Instructions
Democracy can be direct or indirect. In the first case, the government of the state is carried out directly by its citizens. In the second, the country is governed by deputies to whom the population delegates these powers. In this case, management occurs on behalf of the people.
Democracy has its defining characteristics. Basic characteristic feature democratic system is human freedom, which is elevated to the rank of law. That is, the effect of any normative act and document adopted by public authorities should not limit this freedom or infringe upon it.
Democracy implies that power should not be concentrated in one hand. Therefore, power has different levels - regional and local. They are the ones who directly interact with the population and are called upon to take into account their wishes and aspirations in their activities and be guided by them. Any citizen living in this territory has the right to directly interact with government officials.
The fullness of interaction between citizens and authorities is not limited by religious or ideological views, or nationality. A democratic society and state assumes that all its members and citizens have equal rights. In such a country and society, everyone is given freedom of speech and the opportunity to create and participate in any religious, social or political organizations.
The people have the right to express their opinions through referendums and freely choose government bodies and the head of state. This is not only a right, but also a civic duty. The participation of the population, which is a conglomeration of people with different religious views and different mentalities, in elections allows all groups of the population to realize their opportunity to govern the country. This allows the views and needs of all citizens to be taken into account.
Democracy is the option government system, in which it is possible to achieve consensus between all layers and public associations representing the state.
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Totalitarian democracy is also called imitative democracy, since in this political regime the power of the people is only declared, but in reality ordinary citizens do not take part in governing the state or participate minimally.
Totalitarianism and its signs
Totalitarian democracy is one of the forms of totalitarianism, but at the same time, outwardly it retains the signs of a democratic system: the rotation of the head of state, the election of government bodies, universal suffrage, etc.Totalitarianism is a system of government that presupposes the establishment of total control over all aspects of the life of society in general and each person in particular. At the same time, the state forcibly regulates the lives of all members of society, completely depriving them of the right to independence not only in actions, but also in thoughts.
The main signs of totalitarianism: the existence of a single state ideology, which must be supported by all residents of the country; strict censorship; state control over funds mass media; relations in the country are based on the following position: “only what is recognized by the authorities is allowed, everything else is prohibited”; police control is carried out over the entire society in order to identify dissidents; bureaucracy in all spheres of life.
Under totalitarianism, the border between state and society is actually erased, since everything is controlled and strictly regulated. The area of a person's personal life is very limited.
Totalitarian democracy in history
The reasons for the formation of totalitarian democracy are still debatable. Such systems are formed, as a rule, after the abrupt establishment of democracy in countries with an authoritarian or totalitarian regime: a political coup, revolution, etc. Usually in these cases the population is not yet sufficiently politically literate, which is often abused by people who come to power. Despite the fact that government bodies are elected by popular vote, the results of these elections are always predictable in advance. Moreover, such stability is largely ensured not through direct manipulation. Administrative resources, control of the media, public organizations, the economy and investments - these are the tools used by the ruling elite in a system such as a totalitarian democracy.A striking example of such a political system in history is the state structure of the USSR. Despite the proclamation of the constitution and the declaration of universal equality, in fact the country was led by the highest ranks of the Communist Party. The political system in the Soviet Union is analyzed in detail in the book of the famous French humanist philosopher Raymond Aron, “Democracy and Totalitarianism.”
DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY
D. and state are not identical. concepts. States can be undemocratic and anti-democratic. These are, for example, despotic. monarchy during the era of slavery, absolute monarchies during the period of decomposition of feudalism, fascist and semi-fascist states in the era of the general crisis of capitalism. D. is a type of state (bourgeois democratic republic, people's democratic republic, Soviet republic), which is characterized by official. recognition of the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority (see V.I. Lenin, ibid., vol. 25, p. 428). But democracy cannot be understood in isolation from the essence and role of the state; it should not be identified with the subordination of the minority to the majority. The state's recognition of the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority has different antagonistic meanings. social-economic formations and in the transition period from capitalism to socialism. The will of the majority can apply. state by will only when determined. conditions related to the nature of ownership of the means of production and the class composition of society. For this it is necessary that the basic the tools and means of production were not in the hands of an insignificant minority of members of society, but in the hands of the majority or the entire people. In antagonistic class formations - slaveholding, feudal and capitalist - private ownership of the tools and means of production dominates. This determines the character of societies. and state building and serves ch. the cause of the dominance of the exploiting minority and the subordination of the majority to it. The experience of history shows that the people cannot rule if they are economically driven. or non-economic by coercion, or at the same time by one and another method they are forced to work for the exploitative.
Socialist the revolution that triumphed in the USSR, and then in a number of other countries, turned the main tools and means of production in societies. own. Thanks to this, true democracy became possible. D. depends on the form of ownership and production. relationships and, in turn, influences them. “Every democracy, like any political democracy in general (inevitable until the abolition of classes is completed, until a classless society is created), ultimately serves production and is ultimately determined by the production relations of a given society” (V. I. Lenin, ibid., vol. 32, p. 60).
For valid the dominance of the will of the majority is necessary for the class that actually implements the state. leadership of society, alone (or together with his allies) constituted the majority of the country's population. This condition of notes in capitalist. society, just as it did not exist in the eras preceding capitalism. This condition arises in the era of the dictatorship of the proletariat. For valid To identify and implement the will of the majority, it is necessary for the state to proclaim and guarantee the rights and freedoms of citizens, ensuring the implementation of this will in legislation, management and other forms of manifestation of the state. authorities. This condition is not present in any class-antagonistic. society. It is evident under the conditions of the dictatorship of the proletariat.
