As already noted, the subject of the study is the architectonics of screen adaptations of literary works. First, it’s worth defining the terms - what do we mean by architectonics in this context?

The word “architectonics” came to us from architecture. “Architectonics” (Greek - architektoike) - the art of construction. According to Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary, “architectonics:

• 1) organic combination of parts into one harmonious whole (architect.), arrangement of parts, composition of some artistic whole (art), architectonics of a novel, story;
• 2) a department of geology that studies the structure of the earth’s crust, the location of its elements (geol.).”

The Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary tells us that architectonics is “the external construction of a literary structure as a single whole, the relationship and correlation of its main parts and elements.”

“The concept of A. includes both external structure works, such as the construction of the plot: dividing the work into parts, the type of narration (from the author or on behalf of a special narrator), the role of dialogue, one or another sequence of events (temporal or in violation of the chronological principle), introduction to the narrative fabric different descriptions, author’s reasoning and lyrical digressions, grouping of characters, etc.”

In the scientific community, the concept of architectonics is opposed to composition or is considered part of it. As noted by M.S. Kagan in “The Mythology of Art”, “the advantages of this term are that, firstly, it reveals the underlying formative principle, the structural dominant artistic language- an aesthetically significant relationship between the plastic elements from which the artistic image is built.” This principle of form organization as architectonics has greater universality compared to the principle of composition, since, “in addition to composition, it expresses the multidimensional structure of the work, emphasizes the complexity and multi-level structure of the form of an object, be it flat or three-dimensional.”

Thus, we deliberately separate the concepts of composition and architectonics in the context of our research. While the composition focuses on the very structure of the work and reveals artistic function technique or element, architectonics focuses on the interrelations of structural elements and is the formal and technical side of a multi-level work.

What structural elements can we identify in the architectonics of a screen work? There are many of them. These are types of conflicts between characters, timing and types of scenes and episodes (dialogue, action, exposition, landscape, etc.), editing and the presence of dramatic transitions between scenes (“cliffhangers”), “attraction” effects and emotional intensity of the narrative in in general, the amount of information received by the viewer, all kinds of audiovisual and technique, which we will not dwell on in detail. In this study, we are going to focus our attention on two key elements of architectonics that determine the strength of the impact of a screen work on the audience - dramaturgy and editing. As the cornerstone of the dramatic structure of the work, we will consider the conflicts between the main actors of the work and the so-called. “attraction” effects, which will be discussed below. The main components of editing are the sequence of frames and scenes in a screen work and the connections between them, as well as their duration (timing).

All masters of dramaturgy, as one, in their instructions and textbooks agree that the main driving force Every story has a conflict. The author of the most famous work on the art of screenwriting, R. McKee, in his “Million Dollar Story” writes: “When main character goes beyond the inciting incident, he enters a world where the law of conflict rules. This law says: in history, movement occurs only through conflict.” By conflict, the maestro understands the fundamental difference between the characters in their worldview, motivation, goals and means of achieving them. These differences are so incompatible that they set the mechanism of the whole story in motion and push it forward, just as steam sets in motion the parts of a steam engine. McKee divides conflicts into three large subgroups: internal, interpersonal and external (extrapersonal). This division has long become classic. All three types of conflicts correspond to the main types of plot - arch-plot, mini-plot and anti-plot - influence the genre of the work and form the so-called triangle of history (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1.

An extrapersonal conflict arises when a hero encounters phenomena that are not embodied in a specific person - these are major social upheavals (wars, revolutions), natural disasters (fires, earthquakes), society, circumstances, fate, evil fate. In its pure form we observe this type of conflict in epic works(for example, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey).

Interpersonal conflicts occur en masse in the so-called. mini-story. The interests of the hero here collide with the interests of other characters and personalities. It can be family quarrels, conflicts in love and friendship relationships, conflicts between boss and subordinate, and so on. In its pure form, this type of conflict is dictated by a certain genre - melodrama.

Finally we have internal conflict, when the hero comes into battle with his “inner demons” - these can be vices, bad memories from childhood, complexes and weaknesses, etc. To one degree or another, internal conflict can be traced in any serious work of art, but there are genres in which internal conflict is brought to the fore, and all other conflicts remain in the shadows or are completely absent. For example, when all the action takes place in the hero's brain, even interpersonal conflicts can be perceived as part of the internal one. Most often, such techniques are used in the so-called auteur cinema (or arthouse).

It is worth noting that this is the most common classification of conflicts, but not the only one. Thus, playwright and script doctor William Indyk divides conflicts according to the principle of their belonging to the main psychotherapeutic teachings of the last century, according to Freud, Jung and other masters of psychoanalysis. He distinguishes neurotic, normative, archetypal, existential and inferiority complex conflict. However, with certain reservations, this classification also fits into McKee's theory.

A similar division is typical for any type of art that is based on text - literature and cinema as well. IN in this case we can even talk about some kind of continuity, because initially the art of cinema developed precisely on the basis of the experience accumulated by literature. For example, historical novels over time turned into film epics, and romance novels into melodramas. In his “Cinema Theory” S.I. Freilich dwells on this in detail and quotes the literary critic M. Bakhtin: “The genre is revived and renewed at each new stage in the development of literature and in each individual work of a given genre. This is the life of the genre. Therefore, the archaic that is preserved in the genre is not dead, but eternally alive, that is, the archaic is capable of being renewed. The genre lives in the present, but always remembers its past, its beginning. Genre is a representative of creative memory in process literary development. That is why the genre is able to ensure the unity and continuity of this development. That is why, in order to properly understand the genre, it is necessary to go back to its roots.”

We will talk about this very living archaic and the origins of the genre in more detail below, examining specific examples of film adaptations of Russian classics. As the same Robert McKee noted, “the choice of genre sets clear boundaries of what is possible, since the structure of the story must take into account the knowledge and expectations of the audience.” And the genre is directly influenced by the type of conflict in the work.

The meaning of the word ARCHITECTONICS in the Literary Encyclopedia

ARCHITECTONICS

construction work of art. The term “composition” is more often used in the same meaning, and in application not only to the work as a whole (as A.), but also to its individual elements: the composition of an image, plot, stanza, etc. The concept of A. embraces the relationship parts of a work, the arrangement and mutual relationship of its components (components), together forming some artistic unity. The concept of A. includes both the external structure of the work and the construction of the plot: the division of the work into parts, the type of narration (from the author or on behalf of a special narrator), the role of dialogue, one or another sequence of events (temporary or in violation of the chronological principle), introduction into the narrative fabric of various descriptions, author's reasoning and lyrical digressions, grouping of characters, etc. A.'s techniques constitute one of the essential elements of style (in the broad sense of the word) and along with it are socially conditioned. Therefore, they change in connection with the socio-economic life of a given society, with the emergence of new classes and groups on the historical stage. If we take for example. Turgenev's novels (q.v.), then we will find in them consistency in the presentation of events, smoothness in the course of the narrative, an orientation toward the harmonious harmony of the whole, and the important compositional role of the landscape. These features are easily explained both by the life of the estate and the psyche of its inhabitants. Dostoevsky's novels (see) are constructed according to completely different laws: the action begins in the middle, the narrative flows quickly, in leaps and bounds, and the external disproportion of the parts is also noticeable. These properties of architectonics are in the same way determined by the characteristics of the depicted environment - the metropolitan philistinism. Within the same literary style, artistic techniques vary depending on the artistic genre (novel, story, short story, poem, dramatic work, lyric poem). Each genre is characterized by a number of specific features that require a unique composition (see “Composition”).

