What is a political system? It is a set of institutions and ideologies that shape political activity in society. At the same time, the political structure of the state is the structure of power in the federation, and not in unitarism. TO this type include countries such as the Russian Federation, the USA, Germany, etc. By the way, there are also federations different types and each of them has its own form of political structure.

Managing society in prehistoric times

In order for society to be manageable, there was a need to create a state system, that is, a political organization of society. As you know, the state is inextricably linked with law, therefore, when studying the theory of state and law, one begins with its origin. Before the first state-political system arose, humanity lived in a primitive communal system. The basis for production relations in such a society was the means of production, as well as public property. In order for a transition to take place from one formation to another, that is, from a primitive communal system to a state one, it was necessary to move from self-government, which was observed in primitive society, to public administration. This process did not occur immediately: it took centuries, while in some historical regions the collapse of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the state occurred depending on historical conditions differently. This means that there is no clear pattern.

“Evolution” of the state system

In the first states that arose on the basis of the primitive communal system, the political system became slave-owning. Along with state power, law also appeared in them - an expression of the will of the class that dominates the rest. Following the slave system, the following types of state and law arose: feudal (oe) and bourgeois (oe). At the same time, states belonging to the same type had the same forms of government and political regime. After all, this indicates how law and states are organized, what functions they perform. Political scientists were able to determine that each of these types of society had both general and specific characteristics. And yet, the forms of state-political structure in all of them included the following elements:

Form of government

This term refers to the organization of the main authorities in the state. This includes such elements as the order of their formation, the relationship between the class of those holding power and the governed, the degree of involvement of the masses in the process of governing the state. By the way, forms of government can be very diverse. At the same time, you need to know that even if several countries have the same type of government system, the political regime in them may be different.

Basic forms of government

These include a republic and a monarchy. The first is a form of government in which the source of power is the majority of the people, and members of society elected by the people become the authorities. Under a monarchy, the state is ruled individually by a monarch - king, emperor, czar, etc. Moreover, after the death of the ruler, his heir ascends to the throne. However, not everything is clear here either.

Monarchy can be of the following types:

• absolute, in which the head of state is the sovereign “master” of both the country and the people inhabiting its territory;
• constitutional, where the monarch is not the authorized “master” of the state and coordinates his actions with the constitution, which limits his powers.

Republic also comes in several types:

State structure

This is not an external, but an internal territorial and national organization of the state. authorities (that is, the division of the country’s territory into parts is regulated), as well as the legal status of each of them and the relationship between the center of the country and its component parts. The form of the political structure is an element of the form of government that characterizes the organization of state- political power by territorial type. In the past, there were forms of government such as empire and protectorates, but in modern world forms of government are:

• federation;
• confederation;
• unitary state.

Let's consider each of them separately.

Unitary state

As we already understood, there are states that consist of several autonomous territorial units, and there are single states. These are unitary ones, in which there is only one subject. In them, the division into territorial units is conditional. These are districts, regions, provinces, provinces, etc. An example of unitary states is the majority European countries, for example France, Lithuania, Finland, Estonia, Armenia, Norway, Romania, Sweden, etc. In unitary states, the legislative system is one-level. Countries are divided into ATEs (administrative units), and all citizens have only one citizenship. Based on the nature of interaction between local and central authorities, unitary states are of two types: centralized (there are no autonomous entities and all territorial parts have the same legal status) and decentralized (they include autonomous entities).

Federal State

These are those countries that were formed as a result of the unification of union states or state entities, for example states, republics, cantons, states, etc. The signs of such a political system, the form of government of which is a federation, are:

• the entry into its composition of several sovereign or allied states;
• two-tier system of government bodies;
• taxation - two-channel.

Federation classification

This type of political structure can be classified according to the following principles:

1. On the formation of subjects. In view of this, they can be administrative-territorial, national-state and mixed.

2. On a legal basis. Based on this, federations are either contractual or constitutional.

3. By equality of status. Classification according to this criterion leads to the formation of types of symmetric and asymmetric federations.

Confederation

How does this type of political system differ from the previous one? A confederation is not a permanent, but a temporary union of states that is created to jointly solve certain political or economic problems. The Confederation has no sovereignty because in this case and there can be no talk of a common central state apparatus and a unified system of legislation.

Confederation is of the following types:

• interstate type union;
• commonwealth;
• community.

Political regime

In this article I would also like to touch upon another very important point - political regimes. Let's figure out what it is. A political regime is a system of techniques, methods and means that help the exercise of political power. What could they be? The types of political regime are democratic and anti-democratic. In this context, the state can be legal, authoritarian and totalitarian.

A little history

Before talking about the political structure modern Russia, I would like to talk about the Principality of Kiev. Its political structure was unstable. It consisted of several tribal and urban districts. However, they did not want to unite into a single state. This is why the Principality of Kiev collapsed in the 11th century. Ancient Rus' was a collection of many principalities that were united by one dynasty. They had general religion, popular consciousness and language. This state could not be classified as either unitary or federal. Relations between the Grand Duke Kievan Rus and other princes were formed according to the following principle - overlord and vassals.