Burzh. the state recognizes the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority and establishes certain policies. (parliaments, local governments, etc.) and legal. institutions (political freedom of citizens, equality of citizens under the law and before the law, etc.) in order to give their class will the appearance of a national one. will or will of the majority of the people. All sorts of statements from the bourgeoisie. ideologists about abstract freedom and equality without taking into account the nature of production. relations, the class composition of the population and the real balance of forces in the class struggle are a deception of the working people. Burzh. The state's formal recognition of universal freedom and equality covers up the factual one. lack of freedom and economic inequality of the vast majority of capitalist members. society and the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.
The bourgeoisie divides individual rights into human and citizen rights. The individual considered in connection with the so-called civil society, calls a person, and the same individual living and acting in political. sphere, is called a citizen. This division of individual rights is caused by antagonistic. capitalist nature society and the character of the bourgeois. state, which represents and protects the interests not of society as a whole, but only of the selfish. interests of a minority of its members - the bourgeoisie. Modern bourgeois political Activists and theorists hypocritically talk about the sacredness and inviolability of human rights and freedoms. The fact that the goal of capitalism is deliberately hushed up. production is not the satisfaction of the material and cultural needs of man, but the extraction of capitalist. arrived. The widely organized reactionary campaign against the rights and freedoms won by the working people through many years of struggle is being left in the shadows. The term "D." imperialists denote the dominance of imperialism in international affairs. arena directed against peoples who are truly free or liberated from social and colonial slavery.
Burzh. D. in different countries and in different historical periods. stages has varying degrees of development. Free competition usually corresponds to D. in politics. life of society, and capitalist. monopolies - to political. reactions along all lines. During the monopoly period. capitalism, class contradictions are exacerbated (see Imperialism). The working class unites everything democratic. forces that oppose the anti-democratic. trends of capitalism. “That curtailed democracy and the limited social security that workers have under capitalism were achieved and maintained as a result of many years of sharp battles” (Foster W., The Superiority of World Socialism over World Capitalism, see “To Aid Political Self-Education,” 1958, No. 8, p. 66). The bourgeoisie, seeing a danger for itself in the development of democracy, is trying to nullify it by planting and using factual. privileges of the minority and, above all, such as wealth, bourgeois. education, connections, as well as a direct rejection of D. The working class cannot be indifferent to the forms of domination of the bourgeoisie. The struggle for the establishment, preservation and expansion of democracy in capitalism. countries has a huge impact on the course and outcome of the entire class struggle of the working masses. The outcome of the struggle in modern times. era depends on the relationship of class forces in capitalism. countries, on a cut of creatures. influence is exerted by the growing power of the world socialist. systems and the rise of national liberation. movements.
Burzh. D., being a great historical. progress compared to feudal state, is nevertheless “a paradise for the rich, a trap and deception for the exploited, for the poor” (Lenin V.I., Soch., 4th ed., vol. 28, p. 222). The socialist revolution radically changes the class essence and content of democracy and shifts the center of gravity from the formal recognition of rights and freedoms to the actual recognition. their feasibility (D. guarantees) and extends democracy not only to the political sphere. life, but also to all other spheres of society. life. Under capitalism, democracy is carried out exclusively in politics. region and comes down mainly to the democracy of elections to parliaments and local governments. Socialist the revolution establishes equality of rights for all workers, destroys national and racial oppression, proclaims the right to rest and freedom of conscience in the sense of freedom of religion and anti-religion. propaganda, creates conditions for the free activity of numerous. society organizations of workers - parties, trade unions and other voluntary societies. All this means an unprecedented expansion of labor for workers. Under the dictatorship of the proletariat, democratic rights and freedoms are real and guaranteed. Contents socialist. D. is characterized by the constant and decisive participation of the broadest masses of the country's population in politics. life, in the management of the state, the equality of citizens and their real opportunity to enjoy democracy. rights and freedoms: freedom of speech, press, rallies and meetings, processions and demonstrations, active and passive elections. law, regardless of gender, national and race.
Organization and activity of the socialist. state, communist parties and other associations of workers included in the system of the dictatorship of the proletariat are based on the principles of democratic centralism.
The working class can implement its dictatorship only by relying on democracy. will introduce. institutions of a new, higher type. The classics of Marxism gave a deep introduction. institutions, which were created by the Paris Commune of 1871. Lenin created the doctrine of Soviets, the fundamental feature of which he saw, in particular, in the fact that the council deputies, i.e. a kind of parliamentarians, “must work themselves, implement their own laws, check what happens in life themselves, answer directly to their voters” (ibid., vol. 25, p. 396).
A necessary feature and obligatory. socialist condition D. in the period of transition from capitalism to socialism is the suppression of the resistance of the exploiters, the degree and forms of which are different in different countries and at different stages of their development and depend on Ch. arr. from the strength of resistance of the overthrown classes. Hence the variety of suppression methods. Moreover, none of them can be absolute. In the USSR, during the transition to socialism, the exploiters were deprived of the right to vote. right With the creation of the socialist society building Sov. the state switched to universal electorate. right. Lenin foresaw that in future socialists. revolutions will not necessarily involve depriving the bourgeoisie of political right In China and other countries. democracy got by without depriving the bourgeoisie of the vote. rights, except for that part of it that offered armed resistance to the new government.
A socialist man. society has full rights in farms. life of society. He has in the sphere of production and distribution of material goods basic. rights: the right to work, to rest, security in old age, in case of illness and disability, the right to personal property, the right to inherit it. Socialist state, attaching great importance to these socio-economic. rights, does not in any way diminish the role and importance of citizens’ freedoms in other spheres of life. Burzh. and right-wing socialist. the authors contrast socio-economic. rights and material security of socialist citizens. state their political freedom. Many of them consider the USA, England and certain other capitalist. country's political standard. D. For example, G. Stassen in the book. “Man was born to be free” (N. Stassen, Man was meant to be free, 1951) depicts the USA and England as bastions of politics. freedom of citizens. However, speaking about freedom of speech, press, personality, bourgeois. politicians and scientists are silent about such freedoms as the freedom of the people from exploitation, the freedom of workers from economic harm. crises, unemployment and poverty. There are no such freedoms in capitalism. countries. These freedoms are characteristic of socialist. society.