Literary encyclopedia. 2012

See also interpretations, synonyms, meanings of the word and what ARCHITECTONICS is in Russian in dictionaries, encyclopedias and reference books:

• ARCHITECTONICS in the Architectural Dictionary:
  (from the Greek Architektonike - construction art) - an artistic expression of the structural laws of a building's design. Architectonics is revealed in the interrelation and relative position of load-bearing...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Dictionary of Fine Arts Terms:
  - tectonics, the artistic expression of structural patterns inherent in the design of a building, as well as the composition of circular sculpture and volumetric works of decorative art; compositional...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from the Greek architektonike - construction art) artistic expression of the laws of structure, the relationship between load and support inherent in the structural system of a structure or work...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  (from the Greek architektonike - construction art), artistic expression of the structural patterns inherent in the structural system of a building, as well as round sculpture or volumetric ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  (Greek) - theory of architecture and construction art. This expression is now rarely used and is mostly replaced by the word ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (from the Greek architektonike - construction art), artistic expression of the laws of structure, the relationship of load and support inherent in the structural system of a building or work...
• ARCHITECTONICS
  [from ancient Greek (construction art)] construction, proportionality of artistic...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  and, pl. no, m. 1. architect. The natural relationship and combination in one whole of the elements of a structure or a work of sculpture; Same, …
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -i, w. (specialist.). The combination of parts into one harmonious whole, composition. A. buildings. A. novel. II adj. architectonic...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  ARCHITECTONICS (from the Greek architektonik; - building art), art. expression of the laws of structure, the relationship between load and support inherent in the structural system of a structure or...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedia:
  (Greek) - theory of architecture and construction art. This expression is now rarely used and is mostly replaced by the word ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Complete Accented Paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  arhitekto"nik, arhitekto"niks, arhitekto"niks, arhitekto"nik, arhitekto"nik, arhitekto"nikam, arhitekto"nik, arhitekto"niks, arhitekto"nikoy, arhitekto"nikoy, arhitekto"niks, arhitekto"nik, ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Popular Explanatory Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  -and, only food. , and. 1) architect. Artistic expression of the structural laws inherent in the structural system of a structure or building. Bridge architecture. 2) claim. ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
  (gr. architektonike construction art) 1) architect. artistic expression of the structural laws inherent in the structural system of the building; 2) general aesthetic plan of construction...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
  [ 1. architect. artistic expression of the structural laws inherent in the structural system of the building; 2. the general aesthetic plan for constructing a work of art, the fundamental relationship ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Russian Synonyms Dictionary:
  composition,...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  and. 1) Proportional arrangement of parts, their harmonious combination into a single whole as an artistic expression of the compositional patterns of something. buildings or works...
• ARCHITECTONICS in Lopatin’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  architectonics, ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  architectonics...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Spelling Dictionary:
  architectonics, ...
• ARCHITECTONICS in Ozhegov’s Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  a combination of parts in one harmonious whole, the composition of a building. A. …
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
  (from the Greek architektonike - construction art), artistic expression of the laws of structure, the relationship of load and support inherent in the structural system of a structure or work...
• ARCHITECTONICS in Ushakov’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  architectonics, pl. no, w. (from the Greek architekton - builder). 1. Organic combination of parts into one harmonious whole (architect.). || location …
• ARCHITECTONICS in Ephraim's Explanatory Dictionary:
  architectonics 1) Proportional arrangement of parts, their harmonious combination into a single whole as an artistic expression of the compositional patterns of something. buildings or...
• ARCHITECTONICS in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language by Efremova:
  
• ARCHITECTONICS in the Large Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  and. 1. Proportional arrangement of parts, their harmonious combination into a single whole as an artistic expression of the compositional laws of any structure or work...

(Diderot) Denis (1713-1784) - French philosopher and ideologist of the Enlightenment, writer, art theorist, head of encyclopedists. Main works: free author's translation and ...
• GUILLAUME in the Newest Philosophical Dictionary:
  (Guillaume) Gustave (1883-1960) - French linguist, author of the idea and concept of psychomechanics of language. He taught at the School of Higher Education in Paris (1938-1960). ...

A literary text represents a communicative, structural and semantic unity, which is manifested in its composition.

The composition of a literary text is “the mutual correlation and arrangement of units of the depicted and artistic speech means.” This is the construction of a work that determines its integrity, completeness and unity. The composition of the text is determined by the author's intentions, genre, content literary work. It represents a “connection system” of all its elements. This system also has independent content, which should be revealed in the process philological analysis text. Its object can be different aspects of the composition:

1) architectonics, or external composition of the text - dividing it into certain parts (chapters, sub-chapters, paragraphs, stanzas, etc.), their sequence and interconnection;

2) a system of images of characters in a work of art;

3) change of points of view in the structure of the text; Thus, according to B.A. Uspensky, it is the problem of point of view that constitutes the “central problem of composition” Uspensky B.A. Poetics of composition. - M., 1970. - P. 5.
; consideration of different points of view in the structure of the text in relation to the architectonics of the work allows us to identify the dynamics of the development of artistic content;

4) a system of details presented in the text (composition of details); their analysis makes it possible to reveal ways to deepen what is depicted: as I.A. subtly noted. Goncharov, “details that appear fragmentarily and separately in the long-term perspective of the general plan”, in the context of the whole “merge in the general structure... as if thin invisible threads or, perhaps, magnetic currents were acting”;

5) correlation with each other and with the other components of the text of its non-plot elements (inserted short stories, short stories, lyrical digressions, “scenes on stage” in drama).

Composition analysis thus takes into account different aspects of the text.

It is necessary first of all to distinguish between the external composition (architectonics) and the internal composition. If the internal (meaningful) composition is determined primarily by the system of images-characters, the features of the conflict and the originality of the plot, then the external composition is the division of a text characterized by continuity into discrete units. Composition, therefore, is the manifestation of a significant discontinuity in continuity.

The boundaries of each compositional unit highlighted in the text are clearly defined, determined by the author (chapters, chapters, sections, parts, epilogues, phenomena in drama, etc.), this organizes and directs the reader’s perception. The architectonics of the text “serves as a way of ‘portioning’ meaning; with the help of... compositional units, the author indicates to the reader the unification, or, conversely, the dismemberment of elements of the text (and therefore its content).” No less significant is the lack of division of the text or its expanded fragments. The unmarkedness of compositional units emphasizes the integrity of the spatial continuum, the fundamental non-discreteness of the organization of the narrative, the undifferentiated, fluid picture of the world of the narrator or character, see, for example, “stream of consciousness.”

Each compositional unit is characterized by prominence techniques that highlight the most important meanings of the text and activate the attention of its addressee. These are, firstly, various graphic highlights, secondly, repetitions of linguistic units of different levels, thirdly, strong positions of the text or its compositional part - positions of advancement associated with “establishing a hierarchy of meanings, focusing attention on the most important, increasing emotionality and aesthetic effect, establishing meaningful connections between adjacent and distant elements, belonging to the same and different levels, ensuring the coherence of the text and its memorability.” Strong positions of the text traditionally include titles, epigraphs, the beginning and end of a work (part, chapter, chapter). With their help, the author emphasizes the most significant structural elements for understanding the work and at the same time determines the main “semantic milestones” of a particular compositional part (the text as a whole). Units of architectonics are thus units of textual structure; in the process of philological analysis they must be considered taking into account the aesthetic organization of the whole.

There are two main types of text division: volumetric-pragmatic and contextual-variable These concepts were proposed by I.R. Galperin. See: Galperin I.R. Text as an object of linguistic research. - M., 1981.
.

Volumetric-pragmatic division takes into account, firstly, the volume of the work, and secondly, the peculiarities of the reader’s perception (it is this that organizes his attention). The main units in this case are volume, book, part, chapter (act), chapter (subchapter), phenomenon in drama, passage, paragraph. Volumetric-pragmatic division interacts with contextual-variable division, as a result of which, firstly, contexts organized by the author’s speech (narrator’s speech) are distinguished from contexts containing “alien” speech - the speech of characters (their individual remarks, monologues, dialogues) ; secondly, description, narration and reasoning. These compositional forms are isolated, as we see, taking into account the subject of speech. Both types of division are interdependent and consistently reveal the content and conceptual information of the text. Volumetric-pragmatic articulation can be used as a way to highlight the character’s point of view, see. for example, highlighting through paragraphs the perceptual point of view of the hero and his inner speech in the stories of B. Zaitsev. Wed:

a) At dawn, returning home, Father Kronid hears the first quail. It crackles softly and foreshadows the sultry June and the nights of Sukhros (“Priest Kronid”).

b) “My God,” thinks Misha, “it’s good to lie in an open field, with cobwebs, in the waves of the wind. How it melts there, how wonderful it is to melt your soul in the light and cry and pray” (“Myth”).

The volumetric-pragmatic division of the text can also perform other text functions: emphasize the dynamics of the narrative, convey the features of the passage of time, express emotional tension, highlight the depicted reality (person, component of the situation, etc.) close-up, see, segmentation of one of the chapters of Y. Tynyanov’s novel “The Death of Vazir-Mukhtar”:

Something was missing in the room. This deprived him of courage and confidence.

Something was missing. He moved his myopic eyes around the room.

It was cold, Nina’s dress was turning yellow in a lump.

The room was missing a piano.

“Each new juxtaposition in the text, seen by the reader, modifies the semantic perspectives of the juxtaposed components and thereby opens up possibilities for new juxtapositions, which, in turn, create new semantic turns, new configurations of semantic plans.” Widespread in Russian literature of the late 20th century. the techniques of montage and collage, on the one hand, led to increased fragmentation of the text, on the other, it opened up the possibility of new combinations of “semantic plans.”

The architectural features of the text reveal its most important feature, coherence. The segments (parts) of the text selected as a result of division are correlated with each other, “linked” based on common elements. There are two types of connectivity: cohesion and coherence (terms proposed by W. Dressler).