Nevertheless, the center in the principality was strong. Grand Duke possessed a powerful squad, thanks to which he managed to keep several dozen small principalities around him. The prince was the head of all Rus'. By the 11th century, due to the increasing power of local feudal lords, a new governing body was formed - the feudal congress. It addressed issues of waging war or establishing peace, dividing lands and establishing vassalage. After this, the social division of Kievan Rus became more complicated. At the very top of the hierarchical pyramid stood, naturally, Prince of Kyiv, one step below was his squad, and the upper zemstvo class gradually merged with it. The structure of the squad was also not simple. It consists of two parts - the older one, that is, the boyars, and the younger one, the youths. The squad also includes the prince's slaves. From this “class” members of the princely administration and judges were appointed: posadnik, vernik and tiun. In addition to the squad, there is also a class of people, which was divided into townspeople, that is, merchants and artisans, as well as villagers - smerds and dependent purchases. The clergy had their own hierarchy and stood apart.

Characteristics of the Russian state

Our country is a democracy with a republican form of government. The political structure of Russia is a federation. It includes almost nine dozen constituent entities. Among them there are republics (Tatarstan, Bashkotorstan, etc.), autonomous regions and districts, territories, regions, and cities of federal significance (St. Petersburg). All these subjects are equal in their rights. Each republic has its own constitution and legislation. All other subjects of the Russian Federation have charters and legislation.

The Constitution of Russia provides a definition of the country: “The Russian Federation is a sovereign federal state, which was created as a result of historical association peoples.” The unshakable foundations of the constitutional system of the Russian state are federalism, democracy, republican form of government and separation of powers. Constitutional law is the fundamental branch of law of the Russian Federation. It is it that establishes the principles that other branches of law must follow, determines the economic system of the country, the position of the individual in it, and also fixes the system of judicial bodies, that is, the state structure of the Russian state.

What is the democracy of the Russian Federation? It is manifested primarily in the fact that the rights and freedoms of the country's citizens are declared the highest value by its Constitution. The state is ready to assume the following responsibilities: first, to recognize, second, to respect, and third, to protect these rights and freedoms. And the democracy of our country consists in the manifestation of the power of the people during free elections or referendums.

The political structure of Russia is as follows: it consists of equal subjects of the Russian Federation, since each of them has its own legislation. This is the federal structure of the country as a whole, and it is based on the integrity of the country’s statehood and on a unified system state power. Therefore, the constitution states that federal laws, that is, laws common to the entire country, have supremacy for all citizens of the Russian Federation, regardless of which subject of the federation they live in.

How is the legal nature of Russian law and state manifested? All social relations, duties and rights of citizens are determined by law and are fixed at the level of law. Compliance with the law is mandatory both for citizens and organizations, and for all government bodies, including higher ones.

Russia is a republic

Despite the fact that the Russian Federation is a federation, it adheres to a republican form of government. This is determined by the presence of three branches of government: judicial, legislative and executive. They are all interconnected and in unity.

The principles of the country's economic life are also enshrined in the Constitution. This primarily relates to the unity of the economic space, that is, the possibility of free movement of services, goods and financial resources, as well as maintaining competition and ensuring freedom of economic activity for entrepreneurs.

Economic relations are based on norms that relate to property in general. In Russia, both private and state, municipal and other forms of property are recognized and receive equal protection. This principle, which applies to property, also applies to one of the most important, if not the most important, wealth of the country - land. Earth and others Natural resources distributed between private, municipal, state and other forms of ownership.

Russia is a country with ideological and political diversity. None of them can be declared as mandatory. The same applies to religion, since the Russian Federation is proclaimed as a secular state.

The republic, being an ancient form of social organization, is currently the most widespread and in demand in the world as a method of government, regulated by the majority of its citizens.

According to republican principles of government, citizens of the state exercise their political rights and freedoms by regularly electing their representatives (deputies, president) to the highest bodies of power and thereby controlling their composition.

Thus, in a republican state, the powers of the supreme authorities (parliament and president) must be based on popular trust. The people determine who should take a place in the structure of state power that represents their interests.

Republic- This is a form of government, which is based on the electoral principle. The highest authority under a republican form of government, as opposed to monarchical, carried out at the will of the people or the institution representing them (parliament).

* is the form government, in which the lifelong right to supreme power is inherited by one person (the monarch).

History of the origin of the republic

The republic appeared in antiquity as a contrast to the monarchy. She opened new way government structure - on democratic principles. Full citizens of the polis were given the opportunity to govern the ancient city-state by taking part in an assembly or council.

Etymologically, “republic” goes back to the Latin res - business and publicus - public, nationwide, which in combination translates as “public, people's business”.