Socialist D., which is a world-historical progress compared to the bourgeoisie. state and bourgeois D., represents the full power and full rights of the working people, led by the working class. It differs in consistency. peacefulness. It opposes imperialism. wars, considers them as a grave crime. “Imperialist war,” wrote V.I. Lenin, “is the triple, one might say, of democracy (a – every war replaces “rights” with violence; b – in general there is a denial of democracy; c – imperialist war completely equates republics with monarchies), but the awakening and growth of the socialist uprising against imperialism is inextricably linked with the growth of democratic resistance and indignation" (Works, 4th ed., vol. 23, p. 13).
Burzh. D., firstly, does not exclude international. capitalist policy monopolies, which are characterized by the Cold War, preparation for world war, military. adventures, unheard of national-colonial oppression, strangulation and robbery of weak countries by “advanced” capitalist countries. powers; secondly, capitalism is used. monopolies against the working masses fighting for. Under the cover of D. bourgeois protection. states carry out legislative, administrative, police and judicial measures directed against the movement of peace supporters, progressive organizations exposing preparations for a new world war, advocating the prohibition of atomic and hydrogen weapons. People's struggle the masses for democracy, rights and freedoms are inextricably intertwined with the struggle for peace.
Socialist In its development, democracy goes through a period of transition from capitalism to socialism, a period of socialism and a gradual transition from socialism to communism. The pattern of its development is the expansion and strengthening, the increase in material opportunities and guarantees of democracy and those freedoms and rights that flow from the power of the people.
The XXI Congress of the CPSU (1959) noted that the period of extensive construction of communism in the USSR is characterized by the full development of socialism. D., involving the broadest sections of the population in all societies. affairs, increasing the role of societies. organizations in all areas of states, farms. And cultural life countries, gradual transfer of societies. organizations of a number of state functions, strengthening democratic guarantees. freedoms and human rights.
Marxism-Leninism proceeds from the fact that D. as a political. the institution will die out under communism with the same inevitability as the state, “the functions of public administration will lose their political character and turn into direct people’s management of the affairs of society” (Khrushchev N.S., On the target figures for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1959–1965 years, 1959, p. 119), but the principles of D. will not disappear, but will be transformed. Execution of societies. functions that will remain under communism (planned and organized distribution of labor, regulation of working hours, etc.) will be carried out on the basis of self-government of the working masses. In society In workers' organizations, complete D. will be the main beginning of their initiative. Lenin wrote that in communist society there will be “really complete democracy, becoming a habit and therefore dying out... Full democracy is equal to no democracy. This is not, but the truth!” ("Marxism on the State", 1958, p. 55).
Lit.: Marx K., Criticism of the Gotha Program, M., 1953; Engels F., The origin of the family, private property and the state, M., 1953; Lenin V.I., State and Revolution, Works, 4th ed., vol. 25; his, Theses and report on bourgeois democracy and the dictatorship of the proletariat on March 4 [at the First Congress of the Communist International on March 2–6, 1919], ibid., vol. 28; his, Proletarian Revolution and the renegade Kautsky, ibid.; his, Speech about deceiving the people with the slogans of freedom and equality on May 19 [at the First All-Russian Congress on Extra-School Education on May 6–19, 1919], ibid., vol. 29; his, Marxism about the state, M., 1958; Khrushchev N.S., On the benchmark figures for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1959–1965. Report at the extraordinary XXI Congress of the CPSU on January 27, 1959, M., 1959; Declaration of the Meeting of Representatives of Communist and Workers' Parties of Socialist Countries, held in Moscow on November 14–16, 1957, M., 1957; Mao Tse-tung, On the Dictatorship of People's Democracy, 1949; About people's democracy in European countries. Sat. articles, M., 1956; Peskov E. B. and Shabad V. A., Socialist democracy and its “critics”, M., 1957; Shkadarevich I. I., Democracy of Millions, M., 1958; Kadlecová E., Socialisticke vlastenectvi, , 1957; Bystřina I., Lidová demokracie, Prague, 1957; Flegle A., Geschichte der Democratie, Bd l – Altertums, Nürnberg, 1880; Glover T. R., Democracy in the Ancient World, Camb., 1927; Croiset A., Les démocraties antiques, P., 1909; Lesku W. E. Η., Democracy and Liberty, v. 1–2, L., 1908; Ruggiero G. de, Storia del liberalismo europeo, Bari, 1925; Borgeaud S., The rise of Modern Democracy in Old and New England, L., 1894; Hattersley, Alan F., A short History of Democracy, Camb., 1930, containing bibliography; Allen J. W., A history of Political Thought in the Sixteenth Century, L., 1928; Figgis J. N., Studies of Political Thought from Gerson to Grotius, 2 ed., L.–Edin., 1916; Gooch G. P., English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth century, 2 ed., Camb., 1927.
A. Denisov. Moscow.
Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .
DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY (from the Greek δημοκρατία - democracy) is a form of government in which popular rule of the majority of the population is carried out in the interests of the majority and with the help of the majority. For the first time, a democratic state system was implemented in Ancient Greece in Athens under Solon (7th century BC) and developed by Cleisthenes (6th century BC) in his “representative government” - the Council of Five Hundred. “Democracy” itself began to be used to designate the form that existed in Athens political system later, around mid. 5th century Initially, “isonomia” (Ισονομία - equality of all before the law) and related “isegoria” (?σηγορία - equal right for all citizens to speak in the people’s assembly and cast a vote), “isocracy” (?σοκρατία - autocracy) were used. Ancient authors (Plato, Aristotle, Herodotus) considered this form of government as a polis system, in which only free native citizens have full and equal rights. Metics (semi-citizen migrants) had significantly limited rights, and slaves had no rights at all.