Cohesion (from Latin cohaesi - “to be connected”), or local connectivity, is a linear type of connectivity, expressed formally, mainly by linguistic means. It is based on pronominal substitution, lexical repetitions, the presence of conjunctions, correlation of grammatical forms, etc. See, for example:

In the winter, Levitsky spent all his free time in the Danilevskys’ Moscow apartment; in the summer he began visiting them at their dacha in pine forests along the Kazan road.

He entered his fifth year, he was twenty-four years old, but at the Danilevskys... everyone... called him Georges and Zhorzhik.

(I.A. Bunin)

Cohesion determines the continuity of the semantic continuum in the text.

Coherence (from the Latin cohaerentia - “cohesion”), or global coherence, is coherence of a nonlinear type, combining elements of different levels of the text (for example, title, epigraph, “text within text” and main text, etc.). The most important means of creating coherence are repetitions (primarily words with common semantic components) and parallelism.

In a literary text, semantic chains arise - rows of words with common semes, the interaction of which gives rise to new semantic connections and relationships, as well as “incremental meaning”.

The deployment of semantic series (chains), their location and relationship can be considered as a semantic composition of the text, the consideration of which is significant for its interpretation. So, for example, in the story of I.A. Bunin's "In a Familiar Street" interact a series of lexical units with the semes "youth", "memory", "cold", "heat", "old age", "passion", "light", "darkness", "oblivion", " existence/non-existence." In the text they form semantic oppositions “youth - old age”, “memory - oblivion”, “heat - cold”, “light - darkness”, “existence - non-existence”. These oppositions are formed already at the beginning of the story, cf.:

On a spring Parisian night, I walked along the boulevard in the twilight of the thick, fresh greenery, under which the metallic lanterns glittered, I felt light, young and thought:

On a familiar street

I remember the old house

With a tall dark staircase,

With a curtained window...

In units included in rows opposed to each other, peripheral and associative semes are updated, their semantics gradually becomes more complex and enriched. The ending of the story is dominated by words with the semes “oblivion” (I don’t remember anything else) and “non-existence” (Nothing else happened). Placed in a strong position of the text, they characterize the narrator’s life as a duration, contrasted with individual moments-meetings “in the old house” in his youth. This opposition corresponds to the key spatial opposition of the story - Paris - Moscow. In the narrator’s memories, on the contrary, lexical units with the semes “warmth”, “light”, “passion”, “happiness” are concentrated. It is memories, in contrast to the “present,” that are endowed by the narrator with reality; only moments of the past are recognized as true existence.

Any literary text is permeated with semantic echoes, or repetitions. Words related on this basis can take up different position: located at the beginning and at the end of the text (ring semantic composition), symmetrically, forming a gradation series, etc. Let’s read, for example, the first and last paragraphs of the “short”, apparently plotless story by I. A. Bunin “In the Alps” (1949. ):

a) Humid, warm, dark night late autumn. Late hour. A village in the Hautes Alps, dead, long dormant.

b) A square, a fountain, a sad lantern, as if it were the only one in the whole world and for some unknown reason shining all the long autumn night. Facade of a stone church. An old naked tree near the fountain, a heap of fallen, blackened, wet leaves underneath... Behind the square there is darkness again, the road past a wretched cemetery, the crosses of which seem to be caught by the running light strips of a car with outstretched arms.

The selected compositional parts of the story are brought together on the basis of common meanings that are expressed by words with the semes “darkness” (dark, night, darkness, blackened), “death” (dead, cemetery, fallen), “autumn” (autumn, autumnal). These semantic series frame the text, which is characterized by a ring composition, and are contrasted with the semantic complex “light”. The use of “personifying” epithets in the text (sad lantern, naked tree, running stripes of light) establishes a parallelism between the depicted realities and the life of a person lost in a world where light is transitory, and the lot of the individual is loneliness (a number of words with this very seme dominate in the central compositional part, omitted by us, and partially varies in last paragraph text).

Consideration of semantic composition is a necessary stage of philological analysis. It is especially important for the analysis of “plotless” texts, texts with weakened cause-and-effect relationships of components, texts rich in complex images. Identifying semantic chains in them and establishing their connections is the key to interpreting a work.

So, the composition of a literary work is based on such an important category of text as coherence. At the same time, repetition actualizes the relationship of comparison and opposition: similarity reveals contrast, and opposition reveals similarity. Repetitions and oppositions determine the semantic structure of a literary text and are the most important compositional techniques.

The concept of composition is used in modern linguistic stylistics in relation to various levels of text: thus, researchers distinguish metric composition (in poetic texts), semantic composition, already mentioned above, grammatical composition (most often syntactic). These types of composition are based on the idea of ​​the combination in a certain sequence and interaction within the text of different metrical forms, meanings (semantic composition), grammatical forms, syntactic structures (grammatical composition), etc. In this case, the focus is primarily speech means, organizing the text as a private dynamic system.

The term “composition” in modern philology turns out to be ambiguous, which makes it difficult to use, see, for example, the opinion of V. Tyupa: “In the most familiar sense, the “construction” of something whole from any parts - from the “composition of a phrase” to “character composition” is a completely empty term, painlessly but also ineffectively applied to any level of organization of a literary work.” However, this basic literary concept, if it is used to designate the construction of a text or its elements as a system of interconnected units, can be effective at two stages of philological analysis: first, at the stage of familiarization with the text, when it is necessary to clearly imagine its architectonics as an expression of the author’s intentions (“We find the author outside the work as living his biographical life man, but we meet him as a creator and in the work itself... We meet him (that is, his activity) primarily in the composition of the work: he dismembers the work into parts"); secondly, at the final stage of analysis: the content of the compositional form is determined based on the consideration of intra-textual connections different elements work, its subjective and spatio-temporal organization, based on identifying the leading techniques for constructing the text (repetition, leitmotif, contrast, parallelism up to the “mirror” reflection of situations, ellipsis, montage, etc.).

To analyze the composition of a literary text, you must be able to:

Identify in its structure repetitions that are significant for the interpretation of the work, serving as the basis for cohesion and coherence;

Identify semantic overlaps in parts of the text;

Identify linguistic signals that mark the compositional parts of a work;

Correlate the features of the division of the text with its content and determine the role of discrete compositional units within the whole;

Establish a connection between the narrative structure of the text as its “deep compositional structure"(B.A. Uspensky) with its external composition.

Let us sequentially consider the novel by M.A. from a compositional point of view. Bulgakov’s “The Master and Margarita” (his material will show the functions of repetition in the organization of the text) and “Solitary” by V.V. Rozanov (his analysis should reveal the features of the division of the text as a compositional factor), and then we will turn to one of the aspects of the composition of the work - his figurative structure.

Repetitions in the structure of the text: M. Bulgakov’s novel “The Master and Margarita”

Any text is characterized by the presence of repetitions that determine its coherence. The concept of connectedness “in itself” in general terms can be determined through repetition; some sequential signs are regarded as coherent on the basis that there is a repetition of various signs, their forms, as well as meanings; repeating themselves, they fasten, “stitch together” such a sequence; into one separate whole” (cf. “text” - Latin textum - “fabric”). Od-; However, the creation of coherence does not exhaust the functions of repetition. It plays no less a role in creating the integrity of the text.

In addition, repetition performs intensifying, emphasizing and compositional functions in the text. Repetition serves to create end-to-end characteristics of a character or the depicted reality (remember, for example, such repeated details as Oblomov’s “robe”, the “short sponge” of the little princess in the novel “War and Peace”, etc.), correlates different subject-speech plans of the text , brings together or contrasts the heroes of the work, highlights the leading motives of the work.

On the basis of repetition, the figurative fields of the text are deployed, repetition connects various spatial spheres and temporal plans of the work, actualizes the meanings that are significant for its interpretation, while each repeating unit, as a rule, is characterized by an “increment of meaning.”

In the prose of the 20th century. the number of repetitions increases sharply, and the distance between them noticeably decreases. Texts of this period are characterized by repetition not only of individual words and phrases, but also of sentences, complex syntactic wholes and their combinations (text blocks). Repeat functions are also becoming more complex.

For the composition of many works of the 20th century. The principle of the leitmotif is characteristic, associated with the increased interaction between prose and poetry during this period. This principle lies, for example, at the basis of M. Bulgakov’s first novel “ White Guard", the entire text of which is permeated with deep repetitions. It interacts with end-to-end repetitions characteristic of the novel as a whole (repeating images of blizzards, fog, chaos, apocalyptic images, etc.), repetitions associated with its particular themes, repetitions-leitmotifs that consistently characterize the characters.

The significance of repetitions - the basis of the semantic and figurative composition of the text - remains in the novel "The Master and Margarita", although the number of deep contact repetitions in it is noticeably reduced. Let's consider more features repetition in this text.