Signs of a modern republic

Since antiquity, the world has developed, and the republic, without losing its key democratic principles, acquired new features. Among the main features of the republic are:

• The presence of a main person (president) or collegial body (parliament) representing the state and carrying out the functions of legislative and/or executive power.
• Election of the head of state and supreme authorities for a certain period of time.
• Subordination of the head of state to the Constitution.
• Mutual responsibility of the individual and the state before the law.
• The principle of separation of powers into three branches (in most republics).

Varieties of republic

Republics, depending on who has more powers in governing the state, the president or parliament, as well as on the mechanism for exercising power, are divided into:

• presidential, in which the parliament is subordinate to the president, who forms and manages the government;
• parliamentary, in which the parliament appoints the president, convenes the government and controls it;
• mixed, in which the presidential and parliamentary powers are balanced or struggle with each other: the government is formed by them jointly and is responsible to both; Moreover, who has real power, the prime minister or the president heading parliament, depends on the number of votes they receive.

From the point of view of the state structure and territorial integrity of the republic, there are:

• Unitary - territorially united states, such as Italy, France, Japan, Poland.
• Federative - consisting of parts (subjects of the federation) that share power with the governing center (president and/or parliament). These republics include: Russia, USA, Germany.
• Union - part of large state associations with a republican or monarchical form of government (USSR, Islamic Republic).

Republics in the modern world

Parliamentary republics emerged first as a result of bourgeois revolutions in Holland, England and France and spread throughout modern Europe and the world. Today the parliamentary republics are: Austria, Greece, Ireland, India, Portugal, Germany. All these countries are represented by the prime minister, who heads the government and the parliamentary majority.

The United States is considered the first presidential republic, in which the president opposed himself to parliament, which became an effective way to govern the confederation. Now the presidential republics are: Russia, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, etc.

In the modern world there are also:

• super-presidential republics, with unified power in the person of a president supported by the army (Syria, Latin American countries);
• military-presidential republics headed by a revolutionary military council;
• presidential monocratic republics, with an unlimited term of government for the president (Iraq, Tunisia, Guinea).

Republic- (lat. respublica) a nationwide matter. Republican form of government- this is a form of government in which power is exercised by elected bodies elected for a certain period of time. In a republic, the head of state is the president, elected in different ways, but from among the citizens of the state. IN different countries Presidential elections take place in different ways, but in all countries the president is elected by the people.

The following main features of the republic can be distinguished:

The existence of a single or collegial head of state;

Election for a certain term of the head of state and other supreme bodies of state power;

The exercise of state power not by its own right, but on behalf of the people;

Legal responsibility of the head of state in cases provided for by law;

The binding nature of decisions of the supreme state power for all other state bodies;

Preferential protection of the interests of citizens of the state, mutual responsibility of the individual and the state;

There is a division of powers into legislative, executive and judicial.

One of the first republics was formed in the Athenian state in the 8th century. BC. and in the V-IV centuries. BC. was recognized as a democratic republic.

Presidential republic - This is a form of government in which the head of state is a president, elected by universal suffrage and combining in one person the powers of head of state and head of government.

In a republic of this type, public administration is built on the principle of strict separation of powers. The president governs, the parliament (congress, national assembly, etc.) makes laws. A presidential republic is distinguished, as a rule, by an extra-parliamentary method of electing the president (popular election) and forming a government, and by the absence of government responsibility to parliament. The government is formed by the president, but often with the consent of parliament. The government is responsible to the president. The president is deprived of the right to dissolve parliament, and, conversely, parliament can initiate proceedings against the president to remove him from power (impeachment). In contrast to impeachment, the president has his own “weapon” against the government; he can veto laws adopted by parliament.

Another model of a presidential republic is a form of government in which the president is head of state, but does not combine this status with the status of head of government. Then, in addition to the distribution of powers enshrined in the Constitution, the president, as mentioned above, forms a system of bodies - state and public - under the president, which assist him in fulfilling his powers as head of state, guarantor of the constitution.

(USA, Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Russian Federation and others)

Parliamentary republic - this is a form of government in which the head of the state is an elected official (president, chancellor, etc.), and the government is formed by parliament and reports for its activities to parliament, and not to the head of state.

A parliamentary republic is characterized by the proclamation of the principle of the supremacy of parliament, to which the government bears political responsibility for its activities. The formal distinctive feature of this type of republic is the presence of the post of prime minister, who is elected (appointed) by parliament. The government is formed only by parliamentary means from among the leaders of the party that has received a majority in parliament, and remains in power as long as it has the support of the parliamentary majority. The president's participation in forming the government is nominal. Although he is formally vested with great powers (he has the right to dissolve parliament), in practice he does not have any influence on the exercise of state power. Any of its actions can be carried out only with the consent of the government; regulations emanating from it acquire legal force, as a rule, only after approval by the government or parliament, which are responsible for them.

(Italy, Germany, Finland, India, Türkiye).

Mixed form or semi-presidential form of the republic– this is a form of government within which the characteristics of a parliamentary and presidential republic are combined and coexist. This form of republic was first introduced in France in 1958 on the initiative of Charles De Gaulle.