The democratic freedoms of modern times are significantly wider than the freedoms of the ancient republic, based on slavery, because they become the formal right of everyone, and not the privilege of a few. The subordinate legislation of all citizens, state and public organizations received special development in the concept of democracy by A. de Tocqueville, the most influential in modern socio-political studies. Tocqueville understood by “democracy” not only a certain form of organization of society. In his opinion, this is also a process taking place in society. Tocqueville was the first to warn about the danger of combining formal equality and absolute power - “democratic despotism.”
The philosophical basis of democracy is the relationship between freedom and equality as socio-political values, the real embodiment of which occurs in the relevant state institutions of democracy - direct or representative. The latter is now most common in the form of a rule of law state with its supreme power, which, however, does not extend to the inseparable and inalienable rights of the individual. The guarantee of individual rights in such a state is the separation of powers - legislative, executive and judicial, decentralization of power in the socio-economic and cultural spheres (the theory of “institutional infrastructure” of government bodies). At the same time, democratic associations - civil and political - take upon themselves the protection of the rights of citizens. They become intermediaries between the central government and various layers of society, representing the interests of the latter, and defend the inalienable right of citizens to independence and free initiative, which is subordinate to law. Freedom of the press and trial by jury also contribute to the real implementation of human rights in society.
According to the theorists of democracy of the 20th century. (for example, J. Schumpeter and W. Rostow), liberal ones, such as respect for the individual and the equality of all people, freedom of speech and press, freedom of conscience, etc., are best ensured precisely through increased participation of the masses in political life. R. Dahl and C. Lindblom, with the help of “polyarchy,” conduct a more realistic analysis of existing democratic systems, leaving aside abstract democratic ideals. The real implementation of democracy is significantly complicated by the progressive concentration of economic power in modern society in the hands of the “ruling elite,” which creates oligarchic power and politics, often turning from democracy into kleptocracy.
Lit.: Dahl R. Introduction to the theory of democracy. M., 1991; Leipmrt A. Democracy in multi-component societies. M„ 1997; Novgorodtsev P.I. The crisis of modern legal consciousness. M., 1909; Political science: new directions. M., 1999; Tocqueville A. De. Democracy in America. M„ 1992; Schumpeter I. Capitalism, socialism and democracy. M„ 1995; Halt P. R. Governing the Economy: The Politics of Stale Intervention in Britain and France. Cambr., 1986: Huffman G. State, Power and Democracy. Brighton, 1988; f/ordlmser E. n the Autonomy of the Democratic State. Cambr., 1981. Consolidated encyclopedia of aphorisms
a political system in which power legally belongs to the people and the freedom and equality of citizens is proclaimed. There was slaveholding, feudal, bourgeois, and socialist democracy. It differs from authoritarian and totalitarian regimes by the formal recognition of the equality of all before the law, the proclamation of political rights and freedoms within the framework of the country's Constitution, the election of representative bodies of power, universal suffrage, and respect for human rights.
Excellent definition
DEMOCRACY
Greek dnmokratia, literally - the power of the demos, i.e. the people, democracy) - one of the forms of the state, in which power is either formally legal (in exploitative states), or legally and actually (in states socialist type) belongs to the people, as well as to society. and state system, characterized by a set of definitions. rights and freedoms of citizens. First encountered in Herodotus, the term "D." established itself (as a designation of one of the forms of the state) and passed into the science of modern times from Aristotle. The first type of D. was the slave owner. D., which existed in a number of the most economically developed ancient Greek. policies (later, already in the 19th century, the term military democracy appeared in science to characterize the social system of the era of the decomposition of primitive communal relations and the emergence of a class society). Most a shining example ancient slave owner D. is state. structure of Athens 5-4 centuries. BC. (see Athens Ancient). The supreme authority in Athens was the people. assembly (ekklesia), gathered ca. 40 times a year. The council (bule) actually played the role of a commission that prepared draft decisions of the ecclesia. All officials were accountable to the ecclesia and were most often chosen by lot. An important part of Athens. D. there was a trial by jury (helium). For the performance of various positions, incl. for participation in helium, and at one time for presence on the people. At the meeting, poor citizens received a small fee. This entire system ensured widespread participation of even the poorest male citizens in the management of the state. However, not only the huge mass of slaves, but also thousands of free Greeks from other Hellenic cities who permanently resided in Attica were deprived of their rank. political right Despite the class. limited slave ownership. D. - D. privileged minority - D.'s victory in Athens played a huge role in the economics. and the cultural flourishing of Athens in the 5th-4th centuries. BC. Democratic the device existed in many Greek policies, especially those that were part of the Athenian sea. union (see Arche of Athens). However, in general, slavery was not a typical form of slave ownership. state For the era of feudalism, D. is even less typical. Only elements of D. existed in some European countries. Middle-century cities, where, as a result of guild uprisings against the patriciate, participation in the mountains. Relatively wide layers of artisans came into administration (but only rich craftsmen penetrated into the city government bodies, and a guild oligarchy was established). Formally democratic. the republic was the Novgorod feudal republic; supreme body The authorities held a meeting here, in which all adult husbands could participate. population and even free peasants from surrounding villages. In the department districts and in special conditions (underdevelopment of feudal relations, preservation of the community, etc.) elements of primitive democratic continued to exist. organizations (for example, certain Swiss communities, the social structure of the Cossacks). Anticipation of certain bourgeois principles. D. appears during the Reformation of the 16th century. - in the republic form of organization of Calvinist communities (with the election of pastors by believers). But the broad problem of D. as a form of politics. power arose for the first time in the era immediately preceding the early bourgeoisie. revolutions, and practically - during the revolutions themselves. A reflection of the division within the bourgeoisie and the degree of closeness of its various layers to the people was the different assessment of D. French. political writers of the 18th century: for some (for example, P. Holbach) democracy is an undesirable, “bad” form of government, others (J. J. Rousseau) are supporters of the broadest democracy. Rousseau, as the most brilliant theorist of democracy of that period when the bourgeoisie was a rising class, proclaimed that the entire state belongs to the people. sovereignty - only the general will of the people has the right to create laws and establish government; he is a supporter of the so-called. "immediate D." (i.e., one where the entire people exercises power directly, and not through representative institutions). At the end of 18 - 1st quarter. 