Repetitions form a complex, rather branched system in the text of the novel. It uses:

I. Semantic repetition (repetition of words containing the same semes, including associative ones, which are actualized in the context):

Margarita dreamed of an area unknown to Margarita - hopeless, dull, under the cloudy sky of early spring. I dreamed of this ragged, running gray sky, and below it a silent flock of rooks. Some kind of clumsy bridge. Below it is a muddy spring river, joyless, beggarly, half-naked trees, a lonely aspen, and then - between the trees, behind some kind of vegetable garden - a log building, either a separate kitchen, or a bathhouse, or God knows what. Everything around is somehow inanimate and so sad that one is tempted to hang himself on this aspen tree near the bridge... this is a hellish place for a living person.

Varieties of semantic repetition are:

1) exact lexical repetition:

Burn, burn, old life!

Burn, suffering! - Margarita shouted;

2) synonymous repetition: “Listen to the soundlessness,” Margarita said to the master, and the sand rustled under her bare feet, “listen and enjoy what you were not given in life - silence; Particularly interesting in the text of the novel are cases where the use of members of a synonymous series simultaneously creates a contrast:... Why are you putting it this way: you hit me in the face? After all, it is unknown what exactly a person has, a muzzle or a face. And, perhaps, after all, it’s a face;

3) root repetition (repetition in the text or its fragment of words with the same root): In all this confusion I remember one completely drunk woman’s face with meaningless, but also meaningless, pleading eyes; His head... was humming like a trumpet, and in this humming one could hear scraps of the attendant's stories about yesterday's cat; End-to-end repetitions of this type, organizing the entire text of the novel, include the word-forming pairs moon - lunar, hell - hellish. On the basis of the root repetition, textual word-forming nests with the peaks fire, light, darkness, end-to-end for the work as a whole, arise and unfold;

4) repetition of tropes (primarily metaphors) that have common semantic components: in the text of the novel, for example, river metaphors come together: dimly glowing sabers lying in open black cases and dull river blades; this image is motivated by the special spatial point of view of the observer and is associated with the theme of flight; In the novel, repetition of metonymic designations is also common, including adjectives and substantives denoting a face, see, for example: A short, completely square man..., in a lilac coat and red kid gloves, stood at the counter and hummed something imperiously. A salesman in a clean white robe and a blue cap was serving a lilac client... The lilac one was missing something in his face, but on the contrary, it was rather unnecessary - hanging cheeks and shifty eyes; this technique, identifying a person and his external attributes, is generally characteristic of Bulgakov’s prose;

5) repetition of tropes that go back to the same model and characterize different characters, such as, for example, the use of the figurative parallel “pain (emotion) - needle” in descriptions of the state of Berlioz, Nikanor Ivanovich, Likhodeev, Pilate, Margarita, the Master, cf.: His Heart [Berlioz] knocked and for a moment fell somewhere, but with a blunt needle lodged in him; And yet, somewhere in the very depths of his soul the chairman was tingling. It was a pinprick of anxiety; Then, instantly, as if a needle had been snatched from the brain, the temple calmed down (about Margarita); And the Master’s memory, a restless memory pricked with needles, began to fade;

6) derivational repetition, or repetition of words constructed according to the same word-formation model (its cases in this novel by Bulgakov are few): Not a breath of wind, not a movement of a cloud; Then the candle tongues swayed and jumped again, and the dishes on the table rattled.

II. Repetition of syntactic constructions of one structure or their parts having the same structure (often in interaction with semantic or lexical repetition): The rooms in the basement were silent, the entire small house of the developer was silent, and it was quiet in the back alley; How sad is the evening earth! How mysterious are the fogs over the swamps. Whoever wandered in these mists, who suffered a lot before death, who flew over this earth carrying an unbearable load, knows this.

Of the noted types of repetitions in the text of the novel, the most common are the actual lexical (mostly distant) repetition and the repetition of certain figurative means based on it.

Bulgakov's style is characterized by a special type of lexical repetition - the technique of repeating the same word or combination of words in its different meanings. Thus, in the fifth chapter of the novel “There Was an Affair in Griboedov,” the repetition of the word “face,” associated with metonymic transfer, creates a comic effect. Wed:

Someone's tender, fleshy face, shaved and well-fed, wearing horn-rimmed glasses, appeared in front of Ivan.

Comrade Bezdomny,” this person spoke in a jubilee voice, “calm down!”

“Do you,” Ivan interrupted, baring his teeth, “do you understand that you need to catch the professor?” And you come at me with your nonsense! Cretin!

Comrade Bezdomny, have mercy,” answered the face, blushing, backing away and already repenting that he had gotten involved in this matter.

The repetition of the word hell in the same chapter (when characterizing “Griboyedov”) is associated with a movement from the figurative meaning of the lexical unit to the actualization of the direct nominative meaning and transfers the everyday description to a different essential plane. The same function is performed by the repetition of the adjective hellish (hellish pain, hellish heat, hellish bursts of laughter, hot hellish furnaces) in the text of the entire novel. The last repetition is especially significant, bringing together the heat in Moscow and the flames of hell.

Regularly repeated units thus consistently expand their semantics and implement in the text the derivational and syntagmatic connections inherent in them. They serve not only as a factor of coherence, but also as a means of creating the integrity of the text as its content property, manifested in semantic non-additivity: the text as a whole is not equal to the sum meanings of its elements, it is always “more” than the sum of the meanings of those parts from which it is built. Repeating units, for example, in addition to updating the components of their own semantics, receive additional increments of meaning based on taking into account the traditional symbolic halos of words, allusions, and taking into account the entire complex of meanings assigned to a word (image) in literature. For example, a phrase that serves as an element portrait description Andrey Fomich's "stingy" - small man, then repeated as a nomination in Gella’s speech, acquires a generalizing meaning. “Gella’s hidden irony is brilliant when she announces the arrival of the barman Sokov: “Knight, a little man has appeared here...”, because it includes all the richness of meanings acquired by the words “little man” in the history of language and Russian culture.”

Repeating units can undergo semantic transformation. In the context of the entire novel, repeating phraseological units with the component “devil” (and its derivatives) are transformed. In the figurative structure of the novel as an integral unity, their internal form is revived, as a result, they, defraseologized, acquire the character of free combinations: in the scenes in which they are used, evil spirits appear in response to the call of the characters; see for example:

a) - Oh, no! - Margarita exclaimed, astonishing passersby, - I agree to everything, I agree to do this comedy with rubbing with ointment, I agree to go to hell in the middle of nowhere...

Bah,” Azazello suddenly shouted and, widening his eyes at the garden fence, began pointing his finger somewhere.

b) [The Master] raised his hands to the sky and shouted:

Here, this is the devil knows what it is, damn, damn, damn! Margarita became serious.

“You just angrily told the truth,” she said, “the devil knows what it is, and the devil, believe me, will arrange everything!” - Her eyes suddenly lit up...

See also: It seemed to him [Styopa] that the cat next to the bed had gone somewhere and that this very minute he would fly head down to hell and hell.

Repetitions of various types serve as the basis for the development of end-to-end semantic series of text. In the novel, figurative fields with the dominants thunder, fire, moon, and sun interact. Let us note, for example, the repeated image of the sun, which melts: (breaks, breaks) in the glass of houses (the image of glass in this case performs a function similar to the image of a mirror, and serves as a signal of the boundary of two worlds - the otherworldly and thisworldly), see, for example, descriptions Moscow: He fixed his gaze on the upper floors, dazzlingly reflecting in the glass the sun, broken and forever leaving Mikhail Alexandrovich...; Countless suns melted glass across the river; In the upper floors of the masses, a broken, dazzling sun was lit; ...woven into...a recently abandoned city with monastery gingerbread towers, with the sun broken into pieces in the glass. “A city with a broken sun is a dying city.”

Particularly varied in the text are the paths that characterize the moon and magical moonlight (lunar ribbon, lunar road, moon river, lunar carpets, etc.): The lunar path boils, a lunar river begins to gush from it and spills in all directions. The moon rules and plays, the moon dances and plays pranks. As noted by E.A. Yablokov, “in the aspect of the problem of Truth, which runs through all of Bulgakov’s work... “the sunny path of extraversion, rational knowledge” is preferred here to the “lunar path of introversion, contemplation, intuition” (Jung). It is characteristic that the truth is revealed to the heroine of “The Master and Margarita” precisely in moonlight... All the phenomena of the Master are connected with the moon.”

With the help of repetitions, the main essential coordinates of the “department” are highlighted and contrasted with each other: “light” and “darkness”, the real and unreal world - and the images of “light” and “darkness” are of a cross-cutting nature in Bulgakov’s work in general. At the same time, through repetition, the boundaries between different worlds are blurred.