The president is elected by the people, but is not the head of the executive branch. Executive power is vested in the government, which bears primary responsibility to the president and limited responsibility to parliament.

In a mixed republic, the president can appoint deputy prime ministers and ministers, regardless of party composition and forces. The appointment of the prime minister occurs in different ways: independently or with the consent of parliament. The President has the right to dismiss the Prime Minister, an individual minister or the entire government.

Thus, in a mixed republic, the president does not belong to any branch of government and the government is responsible to the president. (RF, Kazakhstan, Romania, France, etc.)

Non-traditional republics

There are other, atypical, types of republics. For example, a theocratic republic (Iran, Afghanistan). Some African countries are characterized by a peculiar form of presidential monocratic republic: in a one-party political regime, the party leader was proclaimed president for life, but the parliament had no real powers (Zaire, Malawi).

For a long time, in domestic legal science, a special form of the republic was considered republic of Soviets. Its signs were called: an openly class character (dictatorship of the proletariat and the poor peasantry), the absence of separation of powers under the absolute power of the Soviets, the rigid hierarchy of the latter, the right of voters to recall Soviet deputies before the expiration of their term of office (imperative mandate), a real redistribution of power from the occasionally meeting Soviets in favor their executive committees

PIEF

TEST

IN THE COURSE "POLITICAL SCIENCE"

1. Describe three correct and three incorrect forms of government. Why does democracy degenerate into ochlocracy rather than tyranny? Can you give historical examples of such a transformation? 3

2. Describe in detail the republican type of state structure. What function does parliament perform here? 6

3. What is the mechanism election campaign? Expand the basic concepts. 9

4. Make a written report on the topic “Elections, their essence and political functions" 12

References.. 16

1. Describe three correct and three incorrect forms of government. Why does democracy degenerate into ochlocracy rather than tyranny? Can you give historical examples of such a transformation?

Since power can come 1) from one person, 2) from a few, 3) from the majority; and also the one who governs, governs in accordance with a) the common good, or b) his own interest, we obtain, according to the teachings of Plato, three correct forms of government:

1a) monarchy,

2a) aristocracy,

3a) "polity"

and three wrong

1b) tyranny,

2b) oligarchy,

3b) democracy.

Monarchy - this is a form of government in which the supreme state power is exercised individually and is passed on, as a rule, by inheritance.

The main features of the classical monarchical form of government are:

The existence of a single head of state who exercises his power for life (king, king, emperor, shah);

Hereditary order of succession of supreme power;

Representation of the state by the monarch at his own discretion;

Legal irresponsibility of the monarch.

The monarchy arose in a slave society. Under feudalism, it became the main form of government. In bourgeois society, only the traditional, mostly formal, features of monarchical rule were preserved. That is, the rule of one.

Aristocracy – (Greek ἀριστεύς “the most noble, of the noblest origin” and κράτος, “power, state, might”) - a form of government in which power belongs to the nobility. The basis of aristocracy is the idea that the state should be ruled only by the chosen, the best minds, i.e., the rule of the few.

Polity – “average” form of state, based on the “middle element” – best class societies with an average size of property wealth, to which power in the state belongs, i.e., majority rule.

Tyranny - a form of state power established by force and based on individual rule.

Oligarchy - an image of government, where all supreme power is in the hands of a small number of nobles, nobility, and oligarchs. According to Plato and Aristotle, an oligarchy is a government system in which only wealthy people have the right to hold public office. There are always much fewer haves than have-nots, therefore the rule of the haves is the rule of the “few” (“oliga” - the few). The same Plato and Aristotle characterize oligarchy as a vicious form of government, in which the goal of the rulers is not the general good, but personal gain.

Democracy - (Ancient Greek δημοκρατία - “power of the people”, from δῆμος - “people” and κράτος - “power”) - a political regime based on the method of collective decision-making with equal influence of participants on the outcome of the process or on its significant stages.

Aggression, envy, greed, conceit and the need for self-affirmation, I’m smart - you’re a fool, this is mine - give me, I’m stronger than you and other natural human traits necessary to survive do not agree with the ideas of full democracy. Therefore, since the times of the Greeks, democracy has been rapidly dying and often degenerating into its opposite - ochlocracy, and then tyranny and dictatorship.

Example - Russia at the beginning of the twentieth century (democracy - elections to the State Duma, ochlocracy - October Revolution of 1917, The choice of the people is always conscious and reasoned. The choice of the crowd is instinctive. The people always strive to control the actions of the authorities. The crowd tries to quickly get rid of responsibility and shift this very responsibility onto those whom she chose. That is why the next step after ochlocracy is tyranny and dictatorship - the rule of Lenin, Stalin); change democratic form rule in Germany in 1933 to the dictatorship of Hitler.

2. Describe in detail the republican type of state structure. What function does parliament perform here?

A republic is a form of government in which supreme state power is exercised by elected bodies elected by the population for a certain period of time.