19th centuries in conditions of serfdom. autocratic Russia is especially clearly plural. democratic the principles were formulated by Radishchev in Pestel's "Russian Truth". The first revolutionaries bourgeois political manifestos and constitutions - Amer. Declaration of Independence 1776, French. Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789), French. The constitutions of 1791 and especially 1793 are imbued with the ideas of the people. sovereignty and contractual origin of state. authorities. In the bourgeoisie state-wah feud. class-represent. institutions gave way to new ones. bodies created to participate in legislation and control over government; the rights of the head of state were precisely defined and limited by the articles of the constitution; were proclaimed and enshrined in political constitutions. rights and freedoms of citizens (personal integrity, religious freedom, freedom of speech, press, etc.). All this was a big step forward in comparison with the feud. state and feud. society We are building. However, D., born a revolutionary. the struggle of the masses turned out to be not “general democracy,” but only a class, a bourgeoisie. D. - a form of political domination of the bourgeoisie. In practice, depending on the ratio of class. forces in one country or another in the bourgeoisie. state-wahs established one or another degree of D. (countries of “classical” bourgeois D. of the 19th century - England, as well as the USA, Switzerland), but always bourgeois D. - limited, truncated and formal, with many reservations and exceptions, aimed at preventing active participation in politics. life of broad sections of the people. Burzh. political thought created a huge apologetic. literature, not only extolling the bourgeoisie. D., but most importantly - falsifying its true essence (for example, the French "democratic school" of the 19th century - A. Tocqueville "Democracy in America", Lamartine "Parliamentary France"; John Stuart Mill - "On Liberty", " Representative board", etc.). For bourgeois apologists. D. the announcement of the bourgeoisie is especially characteristic. D. by a supra-class state, “pure” D., “D. for all”, recognition as a mandatory attribute of D. protection of the “sacred right of property” (the latter clearly reveals the bourgeois essence of these theories). In the ranks of modern defenders of the bourgeois D. there are also right-wing Social-Democrats. leaders. V.I. Lenin subjected to devastating criticism the bourgeois reformist views on democracy ("State and Revolution", "Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky" and other works of Lenin). He showed that in a society divided into classes, one can only talk about class. D., remaining even in the most “democratic.” exploitative state is only D. for the minority, D. for the exploiters, which is bourgeois. Democracy remains “inevitably narrow, secretly repelling the poor, and therefore completely hypocritical and deceitful,” he debunked the bourgeois-liberal opposition between democracy and dictatorship, showing that the bourgeois. D. is only the most thinly veiled form of dictatorship of the bourgeoisie. At the same time, Lenin emphasized that the form of the bourgeoisie is not indifferent to the proletariat. state that he should use burzh. D. to unite and protect their interests. “We are for a democratic republic, as the best form of state for the proletariat under capitalism, but we have no right to forget that wage slavery is the lot of the people even in the most democratic bourgeois republic” (Works, vol. 25, p. 370). The era of imperialism is characterized by the transition of the bourgeoisie to politics. reactions along all lines, incl. curtailment of D. Imperialist. The bourgeoisie is seeking expansion of the executive. power at the expense of parliament, actually. transfer to the government of legislators. powers, is attacking democracy. rights and freedoms, and during the period of the general crisis of capitalism, in some cases, completely eliminates democracy in a number of states, establishing fascism. dictatorship or other forms of authoritarian regime. At the same time, the influence of the world socialist system and the struggle of the working people are forcing monopoly. the bourgeoisie to make certain concessions, to take steps towards a certain expansion of democracy. rights and institutions. At the same time, the bourgeoisie is strengthening. propaganda seeking to disguise the dictatorship of monopoly. bourgeoisie under “general democracy,” under the “welfare state.” Widely advertising supposedly democratic. the character of his elect. systems, monopolistic The bourgeoisie, using such powerful means as capital, the press, radio, cinema, television, imposes its candidates on voters. But in the most dangerous times for politicians. imperialist domination bourgeoisie moments it replaces the bourgeoisie. D. to his open dictatorship. The deepest revelation of the bourgeoisie. D. serves as the establishment of the 1933 fascism. dictatorship in bourgeois-democratic Germany. In historical the period when the bourgeoisie was mainly progressive class, the establishment of democracy was part of the tasks of the bourgeois revolutions. At the end of the 19th century - the beginning. 20th centuries the problem of the struggle for democracy was posed by Lenin in a new way: even in a revolution whose content was bourgeois-democratic. The character and role of the vanguard and hegemon in the struggle for democracy must belong to the working class - only it can carry the bourgeois-democratic movement to the end. revolution and thereby provide the necessary prerequisites for socialism. revolution. Lenin's ideas about the meaning of democracy. transformations in the struggle for socialism were further developed in modern times. conditions in international documents. communist movement (in the Statement of the Meeting of Representatives of Communist and Workers' Parties in 1960, the CPSU Program of 1961 and other communist parties). In modern conditions where there is a monopoly. capital is more and more clearly revealing its anti-democracy essence, the connection between the struggle for democracy and the struggle for socialism is becoming even closer. Basic content of general democratic the struggle becomes a struggle against capitalism. monopolies, while playing a decisive role in the development of modern. mass antimonopolistic democratic movements plays the creation of a system of class unions, the ability of the proletariat and its party to unite the various social strata suffering from the oppression of monopolies, on the basis of common democratic demands. IN modern conditions the struggle for democracy, led by the working class and its parties, cannot consist only in the defense of existing democracies. freedoms and institutions. Capitalist Communist Party countries put forward the slogan of uniting all democratic, anti-monopoly. forces to fight against the omnipotence of monopolies - for the revival, development and renewal of democracy as a stage for the transition to socialism. revolution and the establishment of a new type of democracy - socialist. D. The struggle for D. is considered as an integral part of the struggle for socialism; their inextricable