Repeated lexical units are associated with the opposition of real and illusory plans in the text: “deception”, “seem”, “seem”, “haze”, “hallucination”, “fog” (see the stable figurative parallel fog - deception). At the same time, words and phrases are regularly repeated, varying motifs of a mirror, a dream, a “damaged telephone”, which serve as a metaphor for the ambiguous relationship of the word to real reality, to other “possible worlds”, “the paradoxical combination in the word of the function of reflecting reality and expressing imaginaryness... heroes novels are in the borderland between the real world and the world of fairy tales.” Thus, repetitions emphasize the multiplicity of worlds presented in the text of the novel, the fluidity of the boundaries between them, and the ambiguity of the expressed meanings.

For the ethical issues of the novel, the repetition of words from the semantic field “vices/virtues” (envy, cowardice, greed, mercy, stingy, etc.) is significant. The marked repetitions are supplemented by repetitions of special units thematic group, formed in the text of the novel and associated with the motive of creativity as a search for truth: it includes the nouns record, novel, chronicle, theme, vision, dream, verbs write, describe, guess, see, etc. This group is contrasted with lexical units denoting the exact ( or inaccurate) transmission, establishment or external fixation of “facts”: investigation, clarification, rumors, whispers, explanation, etc., see, for example: ... for a long time there was a heavy roar of the most incredible rumors throughout the capital... The whisper of “evil spirits”... was heard in the queues standing at dairy stores, on trams, in shops, in apartments, in kitchens, on trains... The concentration of these very units in the epilogue of the novel creates a comic effect: Again and again you must give justice to the investigation. Everything was done not only to catch the criminals, but also to explain everything that they had done. And all this was explained, and these explanations cannot but be considered both sensible and irrefutable.

The motif of creativity through repetition connects several characters in the novel: Matvey Levi keeps “records” that seem unreliable to others, the Master creates a novel, the “reliability” of which is confirmed by Woland’s story (see the words of the Master: Oh, how I guessed! Oh, how I I guessed everything!). “Having “guessed” the truth and speaking in one voice with Woland (who actually quotes the novel), the hero approached the limit of knowledge, the severance of ties with the earthly world... The fact that the hero “guessed” the truth paradoxically reduces him to the role of a copyist of a certain "proto-text". The dream of Ivan, who once wrote an anti-religious poem, is transformed into a text about the execution of Yeshua, cf. end; Chapter 15 and beginning of Chapter 16: He began to dream that the sun was already setting over Bald Mountain, and this mountain was cordoned off with a double cordon (Chapter 15). The sun was already setting over Bald Mountain, and this mountain was cordoned off with a double cordon (beginning of Chapter 16). Certain motifs from the Master’s novel about Pilate are then repeated in Ivan’s “visions”: In a doze, a man, shaven, with a twitchy yellow face, motionless in a chair, appears in front of Ivan, a man in a white robe with red lining, looking hatefully into a lush and alien garden. Ivan also sees a treeless yellow hill with empty pillars and crossbars. Ivan's dream is continued by the chapters of the Master's novel (chapters 25, 26). The completion of the novel about Pilate is already given in the author's narration. Thus, the complex subjective organization of the novel is reflected in a number of distant repetitions that highlight different authors of the “text within a text.”

The plurality of subjects (authors of the text and metatext) corresponds to the multiplicity of addressees, among which internal addressees (Berlioz, Ivan, Margarita) and external ones stand out, primarily the abstract addressee - the reader, to whom the author repeatedly addresses; cf.: Follow me, my reader, and only follow me, and I will show you such love!

Such characters in the novel as Ivan and Margarita become closer based on the common semantic feature “activity” creative perception" Ivan's dreams associated with his “awakening” historical memory, the “novel” continues, Margarita rereads its surviving fragments, it is with her reading (memory) that the end-to-end repetition of the fragment about darkness is connected, her appeal to the text motivates the transition to two last chapters The Master's novel.

Thus, series of repetitions of different types perform a text-forming function on different levels works and are significant for the organization of the narrative.

The repetition of various lexical units reflects the multiplicity of points of view presented in the narrative structure of the novel, cf., for example, the use of cognates cat - cat and sparrow - sparrow in chapter 18, motivated by a change in point of view: There was no one in the hall except a huge black cat, sitting on a chair (Poplavsky's point of view); ...a black cat was sitting on a tiger skin in front of the fireplace, complacently squinting at the fire (bartender Sokov’s point of view).

Repetitions in the text of the novel connect the speech of the narrator and the speech of different characters. Thus, elements of the inner speech of Pontius Pilate (chapter 2): And then the procurator thought: “Oh, my gods! I’m asking him about something unnecessary at the trial... My mind no longer serves me...” And again he imagined a bowl with a dark liquid. “I’ll poison you, I’ll poison you!” - correspond to the emotional speech of the narrator, cf.: And the ice melts in a vase and someone’s bloodshot bull’s eyes are visible at the next table, and it’s scary, scary... Oh gods, my gods, poison to me, poison!..” The appeal-refrain “Oh gods...” is repeated in the speech of Pilate, the Master and Ivan Nikolaevich (after Ivan Bezdomny recognizes himself as a student of the Master), cf.: [The Master] ...turning to the distant moon, shuddering, began to mutter: - And at night under the moon I have no peace, why did they disturb me? Oh gods, gods...; - He's lying, he's lying! Oh gods, how he lies! - Ivan Nikolaevich mutters, walking away from the bars, it’s not the air that draws him into the garden...

Repetition is no less important for the semantic composition of a novel. Particularly significant for her is the repetition, reflecting different points of view on the relationship of such a vice as cowardice with other moral qualities. So, Afranius conveys last words Yeshua: The only thing he said was that among human vices, he considers cowardice to be one of the most important. Pontius Pilate argues with this opinion: ... cowardice is undoubtedly one of the most terrible vices. This is what Yeshua Ha-Nozri said. No, philosopher, I object to you: This is the most terrible vice. Pilate's opinion is expressed in his internal monologue, conveyed in the form of improperly direct speech, against the background of which the pronoun “I” suddenly appears. As a result, the boundaries between the narrator’s speech and the character’s improperly direct speech turn out to be extremely blurred, and the narrative segment is characterized by a diffuseness of points of view: the definition of cowardice, accordingly, can relate to both the subjective-speech plane of Pilate and the narrator’s plane (cf. the description of “Griboyedov” ).

In the “records” of Levi, Yeshua’s point of view is repeated: ... in the sections of parchment after them, he made out the words: “the greatest vice is ... cowardice.” Finally, in chapter 32, “Farewell and Eternal Shelter,” Pilate’s point of view is referred to by Woland: If it is true that cowardice is the most serious vice, then, perhaps, the dog is not to blame for it. Repetitive components, as we see, are characterized by variable lexical composition, the variation of which reflects different points of view on the place of cowardice in the hierarchy of human vices. Repetitions are included in different modal frames and turn out to be polemical in relation to each other. This four-fold repetition highlights one of the most important ethical problems of the novel - the problem of cowardice, which turns out to be significant both in the “novel about Pilate” and in the “modern” chapters.

Repetition not only highlights the main semantic lines of the text, but also performs the most important compositional functions in the novel - the function of stable characterization of characters, the function of bringing together (contrasting) different space-time plans, situations, images. The first function is traditional for Russian prose. It is associated with the use repeating designations of details of the character’s appearance, clothing or behavior throughout the entire work. Thus, the dominant description of Levi is the definitions of black-bearded, ragged, gloomy, the appearance of Azazello is accompanied by repetition of the adjectives red-haired, reddish and the details of the protruding fang and mouth of the Master are based on the repetition of speech means with; semes “anxiety”, “fear” (anxious eyes, restless eyes”, etc.); in Pilate's descriptions the combination of a white cloak with bloody lining is consistently repeated (with partial replacement of components, for example a cloak with crimson lining).

The originality of Bulgakov's novel, however, is that his characters are given in different guises, associated with different spatio-temporal dimensions, and a stable characteristic based on a number of repetitions, for some of them then replaced by another, reflecting their transformation in one of the depicted worlds ; see for example:

The night also tore off the fluffy tail from the Hippopotamus, tore off its fur and scattered its shreds across the swamps. The one who was a cat who amused the prince of darkness now turned out to be a thin youth, a demon-page, the best rogue that ever existed in the world...

Azazello flew at the side of everyone, shining with the steel of his armor. Luna changed his face too. The absurd, ugly fang disappeared without a trace, and the crooked eye turned out to be false. Both of Azazello's eyes were the same, empty black, and his face was white and cold. Now Azazello flew in his true form, like a demon of the waterless desert, a demon-killer.

Repetitions of speech means and situations are consistently correlated different images novel. Their active use is associated with the principle of duality of characters, which underlies the system of intersecting images: Matthew Levi - Margarita, Matthew Levi - Ivan, Judas - Aloysius Magarych, Pilate - Frida. The Master draws closer in the text of the novel to both Yeshua and Pilate (this is emphasized by the repetition of lexical means with the semes “fear”, “longing”, “anxiety” common to the spheres of these characters). The overlap between images may be implicit, but they can also be motivated in the text, made explicit in it through direct comparisons, see, for example, the words of Margarita: I returned the next day, honestly, as I promised, but it was too late. Yes, I returned, like the unfortunate Levi Matthew, too late!