The general features of the republican form of government are:

The existence of a single and collegial head of state;

Election for a certain term of the head of state and other supreme bodies of state power;

The exercise of state power not by its own right, but on behalf of the people;

Legal responsibility of the head of state in cases provided for by law;

The decisions of the supreme state authority are binding on all other state bodies;

Primary protection of the interests of citizens of the state, mutual responsibility of the individual and the state.

The republican form of government was finally formed in the Athenian state. As social life developed, it changed, acquired new features, and was increasingly filled with democratic content.

Parliamentary republic is a type modern form state government, in which the supreme role in organizing public life belongs to parliament.

In such a republic, the government is formed by parliamentary means, that is, by choosing from among deputies belonging to those parties that have a majority of votes in parliament. The government is collectively responsible to parliament for its activities. It remains in power as long as it has the support of a parliamentary majority. If the majority of members of parliament lose confidence, the government either resigns or, through the head of state, seeks to dissolve parliament and call early parliamentary elections.

As a rule, the head of state in such republics is elected by parliament or a specially formed parliamentary board. The appointment of the head of state by parliament is the main type of parliamentary control over the executive branch. The procedure for electing the head of state in modern parliamentary republics is not the same. In Italy, for example, the president of the republic is elected by members of both chambers at their joint meeting, but three delegates from each region, elected by the regional council, also participate in the elections. In federal states, the participation of parliament in electing the head of state is also shared with representatives of the members of the federation. For example, in the Federal Republic of Germany, the President is elected by the Federal Assembly, consisting of members of the Bundestag and the same number of persons elected by the Landtags of the states on the basis of proportional representation. Elections of the head of state in a parliamentary republic can also be carried out on the basis of universal suffrage, which is typical, for example, in Austria, where the president is elected by the population for a term of six years.

The head of state in a parliamentary republic has fairly extensive powers. He promulgates laws, issues decrees, has the right to dissolve parliament, appoints the head of government, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, etc.

The head of government (prime minister, chairman of the council of ministers) is usually appointed by the president. He forms the government he heads, which exercises supreme executive power and is responsible for its activities before parliament. The most essential feature of a parliamentary republic is that any government is only competent to govern the state when it enjoys the confidence of parliament.

The main functions of parliament are legislative activity and control over the executive branch. Parliament has important financial powers, as it develops and adopts the state budget, determines the prospects for the country's socio-economic development, and resolves major issues of foreign policy, including defense policy.

The parliamentary form of republican government represents a structure of the highest bodies of state power that actually ensures democracy in public life, personal freedom, and creates fair conditions for human life based on the principles of legality.

3. What is the mechanism of the election campaign? Expand the basic concepts.

An election campaign is a set of campaign activities organized and carried out by political parties and independent candidates in order to secure maximum voter support in the upcoming elections. Along with them, various kinds of support groups are participating in the election campaign, public organizations, media, etc. Election campaigning is carried out through meetings and rallies, print and electronic media, posting election posters and posters, etc. The timing, procedure and forms of campaigning, etc. more or are less strictly regulated by relevant legislation.

We can say that an election campaign is a process unfolding over time, consisting of a number of successive stages. We are talking, firstly, about setting a specific election date; secondly, on the formation of electoral districts and precincts; thirdly, on the beginning and completion of voter registration; fourthly, on the nomination and registration of candidates; fifthly, about the beginning and end of the election campaign; sixthly, about voting; seventhly, on the counting of votes cast in the elections.

The regulation of election campaigns is based on three most important principles. The first is, first of all, ensuring equality of opportunity for all parties and candidates participating in elections. Its essence is that everyone is given an equal maximum limit on election expenses. On the one hand, the amount of donations from individuals and organizations to election campaign funds is limited, on the other hand, in many countries the state takes over the financing of the election campaign. At the same time, all parties and candidates are given equal time on radio and television.

The second principle is the so-called principle of loyalty, according to which candidates are obliged to behave loyally towards their opponents and not allow any kind of falsification or insult to the opponent. The third principle is the neutrality of the state apparatus, its non-interference in the course of the election campaign.

An important place in the electoral system is occupied by the institution of registration, which is regulated by relevant laws. As a rule, all citizens eligible to vote are included in the voter lists. Mostly industrial developed countries Voter lists are compiled by local authorities. They automatically update voter registrations, and when voters change residence, the registration automatically follows them.

The personal registration system provides for periodic updating of electoral lists. Moreover, the candidates themselves must also periodically renew their registration. To qualify for inclusion on the ballot, candidates must meet the legal requirements for a particular position. Such requirements may include a minimum age limit, residency requirement, professional suitability for the position sought, etc.

To conduct elections, depending on their nature (general, regional, local), the entire territory of the country, region, province, district is divided into electoral districts from which the corresponding number of deputies is elected. The size of the district depends on the level of elections. If small districts are created on the basis of a city district, town, or village to conduct local elections, then to conduct elections at the regional, regional or federal level, several such districts are combined into one. As a rule, constituencies are created so that each deputy (depending on the level of government) is elected from an equal number of residents or voters.