connection unites both with the struggle against imperialism and with the struggle for peace. The struggle for D. is one of the most current problems development of young national states freed from colonial dependence. The Communist Parties of these countries emphasize that the struggle for national liberation and social progress cannot be completed without the development of democracy, without the democratization of all societies. and state life. They advocate the formation of a state of national democracy, opening up the prospects of non-capitalism. development ways. The highest form of democracy is socialist democracy. Already the Parisian workers, who fought on the barricades during the June uprising of 1848 under the slogan “Long live the democratic and social republic,” essentially expressed the desire to establish a new, not bourgeois, but socialist. D. This desire became scientific. expression in the “Manifesto of the Communist Party” of Marx and Engels, who first connected the concept of democracy with socialism. revolution, the destruction of private property and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat: “... the first step in the workers’ revolution is the transformation of the proletariat into the ruling class, the conquest of democracy” (Works, 2nd ed., vol. 4, p. 446). Lenin, following Marx ("The Civil War in France") in analyzing the lessons of the Paris Commune of 1871, saw in its political establishments the prototype of the new socialist. D. and more specifically - the prototype of one of its forms - the power of the Soviets (see "State and Revolution"). Socialist D., born in a fierce class. struggle, did not hide behind itself, like the bourgeoisie. D., with the hypocritical slogan “D. for all,” but openly proclaimed that this D. of the transition period will at the same time be a dictatorship of the proletariat. “Democracy for the gigantic majority of the people and suppression by force, that is, exclusion from democracy of the exploiters, oppressors of the people - this is the modification of democracy during the transition from capitalism to communism” (V.I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 25, p. .434). Lenin showed, therefore, that the fundamental difference between socialist. D., even at its very origin, is that it represents D. for the overwhelming majority, that it involves the broadest masses of working people in the management of the state. Socialist D. exists in the form of a republic of Soviets and in the form of people's democracy. The current constitutions are socialist. state-in (see Constitution of the USSR, Constitutions of foreign socialist states) are enshrined in legislation fundamentally. democratic principles: sovereignty of the people; universal elect. right; proclaim the fundamental democratic freedom: speech, press, meetings and rallies, street processions and demonstrations, conscience, personal integrity; the rights of citizens: to work, to education, to rest, to material security in old age, in case of illness or loss of ability to work, etc. Thus, socialist. D. includes not only the “old”, traditional political. freedom (receiving a fundamentally new content), but also many others. completely new - social - rights. Socialist D. provides freedom from exploitation for the first time. D. represents the objective demand of the socialist. building, because societies. ownership of the means of production presupposes society. people management economics, the building of socialism is possible only thanks to the involvement of the people. masses to manage the affairs of the society. Socialist D., in contrast to the bourgeoisie, not only proclaims the rights of the people, but also guarantees their actual implementation. Socialist Since its inception, D. has been subjected to fierce attacks from the bourgeoisie. and reformist ideologists. Socialist The state is portrayed by them as anti-democratic, “totalitarian”, “dictatorial” (with these concepts they unite both socialist and fascist regimes that have deeply compromised themselves); as the ideal of “complete” and “unlimited by anything” D. socialist. the state is opposed to you by the bourgeoisie. D., "free world" (or "Western world"). The anti-communist right-wing socialist and reformist press contrasts the social and political system of the socialist states with a certain “liberal”, “democratic.” socialism (which in reality turns out to be only a slightly embellished capitalism); "democratic socialism" has become official. modern doctrine right-wing socialists. Socialist D. is a developing phenomenon. Its mechanism takes shape as the new system strengthens; its development does not always occur “in a straight line.” Thus, in the USSR, with the victory of socialism, social prerequisites for the further development of socialism arose. D. This was reflected in the Constitution of 1936 (the abolition of restrictions on voting rights based on the class principle, the introduction of general and equal elections, etc.). However, under the conditions of Stalin’s personality cult, the development of the Soviet Union. D. slowed down. During this period, such a gross violation of D. took place as a violation of socialism. legality. The cult of personality was fundamentally contrary to socialism. D., he caused enormous damage to it (although he could not change the deeply democratic essence of the socialist system). The struggle to overcome the harmful consequences of the cult of personality, which unfolded after the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), is at the same time a struggle to restore Leninist party norms. and state life, for the development of socialism. D. With the completion of the development of the state dictatorship of the proletariat into a national one. State proletarian D. has turned into a national one. D. The course for further broad development of socialism. D. is associated with the entry of the USSR into the period of extensive construction of communism. This is reflected in the legislation. acts and part. documents from the 50s and 60s. (primarily in the new CPSU Program (1961)) and in state practice. construction (increasing the role and intensifying the activities of Soviets and public organizations, expanding the rights of the union republics, changing the forms and methods of management of industry, construction and agriculture, expanding the circle of elected officials, periodically updating the composition of representative bodies, consistent . exercise of the right to recall deputies, national discussion of the most important state laws and regulations, organization of broad popular control, etc. Comprehensive development of socialism. D. is ch. direction of development of socialist statehood during the construction of communism. In the process of further development, socialist. D. will occur, the CPSU Program indicates, a gradual transformation of state bodies. authorities into the bodies of societies. self-government. D. as a form of state is gradually dying out, giving way to D. as a form of non-political. organization of society. See also State. Lit. (except for the index in the article): Communists and democracy (exchange of views), "PMiS", 1963, NoNo 4-7; Duclos J., The Future of Democracy, trans. from French, M., 1963; Chernyaev A.S., Causes and character of modern times. democratic movements in countries of developed capitalism, "NNI", 1961, No. 5; Pavlov V.I., Redko I.B., State National. democracy and the transition to non-capitalist. development, "NAiA", 1963, No. 1; Democracy and communism. Questions of the communist theory of democracy. Sat. Art., M., 1962. See also lit. at Art. State. S. F. Kechekyan. Moscow.