Comparison of situations through partial repetitions may be accompanied by a comic reduction of one of them, see, for example, the parallels Ivanushka - Yeshua, Stravinsky - Pilate: He [Ivan Bezdomny] was wearing a torn whitish sweatshirt, to which a paper icon was pinned on the chest with a safety pin.. .and in striped white pants. Right cheek Ivan Nikolaevich was freshly torn; Ahead of everyone walked a carefully shaved man of about forty-five, with pleasant, but very piercing eyes... The entire retinue showed him signs of attention and respect, and his entrance therefore turned out to be very solemn. “Like Pontius Pilate!” - Ivan thought...

Repetition brings many situations in the novel closer together. Thus, the “Moscow” scenes are consistently correlated with Woland’s ball, cf., for example, the polonaise, which is performed at the ball by the omnipresent orchestra and the hoarse roar of the polonaise, which breaks out from all the windows, from all the doors, from all the gateways, from the roofs and attics, from basements and courtyards. Muscovites find themselves among Woland's guests, their destiny, therefore, is the impossibility of a true resurrection: Crowds of guests began to lose their appearance. Both the dress-makers and the women disintegrated into dust.

Three times in the text of the novel the description of the “devilish” dance is repeated - the foxtrot “Hallelujah” (jazz in “Griboyedov”, the dance of the sparrow - one of the incarnations evil spirits, finally, a ball at Woland’s), cf.:

a) And immediately a thin male voice desperately shouted to the music “Hallelujah!!” It was the famous Griboyedov jazz that struck. The faces covered with perspiration seemed to glow, it seemed as if the horses painted on the ceiling had come to life, the lamps seemed to turn up the light, and suddenly, as if breaking free from a chain, both halls danced... In a word, hell;

b) On the stage... monkey jazz was now raging. A huge gorilla in shaggy sideburns with a trumpet in his hand, dancing heavily, conducted... On the mirrored floor there were countless couples, as if, having merged, spinning in one direction, they walked like a wall, threatening to sweep away everything in their path.

The Hallelujah foxtrot is depicted in the novel as “a grotesque transformation of prayer into dance,” as an element of a black mass. The repetition of this image emphasizes the devilish beginning in Moscow life and is complemented by other repetitions that develop the motif of the “hellish” concert unfolding in the city, see, for example:

The orchestra did not play, and did not even strike, and did not even strike, but, in a disgusting expression, cut short some incredible march, unlike anything else in its swagger...

Curious people climbed onto the barrier, hellish bursts of laughter and frantic screams were heard, drowned out by the golden ringing of cymbals from the orchestra.

The homeless man's pursuit of Woland is accompanied by the “roar of a polonaise” and then by Gremin's aria, while Margarita's flight is accompanied by the sounds of waltzes and marches. Various sounds, merging into “noise”, “roar”, “roar”, are contrasted with the Master’s dream of silence:

You know, I can’t stand noise, fuss, violence and all sorts of things like that. I especially hate human screams, be they a scream of suffering, rage, or some other scream.

This contrast makes especially significant the fourfold repetition of situations in which the main characters of the novel “screech (piercingly)” scream, and their very sequence. In the second chapter, “in such a terrible voice that Yeshua recoiled,” Pilate shouts that the kingdom of truth will never come. In Chapter 31, Woland’s terrible voice echoed over the mountains like a trumpet: “It’s time!” In chapter 32, demanding mercy for Pilate (repetition of the situation with Frida), Margarita screamed piercingly - and from this scream a stone fell off in the mountains and flew along the ledges into the abyss. Finally, the Master’s cry turns into thunder, destroying the mountains: - Free! Free! He is waiting for you!

The Master's ending of the novel about Pilate turns out to be the last moment of historical time, giving way to eternity. This is also the triumph of mercy, one of the manifestations of divine truth.

Repetitions are the basis for the rapprochement between the “Yershalaim” and “Moscow” chapters of the novel, the overlaps between which are numerous. Thus, the descriptions of thunderstorms in Moscow and Yershalaim, associated with the reversibility of the trope, are correlated, cf.: The administrator rubbed his eyes and saw that a yellow-bellied thundercloud was creeping low over Moscow. There was a loud growl in the distance. - A thundercloud was rising menacingly and steadily across the sky from the west. Its edges were already boiling with white foam, its black, smoky belly glowed yellow. The cloud grumbled, and from time to time fiery threads fell out of it.

“The parallel “Moscow - Yershalaim” is one of the most obvious in the novel... Let us also mention other details of the surroundings: the crooked narrow alleys of Arbat - Lower Town, sweatshirts - tunics, two five-candles over the Yershalaim Temple on Easter night - ten lights in the windows of the "institution" "that same night. Even sunflower oil Annushka, who played such a fatal role in the fate of Berlioz, corresponds to Pilate’s rose oil.” The Variety Theater, associated with the motifs of a booth and at the same time a demonic sabbath, correlates with the image of Bald Mountain - the place of Yeshua’s execution - and the traditional place of the sabbath, forming an ambivalent unity.

In both the “Moscow” and “Yershalaim” chapters, speech means are repeated that denote heat, “merciless sunshine.” The cross-cutting image of the novel - the image of darkness falling on the Great City - is associated with both Moscow and Yershalaim, cf.: The darkness that came from Mediterranean Sea, covered the city hated by the procurator. The hanging bridges connecting the temple with the terrible Anthony Tower disappeared, an abyss descended from the sky and flooded... The palace with loopholes, bazaars, caravanserais, alleys, ponds... Yershalaim disappeared - a great city, as if it did not exist in the world; This darkness, coming from the west, covered the huge city [Moscow]. Bridges and palaces disappeared.

The image of “pitch darkness devouring everything” is preceded by a derivative eschatological image of a cloud coming from the west, which is repeated at the end in Ivan’s visions (“the cloud... boils and falls on the ground, as only happens during world catastrophes” ). If in the finale of the novel “The White Guard” the world “is covered with the veil of God,” then in “The Master and Margarita” the sky above Moscow is covered by Woland’s black cloak.

In the figurative series associated with the motif of darkness, repeated designations of natural phenomena are included in the finale: [Margarita] thought that perhaps... the horse itself is just a block of darkness, and the mane of this horse is a cloud, and the rider’s spurs are white spots stars

Repetitions finally bring the image of the inhabitants of the two cities closer together; such, for example, is the image of the “wave” of voices in the scene of the execution of Yeshua and in the scene in Griboyedov. At the end of the novel, the images of the two cities are combined in one of the contexts.

Thus, repetitions permeate the entire text of the novel. Some of them are also typical for other works of Bulgakov, see, for example, the image of the “hellish concert” in “Zoyka’s Apartment”, “darkness” and “needles” in the drama “Running”.

Repetitions mark the transition from one chapter of the novel to another. They are used at the junctions of thirteen chapters of the text, the structure of which is characterized by the technique of picking up - the use of the last words of the previous chapter at the beginning of the next one, cf., for example, the end of the first chapter and the beginning of the second: It’s simple : in a white cloak... (Ch. 1) - In a white cloak with bloody lining... (Ch. 2).

At the junctions of the first and second parts of the novel, repeated elements of metatext are used - the author’s appeal to the readers: Follow me, reader! (end of chapter 18 and beginning of chapter 19). This repetition destroys the isolation of the internal world of the text and connects what is depicted with extra-textual reality.

The concentration of repetitions, reflecting the main plot lines of the novel and highlighting its end-to-end images, characterizes the epilogue, see, for example:

It is the same thing that wakes up the scientist and brings him to a pitiful cry on the night of the full moon. He sees the unnaturalness of the noseless executioner, who, jumping up and somehow hooting in his voice, stabs with a spear into the heart of Gestos, who is tied to a post and has lost his mind...

A wide lunar road stretches from the bed to the window, and a man in a white cloak with a bloody lining rises onto this road and begins to walk towards the moon. Walking next to him is a young man in a ruined bath robe and with a disfigured face.

In the epilogue, “the force that generated and shaped the novel about Pilate and whose very earthly existence gave what was happening the features of an event, the drama of history, and extension is taken beyond the boundaries of the novel... Instead of comprehension (by guessing or vision) and embodiment - an endless reproduction of the same and the same paintings."