An election campaign in a formal sense is understood as a period established by law during which political parties and organizations, as well as government bodies responsible for holding elections, carry out organizational, propaganda and ideological and information preparation in accordance with the established rules. This also includes a complex of organizational, propaganda and other activities carried out by individual parties and candidates. In such cases, they talk about the “election campaign” of one or another party, one or another candidate.

The organization and conduct of election campaigns in different countries is carried out differently. Depending on the country's traditions, the head of state or government or parliament sets the official date for the elections. From this day on, the election campaign begins, during which each party nominates its candidates or a list of candidates who must undergo appropriate registration.

To conduct an election campaign, a special headquarters is created, which includes professionals: a manager, a financial agent, a press secretary, a political organizer, a daily planner, a technical secretary, and a special assistant. In addition to them, outside consultants are hired: opinion poll specialists, general consultant, funds consultant mass media, mail-order fundraising specialists. After the official nomination of candidates, their names are entered on special ballot papers.

4. Make a written report on the topic “Elections, their essence and political functions.”

Elections are an integral feature political life most countries of the modern world. The most important functions performed by elections in the political system of society are:

1. Representation of various public interests.

2. Formation of representative government bodies.

3. Legitimation of political power in general.

4. Diagnosis of the socio-political situation that has developed in a given society at a given period of time.

5. Recruitment of the political elite.

6. Institutionalization of political participation of citizens.

7. Political socialization.

In totalitarian and authoritarian political regimes, elections can take the form of a ritual or even a farce, but a democratic regime without the institution of elections is in principle impossible. Therefore, for political systems of a democratic type, the presence of one or another version of the electoral system is a mandatory attribute. There is no single and generally accepted understanding of what the electoral system is in political science. In general, we are talking about the established procedure for organizing and holding elections of representative government bodies, as well as leaders of various ranks.

The electoral system includes two main components: electoral law as a set of legal norms on the basis of which elections are held; electoral process, that is, a set of procedures and organizational measures accompanying the preparation, conduct of voting and summing up its results.

Elections may be held on different levels– from the election of the head of state to the election of deputies to local government bodies.

Depending on the nature of the rules of electoral law and the practice of their application, elections can be of different types. There are general and limited elections. In general elections, the entire adult capable population of the country equally has the right to vote; in limited elections, such a right is limited by qualifications: residence, property, education, etc.

Equal elections take place under the conditions of ensuring a uniform norm of representation for everyone, that is, the same number of voters falls in the electoral districts in which candidates are running for the same number of elected seats. Direct elections mean the voters directly voting for candidates for the respective elected seats. In indirect multi-stage elections, voters first elect electors and delegates, and at appropriate events they make the final choice in favor of a particular candidate.

Elections can be secret, when the will of the voter is hidden from outsiders, the results of the expression of will are anonymous and are issued in the form of an impersonal ballot paper common to all. Elections can also be with open voting, when the voter publicly announces his choice in one form or another.

Electoral systems use different variants elections themselves, but the main criterion by which electoral systems differ is the way the voting results are determined.

5. Analyze voting and elections as a mechanism for citizen participation in the political life of society.

Elections – essential component modern politics.

They represent a way of forming bodies of power and management by expressing the political will of citizens according to certain rules (in accordance with the electoral system).

Elections always involve voting. However, despite the similarity of these concepts, they also have significant differences. Elections are usually understood as a relatively regular, periodic process, enshrined in the constitution and other laws, for electing members of the organs of the state. Voting is not always associated with elections. It is also used in various forms direct democracy: in referendums, polls, collective decision-making at meetings, etc.

In modern democracies, elections are their core mechanism, the main form of manifestation of the sovereignty of the people, their political role as a source of power. They also serve as the most important channel for representing the interests of various social groups in government bodies. General elections presuppose the right of every citizen to participate in them. For many, and in some countries for the majority of citizens, they are the only form of their real participation in politics. They make it possible to exercise the greatest influence on the authorities: maintain or change parliaments and governments, ensure their responsibility to the people, change the political course, etc.

Elections are a fairly common phenomenon in political and public life, since they extend to various institutions and levels of government: parliament, president, representative and often executive bodies of the constituent entities of the federation, local authorities authorities.

During the election period, the most favorable opportunities are created for citizens to understand their interests and include them in the electoral programs of parties and individual deputies.

Also, with the help of elections, the unification of the majority of citizens around a certain political platform and the leaders representing it is ensured, and the dominant political will in the state is formed. The expression of this will provides the government with authority and support, which increases its effectiveness.

Elections give citizens a chance to re-elect an undesirable government or deputies, and replace them with people who enjoy trust. Thus, the crisis of a particular government and its policies does not lead to citizens’ rejection of the entire political system and destabilization of the political system, and does not develop into a desire to destroy the existing political order through revolution. It is no coincidence that elections are often likened to a safety valve that releases the accumulated steam of popular discontent and protects the entire political “cauldron” from overheating and explosion. Elections legitimize not only politic system in general, but also the specific composition of parliament, government and some other government structures, the people recognize their right to lead the state.