A political system that gives citizens the right to participate in political decision-making and elect their representatives to government bodies.
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DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY) In ancient Greek society, democracy meant government by citizens, as opposed to rule by a tyrant or an aristocracy. In modern democratic systems, citizens do not rule directly; they usually elect their representatives to parliament through a competitive party system. Democracy in this sense is often associated with the protection of individual freedoms from government interference. There are several stages in the history of sociological research on democracy. Many concepts of democracy developed in the 19th century, such as that of A. de Tocqueville, focused on the social consequences of allowing traditionally subordinate groups the opportunity for greater political participation, a theme subsequently developed by theorists mass society. More recent work has explored the relationship social development and parliamentary democracy. Researchers have tried to link democracy to the degree of industrialization, the level of educational achievement and the amount of national wealth. It was noted that democracy is naturally supported by a higher level of industrial development, which ensures wider participation of the population in politics. Other approaches have focused on the question of how trade union democracy can lead to bureaucracy, and on the relationship between democracy and citizenship. There is currently debate about whether modern democracies truly represent the interests of their citizens or protect individual freedoms. Some state theorists argue that Democrats serve only the interests of the elite or capitalist class. See also: Associational Democracy; Vote; Citizenship; Voluntary organizations; Industrial Democracy; Capitalism; Michels; Political parties; Political participation; Elite. Lit.: Dahl (1989); Pierson (1996)
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For quite some time now, the literature has repeatedly expressed the idea that democracy will naturally and inevitably be a consequence of the development of statehood. The concept was interpreted as a natural state that will occur immediately at a certain stage, regardless of the assistance or resistance of individuals or their associations. Ancient Greek thinkers were the first to use the term. Let us consider further in detail (the basic concepts).
Terminology
Democracy is a concept introduced by the ancient Greeks. Literally it means Is a form government, which presupposes the participation of citizens in it, their equality before the norms of legislation, and the provision of certain political freedoms and rights to the individual. In the classification proposed by Aristotle, this state of society expressed the “power of all,” which distinguished it from aristocracy and monarchy.
Democracy: concept, types and forms
This state of society is considered in several meanings. Thus, democracy is a concept that expresses the way of organization and work of government agencies and non-governmental organizations. It is also called the established type of state. When they say that they mean the presence of all these meanings. The state has a number of distinctive features. These include:
- Recognition of the people as the supreme source of power.
- Election of key government bodies.
- Equality of citizens, first of all, in the process of exercising their voting rights.
- Subordination of the minority to the majority in decision-making.
Democracy (the concept, types and forms of this institution) has been studied by various scientists. As a result of analysis of theoretical principles and practical experience, thinkers came to the conclusion that this state of society cannot exist without the state. In the literature, the concept of direct democracy is highlighted. It involves the implementation of the will of the people through elected bodies. These are, in particular, local government structures, parliaments, etc. The concept of direct democracy presupposes the implementation of the will of the population or specific social associations through elections, referendums, and meetings. In this case, citizens independently decide certain issues. However, these are not all the external manifestations that characterize democracy. The concept and types of institution can be considered in the context of certain spheres of life: social, economic, cultural, and so on.
State character
Many authors, explaining what democracy is, characterize the concept and features of this institution according to a certain system. First of all, they indicate belonging to the state regime. This is manifested in the population delegating their powers to government agencies. Citizens participate in the management of affairs directly or through elected structures. The population cannot independently exercise all the power that belongs to it. Therefore, it transfers part of its powers to government agencies. The election of authorized structures is another manifestation of the state nature of democracy. In addition, it is expressed in the ability of the authorities to influence the activities and behavior of citizens, to subordinate them to manage the social sphere.
The concept of political democracy
This institution, like a market economy, cannot exist without competition. In this case we are talking about a pluralistic system and opposition. This is manifested in the fact that democracy, the concept and forms of institution, in particular, form the basis of the programs of parties in their struggle for state power. In this state of society, the diversity of existing opinions and ideological approaches to solving pressing issues is taken into account. In democracy, state censorship and dictatorship are excluded. The legislation contains provisions guaranteeing pluralism. These include the right to choose, secret voting, etc. The concept and principles of democracy are based, first of all, on the equality of citizens. It gives the opportunity to choose between different options and directions of development.
Guarantee of rights realization
The concept of democracy in society is associated with the legal opportunities of each citizen in different spheres of life, enshrined at the legislative level. In particular, we are talking about economic, social, civil, cultural and other rights. At the same time, responsibilities for citizens are established. Legality acts as a regime of socio-political life. It manifests itself in the establishment of requirements for all entities, primarily government agencies. The latter must be created and operate on the basis of steady and strict implementation of existing norms. Each government agency and official should have only the necessary amount of powers. Democracy is a concept that is associated with the mutual responsibility of citizens and the state. It involves establishing a requirement to refrain from actions that violate freedoms and rights and create obstacles to the fulfillment of duties by participants in the system.