Thus, the novel “The Master and Margarita” presents a system of repetitions, the configuration and position of which in the text determine the features of the composition and figurative system of the work. These are repetitions of linguistic means, motives, situations, images. The main technique that determines the structure of the text is the leitmotif. This is a principle of text construction in which “a certain motif, once arising, is then repeated many times, appearing each time in a new version of new outlines and in ever new combinations with other motifs.” The repetitions are supplemented by numerous historical, cultural and literary reminiscences. Repeated speech means intersect, unite in rows and fields, enter into generic (darkness - cloud), synonymous and antonymic relationships (sun - moon; night - light, etc.). Repetitions correlate different spatial-temporal planes of the text, connect the “Yershalaim” and “Moscow” chapters, projecting history onto modernity, open the eternal in time, they actualize the meanings important for the semantic composition of the novel, and determine the “homogeneity” of the fantastic and real depicted in it -everyday worlds.

Questions and tasks

1. Read E. Zamyatin’s story “The Cave.” Highlight repeating elements in its text. Define repetition types. What positions do repetitions occupy in the text?

2. What series of repetitions is associated with the title of the story - “The Cave”? Determine the meaning of the title.

3. Highlight the cross-cutting images of the story. Show how they interact with each other in the text. Determine how the variability and stability of these images is manifested.

4. Highlight the key oppositions of the story text that involve repetitions.

5. Determine the main functions of repetitions in the text of a story. What is unique about the composition and speech organization of E. Zamyatin’s story?

Comment on the writer’s statement: “If I firmly believe in an image, it will inevitably give birth to a whole system of derivative images, it will grow roots through paragraphs and pages. In a short story, the image can become integral - spread to the entire thing from beginning to end.” Give examples of integral images.

“Solitary” V.V. Rozanova: text structure

“Solitary” (1912) by V.V. Rozanov was already assessed by his contemporaries as a work of experimental form, capturing “exclamations, sighs, half-thoughts, half-feelings” that “came straight from the soul, without processing”, and destroying the boundaries between artistic text and documentary text or “fleeting” recording. “Solitary” is characterized by freedom of composition, which is combined with extreme subjectivity and the dynamism of switching from one stylistic register to another. The associative nature of the narrative corresponds to the principle of “mosaic” in the juxtaposition of text elements and a special syntactic organization.

The volumetric-pragmatic division is extremely fractional.

The text of “Solitary” consists of small, varied and, as a rule, thematically homogeneous fragments, each of which is both a compositional unit of the work and a communicative and semantic segment of the whole. It is no coincidence that V.V. Rozanov considered it necessary for each fragment to be printed on a separate page, without connection with others, as usual: printed poetic texts. This requirement, however, was fulfilled only once - in the first edition of Solitary. The boundaries of each fragment are strictly defined, traditional means of interphrase communication that combine the components of the text and are used within them are absent: each fragment as a result can be perceived as independent and; stand-alone miniature. The cohesion relationship is thus in; text weakened.

At the same time, a number of the first phrases of the miniature fragments begin with a coordinating conjunction, signaling a connection with a certain pretext. This pretext, however, is not the preceding narrative unit, but not the verbally expressed content. Behind the text there remains a “semantic space”, born of the narrator’s thought and the emotional associations associated with it, while the reader is offered only an acquaintance with the development of this thought or its result: ... but in essence - God! God! - the monastery always stood in my soul; And only one boast, and only one question from everyone: “What role will I play in this (hereinafter highlighted by Rozanov - N.N.)?”

The presence of hidden meanings motivating use coordinating connection, deepens and complicates the structure of the text. That same function is performed by means of expressing agreement and disagreement, opening the initial sentences of the fragment: - Yes, everything is so, - and enlightenment, and connection with the ideas of the time... But she is preparing a good inheritance for her grandchildren, lasting and thorough...

The use at the beginning of fragments of syntactic constructions that presuppose a pretext and, therefore, have a certain incompleteness, even synsemantics (semantic incompleteness), is a sign of the inexhaustibility of the author’s “raw” thought. “Actually, every thought captured at the moment of its birth is brilliant if it is a thought (emphasized by M.O. Menyikov - N.N.), and not nonsense. This is the charm of many writers, charming in their spontaneity, for example V.V. Rozanova. He manages to grasp a thought even before its birth and even before its conception, in its transcendental, so to speak, existence...” The “being” of thought - complete and at the same time always connected with others - is reflected in the division of the “Solitary”. The same fragment of text can be characterized by both independence, manifested in its structural delimitation and the absence of formal means of communication with neighboring miniatures, and a special synsemantic openness, which is determined by the presence of implicit meanings and omitted pretext, orientation towards an undesignated “space of thought”.

Refusal of traditional syntactic connections is “a form of affirmation of the priority of the individual and thereby non-repeatable over the generally significant and therefore repeatable, mechanically reproducible.” Rozanov contrasts a coherent text of a rigid genre form with the free association of fragments-miniatures, while the integrity of the entire text is determined not so much by interphrase connections as by the movement of end-to-end semantic series, repetitions of key words that introduce the invariant themes of “Solitary” (soul, literature, Russia, etc.) . Thus, such a type of coherence as coherence is especially significant for this text.

The assertion of the author’s right to individual syntax determines not only the originality of the division of the text of “Solitary” as a whole, but also the widespread use of expressive methods of dividing its individual components. Expressing his communicative intentions, the author either highlights one of the parts of the statement in close-up, or introduces a word form or sentence at the beginning of the fragment that expresses the hypertheme (About his death: “It is necessary for this rubbish to be swept out of the world.” And when this “need” comes) " - I will die), then it makes dependent elements and parts of a sentence independent statements, or it generally destroys the chain of syntactic dependencies:

If you don’t deliver something, you’ll feel sad in your soul. Even if you don't give the gift. (A girl at the station, Kyiv, to whom I wanted to give a pencil insert, but he hesitated, and she and her grandmother left.)

Before us is a new type of syntactic organization of the work, significantly different from the hierarchical prose of the 19th century. One of the first at the beginning of the 20th century. V.V. Rozanov widely uses segmentation and parcellation as special methods of expressive division of an entire text. These techniques subsequently received intensive development in artistic and newspaper journalistic speech of the 20th century.

Fragmentation is the leading compositional principle of “Solitary”. It determines such features of the text structure as discontinuity, strengthening of distant semantic connections, and rejection of the external hierarchy of the parts that make up the work. In this regard, “Solitary” by V.V. Rozanov is one of the first experiences of fragmentary discourse in world literature, and an experience that anticipates the development of the principle of nonselection, rethinking literary communication as a whole.

Affirmation of the individual principle that defines freedom! syntactic connections, and the rejection of strict regulation of forms are manifested in the author’s use of non-normative punctuation, formalizing “accidental exclamations”, “sighs, half-thoughts, half-feelings”: Simply, - the soul lives; It’s better to be alone, because when I’m alone, I’m with God.

The freedom of construction and division of the text corresponds, as we see, to the freedom of punctuation, while the intonation and emotional-expressive function of punctuation marks comes to the fore.

The text of “Solitary” is characterized by the exposure of the process of creating a work, moreover, the exposure of the process of the author’s verbal and mental activity in general. This is expressed in a special way of designing miniature fragments, which often end with indications of the place, time and situation of birth! one or another record or form of its recording, for example: on a cab at night; on the back of the banner; Luga - Petersburg, carriage; our shoe soles; bathing; summer 1911

These instructions, defining the spatio-temporal coordinates of the fragment, close it, but at the same time are formalized as plug-in structures and form a special system in the text! They are usually represented by dates and word forms (phrases) with local or temporal meaning, for example! July 23, 1911; in our editorial office; in the University; on Trinity Bridge.

Indications of place and time, designed as quasi-inserts, are extremely laconic, they can include abbreviations, and the designations of the situation in which this or that entry is recorded are of a distinctly everyday nature, thereby imitating the careless, “homey” design of the text, reflecting the freedom of subjective expression and addressee convention:

The wind rustles at midnight and carries sheets of paper... So is life in the fleeting! time tears exclamations, sighs, half-thoughts from our souls! radiant feelings... Which, being fragments of sound, have the significance that they “came” straight from the soul, without processing, without purpose, without intention, - without anything extraneous... Actually, they flow into us continuously, but you can’t keep up with them (no paper at hand) bring it in - and they die.

This use of instructions reveals the author's appeal! of the Russian word on the speaker himself, combining in one person both the narrator and the addressee of the text, i.e. setting on an autocommunity! cation. Texts of such genres as diary, confession, memoirs always have an autocommunicative orientation. Connections with them are especially significant for “Solitary”, while Rozanov “polemically integrates different genre traditions of intellectual prose, he uses the confessional nature of the diary for deep analytical-reflective self-disclosure, the essayistic subjectivity of literary-critical notes... ethical-philosophical rational-logical analytism “experiments””, the fragmentation of the composition emphasizes the rejection of the rigid genre canon. If genre is a form of mastering and “completion” of reality (M.M. Bakhtin), then the genre polygenesis of “Solitary” is a kind of affirmation of the incompleteness of being, the openness of personality and the multiplicity of “I”. The extreme subjectivity of a work is a sign of the strengthening of the author’s principle in the literature of the 20th century. If the development of Russian literature of the 19th century V. was generally characterized by the gradual development of the character’s plan, then Rozanov’s “Solitary” is the maximum development, on the contrary, of the author’s plan, a manifestation of open subjectivity, reflected in the nature of the instructions.