Bibliography

1. Gadzhiev: textbook. – M.: Logos, 2009.

2. Lantsov. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011.

3. , Soloviev political science. Textbook. M.: Aspect-Press, 1999.

4. Khropanyuk states and rights. – M.: Omega-L, 2012.

Khropanyuk states and rights. – M.: Omega-L, 2012. – P. 97.

Gadzhiev: textbook. – M.: Logos, 2009. – P. 274.

Republic - from lat. res publico - public matter

Khropanyuk states and rights. – M.: Omega-L, 2012. – P. 104-110.

Gadzhiev: textbook. – M.: Logos, 2009. – P. 227-232.

Lantsov. – St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011. – pp. 313-314.

Soloviev political science. Textbook. M.: Aspect-Press, 1999. – P. 401-.404.

Questions and tasks

1. Describe three correct and three incorrect forms of government.

Correct forms of government include:

1. Monarchy:

Absolute:

Monarch – head of state;

Exercises sole governance. Has full power. His power is supreme and independent;

His power is declared sacred and endowed with a religious aura;

As a rule, power is inherited;

Limited:

The monarch is limited in the field of legislative and executive activities

The monarch is independent of parliament, but is forced to take into account its activities

2. aristocracy - a form of government in which power belongs to the nobility. It is based on the idea that only a select few should rule the state. Chosenness was determined by origin, size of property, and religious superiority.

3. democracy. Comes from two Greek words: “demos” - “people” and “kratos” - “strength”, “rule”. Democracy means a system in which all citizens control their own lives and influence public life. They also say that in a democracy the people are sovereign, that is, they are independent of the authorities in choosing a way of life. Sovereignty means that the legitimate source of power is the people. In a modern democratic system, the people form representative bodies of government through elections. True democracy is possible only if certain conditions are met:

law supremacy;

equality of all citizens;

separation of powers, i.e., independence of the judicial, executive and legislative powers from each other;

multiparty system and political competition;

media free from censorship and government pressure;

the presence of market relations in the economy, etc.

Incorrect forms of government include:

1. Autocracy (tyranny) is one of the forms of government based on the unlimited and uncontrolled sovereignty of one person in the state. In modern literature this concept means unlimited and uncontrolled power of one person.

2. Oligarchy is a form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of people. Power and capital are concentrated in the hands of one group of people

3. Ochlocracy or anarchy - a form of government that arises as a result of the extreme development and reduction of democratic tendencies to the point of absurdity - the rule of the mob, the worst of the citizens.

2. Describe in detail the republican type of government of the state. What function does parliament perform here?

A republic (from Latin respublica, lit. - public matter) is a form of government when the head of state (for example, the president) is elected by the population or a specially elected board. Legislative power belongs to an elected representative body (parliament). The republic combines elements of democracy, monarchy, and aristocracy. The country is ruled by one person (monarchy), but his power is limited by the legislative body, parliament, which is elected by all or the majority of the people (democracy). Overwhelming majority modern states are republics. In republics, the source of power is the popular majority, and the highest bodies of the state are elected by citizens.

There are three types of republic: presidential, mixed, parliamentary. They differ mainly in which of the supreme authorities (president or parliament) forms the government, and to which it is responsible. Their characteristics are presented in the table.

Parliament usually performs the following functions in relation to the government:

1. Forms and supports it;

2. Issues laws adopted by the government for execution;

3. Votes (approves) the state budget and thereby establishes the financial framework for government activities;

4. Exercises control over the government and, if necessary, can express a vote of no confidence in it, which entails either the resignation of the government or the dissolution of parliament and the holding of early elections;

5. Criticizes government policies, presents alternative options for government decisions and the entire political course.

3. Under what conditions is impeachment carried out?

Impeachment represents a special procedure for bringing to justice and trial cases of crimes of senior officials. The grounds for impeachment are unconstitutional actions.

4. Describe democracy, compare its ancient and modern forms, emphasize the general and special.

Democracy comes from two Greek words: “demos” - “people” and “kratos” - “strength”, “rule”. Democracy means a system in which all citizens control their own lives and influence public life. They also say that in democracy the people are sovereign, that is, independent of the authorities in choosing a way of life. Sovereignty means that the legitimate source of power is the people. In a modern democratic system, the people form representative bodies of government through elections. True democracy is possible only if certain conditions are met:

Law supremacy;

Equality of all citizens;

Separation of powers, i.e., independence of the judicial, executive and legislative powers from each other;

Multi-party system and political competition;

Media free from censorship and government pressure;

The presence of market relations in the economy, etc.

