exponent of the ideas of Russian classicism in architecture (1738 - 1812). He was Bazhenov's assistant in the design of the Kremlin complex.
Kazakov did not graduate from either the Academy or the university, but later he himself founded the first architectural school. In total, Kazakov built about 100 buildings.
The most famous building of Kazakov in the style of Russian classicism is Senate building in the Kremlin(1776 - 1787). The triangular shape fits into the complex of existing Kremlin buildings. The top of the triangle became a round hall with a huge dome (24 meters in diameter and 28 meters in height). The dome is oriented towards Red Square, defining the center of the entire square. The extended facade is evenly dissected by large order details. The portal is designed in the form of a portico with double columns and a triangular pediment. The combination of a portico with a pediment and a round dome will become traditional for Russian classicism.
Senate building. Kremlin. Moscow. Arch. M. Kazakov. 1776 - 1787
Another equally famous task designed by M. Kazakov is Golitsyn Hospital(First City) on Kaluzhskaya Street (1796 - 1801) (now Lenisky Prospekt). In the center of the building there is a powerful colonnade of the Doric order, a triangular pediment, above which rises a church dome.
Golitsyn Hospital on Kaluzhskaya Street (1796 - 1801). Arch. M. Kazakov.
Petrovsky track yard center on the Petersburg highway is an equally famous masterpiece of a brilliant architect. Petrovsky Palace has features of a romantic style combined with Russian classicism. The red color of the brick facade is combined with white oriental style decor.
Petrovsky Travel Palace.
The architect also built urban estates. They are usually large, massive buildings, practically devoid of decoration with a columned portico. Usually the house was located in the depths of a vast courtyard, and the outbuildings and fences overlooked the red line of the street.
Famous estates of the Kazakovs’ work were the house of the breeder I. Demidov on Gorokhovaya, the house of the breeder M. Gubin on Petrovka, the Baryshnikovs’ estate on Myasnitskaya.
Ivan Egorovich Starov
The most famous building of Starov in the style of Russian classicism - Tauride Palace on Shpalernaya Street in St. Petersburg (1783 - 1789). Consists of the main building and side wings. This project scheme will become the basis for the construction of educational institutions and royal palaces from the time of classicism. The facade of the palace looks austere, decorated with a Doric colonnade of a six-column portico, the portico is crowned with a dome.
Tauride Palace.
Giacomo Quarenghi
D. Quarenghi is a representative of strict classicism in Russian architecture. Italian Quarneghi (b. 1744 - 1817), who came to Russia in the 80s.
The basic principles that the architect adhered to in his works:
The layout of a residential or administrative building in his projects includes a central building and two symmetrical wings connected to the central building by straight or rounded galleries.
The building is a parallelepiped and usually has three floors. The central building is decorated with a portico. For example, a building Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, new building Institute of Noble Maidens.
- Smolny Institute. The portico is topped with a pediment, the extreme points of which the architect emphasized with vertical statues.
Smolny Institute.
The facades lack richly decorated corner compositions. The planes are not decorated with anything.
The windows are rectangular or three-part, window openings without frames, sometimes topped with triangular pediments - sandriks.
The columns are moved away from the wall and lack flutes.
Quarenghi implemented these principles in his buildings in the style of Russian classicism.
Painting "Alexandrovsky Palace". Artist A.M. Gornostaev. 1847. From the collection of the Hermitage Museum.
Vincenzo Brenna
The Italian architect Vincenzo Brenna (1745-1820) worked in Russia in 1783-1802. He participated in the construction of the Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg (together with V.I. Bazhenov), palaces in Pavlovsk and Gatchina (Grand Gatchina Palace).
Great Gatchina Palace.
Charles Cameron
Charles Cameron (1740 - 1812) came to Russia in 1779. The architect's work in the style of Russian classicism includes a complex in Tsarskoe Selo (attached to the palace created by Rastrelli), which included Cameron Gallery.
The Cameron Gallery has widely spaced thin columns of the Ionic order, which give lightness to the top, elevated on arcades lined with gray Pudozh stone. The basis of the image is the contrast between the rough rough surface of the cladding and the fawn tone of the walls, white panels and medallions.
Cameron Gallery.
Cameron's other work - Pavlovsk Ensemble. The architect took an Italian villa with a flat dome as a basis. The palace is a square with a round hall in the center, galleries cover the space of the courtyard.
Pavlovsk Ensemble. Architect Cameron.
Classicism in Russian architecture played a big role in creating the appearance of Moscow. Petersburg and the provinces. Buildings created two centuries ago today retain their attractiveness, they house educational and government institutions, museums.
Among artistic styles Classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century, is of no small importance. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and manifested himself in almost all types of European and Russian art. He often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of its formation in France.
Each country has its own age of classicism. It first developed in France - back in the 17th century, and a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism had already begun in other countries. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundation for its further development.
What is classicism as a movement?
The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means “exemplary”. The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as the norm to which one should strive. The authors of the works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.
The main features of classicism
All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:
- a rational approach to the image and the exclusion of everything related to sensuality;
- the main purpose of a person is to serve the state;
- strict canons in everything;
- an established hierarchy of genres, the mixing of which is unacceptable.
Concretization of artistic features
Analysis individual species art helps to understand how the style of “classicism” was embodied in each of them.
How classicism was realized in literature
In this type of art, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with words was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature certainly required compliance with three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit within a day), place (there was no movement in space). More recognition in this style was given to J. Molière, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia).
Development of classicism in Russia
The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, unlike Western European classicism, relied more on national traditions. This is where his originality manifested itself.
Initially it came to architecture, where it reached its greatest heights. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, and country estates of the nobility. The creation of architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is, deserves special attention. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoe Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the Spit of Vasilievsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.
The pinnacle of the architects’ work can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the design of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.
No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schlüter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of landscape art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything amazes with its proportionality and cleanliness of execution.
Literary direction in Russia
The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.
However, the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is was made by the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov. He developed a system of three styles, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a model of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.
The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy “The Minor.” In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the features of Russian comedy include the following points:
- a clear division of heroes into negative and positive and the presence of a reasoner expressing the position of the author;
- the presence of a love triangle;
- the punishment of vice and the triumph of good in the finale.
Works of the classicism era as a whole became the most important component in the development of world art.