Functions
Explaining the concept of democracy, it is necessary to separately say about the tasks that this institution implements. The functions are the key directions of influence on social relations. Their goal is to increase the activity of the population in managing public affairs. The concept of democracy is associated not with a static, but with a dynamic state of society. In this regard, the functions of the institution in certain periods of historical development underwent certain changes. Currently, researchers divide them into two groups. The first reveal the connection with social relations, the second - express the internal tasks of the state. Among the most significant functions of the institute are:
Social relations
The connection with them is reflected in the first three functions mentioned above. Political power in the state is organized on democratic principles. Within the framework of this activity, self-organization of the population (self-government) is provided. It acts as a source of state power and is expressed in the presence of appropriate connections between subjects. The regulatory-compromise function is to ensure pluralism of the activities of participants in relations within the framework of cooperation, consolidation and concentration around the interests of the population and the state of various forces. The legal means of ensuring this function is the regulation of the legal statuses of the subjects. In the process of developing and making decisions, only democracy can have a socially stimulating influence on the state. The concept and forms of this institution ensure optimal service of the authorities to the population, taking into account and applying public opinion and citizen activity. This is manifested, in particular, in the ability of citizens to participate in referendums, send letters, applications, and so on.
State tasks
The concept of “representative democracy” is associated with the ability of the population to form bodies of state power and territorial self-government. This is done through voting. Elections in a democratic state are secret, universal, equal and direct. Ensuring the work of government agencies within their competence in accordance with the requirements of the law is carried out through the implementation of the control function. It also presupposes the accountability of all levels of the country's governing apparatus. One of the key functions is considered to be the protective function of democracy. It involves government agencies ensuring security, protection of dignity and honor, freedoms and personal rights, forms of ownership, suppression and prevention of violations of the law.
Initial requirements
They represent the principles on which a democratic regime is based. Their recognition by the international community is determined by the desire to strengthen their anti-totalitarian position. The key principles are:
Ways to implement the will of the population
The functions of democracy are carried out through its institutions and forms. There are quite a lot of the latter. Forms of democracy are considered as its external expression. The key ones include:
- Participation of citizens in the management of social and government affairs. It is realized through representative democracy. In this case, power is exercised by identifying the will of people authorized by the people in elected bodies. Citizens can participate in government directly (through a referendum, for example).
- Creation and operation of a system of government agencies based on transparency, legality, turnover, election, and division of powers. These principles prevent abuse of social authority and official position.
- Legal, first of all, constitutional consolidation of the system of freedoms, duties and rights of citizens and people, ensuring their protection in accordance with established international standards.
Institutes
They represent legal and legitimate components of the system that directly form a democratic regime through the implementation of initial requirements. A prerequisite for the legitimacy of any institution is its legal registration. Legitimacy comes from public recognition and organizational structure. Institutions may differ in their original purpose in solving current government problems. In particular, they distinguish:
- Structural institutions. These include deputy commissions, parliamentary sessions, etc.
- Functional institutions. They are orders from voters, public opinion, etc.
Depending on their legal significance, institutions are distinguished:
Self management
It is based on the independent regulation, organization and activities of participants in civil relations. The population establishes certain rules and norms of behavior and carries out organizational actions. The people have the right to make decisions and implement them. Within the framework of self-government, the subject and object of activity coincide. This means that participants recognize the power of only their own association. Self-government is based on the principles of equality, freedom, and participation in administration. This term is usually used to refer to several levels of association of people:
- To the whole society as a whole. In this case we talk about public self-government.
- To individual territories. In this case, local and regional self-government takes place.
- To specific productions.
- To public associations.
People's power as a social value
Democracy has always been understood and interpreted in different ways. However, there is no doubt that both legal and political value it has become an integral component of the organization of the world. Meanwhile, there is no final stage at which all its subjects would be satisfied. A person who experiences restrictions enters into a dispute with the state without finding justice in the legislation. Conflict arises when inequality of merit and natural abilities is not taken into account, there is no recognition depending on experience, skill, maturity, etc. The desire for justice cannot be fully satisfied. In society there must be a constant awakening of the will, the development of the desire to express one’s opinions, views, and be active.
The intrinsic value of democracy is expressed through its social significance. It, in turn, consists of serving the benefit of the individual, the state, and society. Democracy helps to establish correspondence between the actually operating and formally proclaimed principles of equality, freedom, and justice. It ensures their implementation in state and social life. The system of democracy combines public and power principles. It contributes to the formation of an atmosphere of harmony of interests of the state and the individual, and the achievement of compromise between subjects. In a democratic regime, participants in relations realize the benefits of partnership and solidarity, harmony and peace. The instrumental value of an institution is manifested through its functional purpose. Democracy is a way of solving state and public affairs. It allows you to participate in the creation of government agencies and local government structures, independently organize movements, trade unions, parties, and provide protection from illegal actions. Democracy presupposes control over the activities of elected institutions and other subjects of the system. The personal value of an institution is expressed through the recognition of individual rights. They are formally enshrined in regulations and are actually ensured through the formation of material, spiritual, legal and other guarantees.
Within the framework of a democratic regime, responsibility is provided for failure to fulfill duties. Democracy does not act as a means of achieving personal ambitious goals by infringing on the freedoms, interests, and rights of others. For those people who are ready to recognize the autonomy of the individual and his responsibility, this institution creates the best opportunities for the implementation of existing humanistic values: social creativity, justice, equality and freedom. At the same time, the participation of the state in the process of providing guarantees and protecting the interests of the population is of undoubted importance. This is its main function in a democratic society.