There are two main forms of democracy:

1. direct - major decisions are made directly by all citizens at meetings or through referendums (ancient Greek policies). The essence of direct democracy is this: literally all citizens who have the right to vote gather in one place at a certain time and publicly discuss the most important decisions, including war and peace, the form of government, the amount and method of levying taxes. The final decision is made by a majority vote. During the periods between meetings, current issues are resolved by a democratic government elected by the people.;

2. representative - decisions are made by elected bodies (USA). Representative democracy is a structure of society in which that part of the population that has the right to vote elects its authorized representatives, who exercise legislative power on behalf of the people. The larger the society, the greater the need for such a form. The population is divided into districts and votes for one party or another. More precisely, for their representatives living right there. If someone is not satisfied with any party, he can vote for an independent candidate. The one who dialed greatest number votes in a given district, he becomes a deputy.

Greek democracy:

1. passed long haul development - more than 250 years;

2. covered not the whole, but a part of the people - about 1/10 of the total population, reflected the opinion of the entire free people;

3. evolved from a direct to a representative form.

Thus, in Athens, slaves, metics (settlers) and women did not have the right to vote. Most important questions were discussed by the People's Assembly (ekklesia), and all laws were adopted here. Executive power was exercised by elected officials - magistrates. The highest judicial power belonged to the jury (helieya). Democracy in Athens meant the right of every citizen to vote and be elected to any position in the state.

Ancient democracy was characterized by a synthesis of civil society and the state. The state was a community of citizens who jointly defended their rights from threats from the outside, from other states, and inside the policy - from those who did not use civil rights, – slaves and metics (settlers). Consequently, ancient democracy was a minority democracy.

Modern democracy limits some rights of minor citizens of its country.

5. * Why does democracy degenerate into ochlocracy and not into tyranny? Can you give historical examples of such a transformation?

Ochlocracy is a perverted form of government that arises as a result of disorderly development and the reduction of democratic tendencies to the point of absurdity;

The element of riots, pogroms, street riots, in which the crowd acts as the master of the situation;

One of the characteristics of mass society.

Despite their different appearances, ochlocracies share some common features. The main characteristic features of ochlocracy are demagoguery, adventurism, and populism. It is characterized by variability of political course, unpredictability and impulsiveness of political actions. Ochlocracy simplifies complex issues as much as possible social problems, often uses provocations, incites mass passions, and provokes scandals. Its support is usually the marginal and lumpen segments of the population, dissatisfied with their social status and ready for uncontrollable actions (murder, senseless destruction of material assets, violence).

Ochlocracy often comes into its own at a turning point, during critical periods for society. Since the crisis of society always has limits, ochlocracy is characterized by both lifelessness and fragility. In most cases, the instability and transient nature of ochlocracy leads to a deterioration in the social situation. The way out of it very often ends in totalitarian, dictatorial or oligarchic forms of government. Classic historical examples of ochlocracy are Time of Troubles in Russia at the beginning of the 17th century, certain periods civil wars, popular uprisings in Ancient world and in the Middle Ages, as well as periods of changing socio-political relations in the conditions of transforming societies. However, there were not many clearly defined forms of ochlocracy. History knows more examples of deformed, partial forms of ochlocracy, which often coexist with other forms of political power and appear in certain areas public life, in certain periods of crisis in society, in certain regions or parts of the state.

6. * What, in your opinion, are the advantages and disadvantages of the republican type of state structure?

Advantages:

1. Election of power;

2. Separation of powers, which hinders the transformation of the republic into

3. Stability of the republic, since the president and government are elected for a fixed term.

4. Involvement of all citizens of the country in the life of the state

Flaws:

1. Possibility of establishing one-man rule.

2. Political instability, since a change in the parliamentary majority entails a loss of support for the government from parliament and a vote of no confidence in the government.

3. Excessive bureaucratization of power.

7. * Swipe comparative analysis three republics in the modern world - parliamentary, presidential, mixed. Provide brief written conclusions.

As can be seen from the table, all types of republics have an elective nature of government. The differences are in how the president is chosen and the government is formed, and to whom the government is (or is not) responsible.

? Problem

Do you agree with the opinion of the Russian historian N.M. Karamzin: “Democratic rule is most suitable for small states, aristocratic rule for medium-sized ones, monarchical rule for large ones”?

Yes, we can agree with N.M. Karamzin, because managing large territories sometimes requires undemocratic management methods.

Let's consider this situation. There is a certain state large sizes. It is divided into certain parts for easier management (let's say 5). It's election time. And then the disagreements began. Everyone “pulls the blanket over themselves.” Every part of the country wants to see its representative in power. This will give some kind of dominance in the state itself. They were unable to reach an agreement and some representatives of this state decided to create their own state in order to make those laws and political decisions that would suit only them and not make concessions to other residents of this country against their wishes. This is human nature. For democracy to exist in a state with a large territory, the personal responsibility of each citizen to his country, the high moral qualities of each person who is ready to sacrifice something for the sake of the common, are necessary.

Workshop. Review the table. It contains the names of forms of government and their brief explanation. Place a cross in the place that will indicate that this form of government belongs to this particular definition that belongs only to it.