The location of the indications and their sequence in the work are dynamic: if at the beginning of the text local concretizers predominate, then in the second part it is dominated by temporary indicators that accurately record the time of recording, cf.: December 16, 1911; December 18, 1911; December 21, 1911; December 23, 1911 As a result, a moving time perspective appears in the text. Absence linear connection fragments at the syntactic level, their thematic diversity and looseness correspond to their fairly strict sequence in time. The nature of the space-time indications and their position evoke associations with poetry: the fragment is likened to a lyric poem.

The system of instructions is supplemented by intra-textual comments, which are also designed as inserted structures and are often combined in one row with spatio-temporal concretizers: Like a “seasoned wolf” he ate Russian blood and fell into his grave, well-fed (About Shchedrin, carriage).

Intratextual comments, in contrast to instructions, which usually model auto-communication and imitate the author’s conversation with himself, recreate the communicative situation of “communication” between the author and the reader. They name the topic of the text fragment, designate the object of evaluation and restore the name of the subject missing in the incomplete sentence: ...And it faded, faded uncontrollably... (for numismatics, about Bashkirtseva); He always dreams, and always has one thought: - how to avoid work (Russians).

Intratextual comments, as well as indications of place and time, are usually located at the end of the fragment, marking its border, and act as quasi-inserts. The exception is the selection of a topic related to “friend”: a number of fragments of “Solitary” have the title “Your mother” and contain an indication of a specific addressee, for example: Your mother (Children); And we lived quietly, day after day, for many years. And it was best part of my life. (25 February 1911).

The entitled fragments of the text are dedicated to V.D. Rudneva. The use of a special design system for them is a sign of their lyrical emphasis in the work. The repetition of the title establishes intratextual connections between the fragments that develop the theme of “friend” that runs through “Solitary” and highlights one of the possible addressees of the work (see the form of the possessive pronoun Vash), as a result, the plurality of addressees of the text is emphasized: the author himself, the external addressee - the reader, children, “friend”, etc.

The theme of the fragment in “Solitary,” as we see, is often determined not within its framework, but in the accompanying commentary that usually ends this part of the text.

The construction of any utterance is based on the connection between theme and rheme, and the communicative organization of the text involves repetition or change of themes, their deployment and transformation into rhemas of neighboring sentences. The text of “Solitary” is a text consisting of fragments in which the topic of the leading statement is often omitted; The text, therefore, has a distinctly rhematic character. This is close to colloquial speech, in which, in a situation of direct communication in a situationally determined dialogue, the topic can be omitted to internal speech and diary entries intended only for their author.

The syntax of “Solitary” reflects two contrasting author’s attitudes: an attitude towards auto-communication and an attitude towards an active dialogue with the reader. The first, as already noted, is manifested in the widespread use of colloquial syntactic structures and a sharp change in functional and emotional types of sentences, the second - in resorting to interrogative sentences that create a kind of dramatization of the text, to incentive constructions:

Do you know that religion is the most important, the first, the most necessary?

Live every day as if you had lived your whole life just for this day.

Build the spirit, build the spirit! Look, he's all falling apart...

Interrogative sentences are especially often used in the text. They are, however, heterogeneous. “Solitary” presents question-and-answer complexes, and actual questions, and emotive interrogative constructions, and rhetorical questions, when the author does not categorically assert his point of view, but appeals to the opinion of the addressee, although he already presupposes the desired answer: Who with a pure soul goes to the ground? Oh, how we need cleansing (winter - 1911). Yes, maybe the “plan of the building” is wrong: but it already protects us from rain, from dirt: and how to start cutting it down? (car; about the church).

Interrogative sentences also differ in the nature of the addressee. Along with questions addressed to the reader, questions directly addressed by the author to himself are consistently used, for example: Am I writing “for the reader”? No, you write for yourself... What do you love, eccentric? My dream.

Thus, in the use of interrogative constructions, the interaction of autocommunication and dialogization, characteristic of the text of “Solitary” as a whole, is manifested. The degree of dialogue is increased by including in the text:

1) quoted dialogues with a specific interlocutor;

2) imaginary dialogues specially modeled by the author;

3) conditional dialogues of personified abstract principles, cf.:

1) “What do you all think about yourself. You should think about the people."

Do not want. (St. Petersburg - Kyiv, carriage).

2) Peoples, do you want me to tell you a thunderous truth, which none of the prophets told you...

Well?.. Well?.. Hh...

It is that privacy is above all.

He-he-he!.. Ha-ha-ha!.. Ha-ha!

Yes Yes! Nobody said this, I was the first... Just sit at home and at least pick your nose and look at the sunset...

3) “Happiness is in effort,” says youth. “Happiness is in peace,” says death.

“Overcome everything,” says youth.

“Yes, but it will all end,” says death. (Eidkunen - Berlin, carriage).

Rozanov's text enters into dialogue with other texts. The structure of the work is characterized by extensive chains of intertextual connections, formed primarily by quotations and reminiscences. Unattributed quotations are often freely assimilated into the author’s word, and “point quotations” (names literary characters) serve as a form of generalization and a way of figurative characterization: ...The second was “Tentetnikov”, simply warming his belly in the sun...; I am the eternal Oblomov.

A distinctive feature of the structure of “Solitary”, as well as other works of Rozanov, is polyquotation: quotations do not so much refer this text to individual “alien” works, but rather correlate it with the typological features of entire artistic systems (for example, Russian classicism, Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and non-fiction texts of Russian literature in general (including “texts” of biography and behavior of writers). This form of intertextual connections will further develop in Russian literature, especially at the end of the 20th century.

The dialogized and expressively dissected text of “Solitary” is characterized by stylistic opposition. This is the contrast between colloquial constructions and book constructions. On the one hand, the text, as already noted, uses colloquial syntactic structures. These are, for example, sentences with the postpositive particle then, polypredicative constructions with weakened syntactic connections and blurred relationships, sentences that include substantivized verbal forms or combinations and, therefore, are characterized by non-normative compatibility, incomplete sentences with omitted predicate, cf.:

Ah, people: - take advantage of every evening that turns out to be clear. Soon life will pass, it will pass, and then you will say, “I would enjoy it,” but you can’t: there is pain, there is sadness, “there is no time”! Numismatics - good and! numismatics; a book - perhaps a book; All property is in Russia! grew out of “begged” or “gifted” or “robbed someone.”

Conversational syntactic constructions in “Solitary” recreate the image of a “private”, “subjective” person, striving for maximum completeness of expression, but neglecting standard ways of forming thoughts. Hence the tendency to release syntactically related words, the use of compressed syntactic constructions that go back to colloquial speech, the emphasis on individual components of the utterance, the general “looseness” of syntactic connections, leading in some cases to non-normative, non-standard constructions, for example: Gorky’s Rock - that he got into glory, to the highest position; I am like a baby in the womb, but who does not want to be born at all.

On the other hand, the text of “The Solitary” uses book syntactic constructions just as consistently. These are First of all sentences with a real gnomic, i.e. with the form of the predicate, which has a temporal plan of a constant attribute. These constructions with a general meaning formulate Rozanov’s aphorisms, maxims and paradoxes: Whoever loves the Russian people cannot help but love the churches; Fate protects those whom it deprives of glory; The seal is a machine gun, from which an idiotic non-commissioned officer fires.

Aphorism fragments interact in the text of “Solitary” with special rhythmic structures that have a strophic form. Such fragments of text are close to prose poems:

Quiet, dark nights... Fear of crime... Longing for loneliness... Tears of despair, fear and sweat of labor...

The strengthening of the verse principle is also manifested in the actualization of sound repetitions that “link” the fragment, in the widespread use of quotations from poetic works that permeate the text of “Solitary”. The blurring of genre boundaries, the boundaries between literary text and “domestic” speech is combined with the destruction of the boundaries between verse and prose. “In conditions of small absolute volume of fragments, a vertical rhythm, which is not characteristic of prosaic structures, is actualized.”

Syntactic contrasts are complemented in “Solitary” by lexical-semantic contrasts. The maximum dismemberment of the text results in its internal integrity and harmony, autocommunication is combined with an active dialogue with the internal and external addressee, the subjectivity of private notes is with generalizations of various types, colloquial syntactic means interact with book constructions, rhythmic fragments with a strophic form are combined with the actual prose fragments, lyrical expression is complemented by rhetoric, high is combined with low, everyday and “homey”. This is how the text appears completely new form, which V.V. Rozanov himself defined as “the form of Adam”: “This is a form both full of egoism and without egoism... For large and small there is an achieved limit of eternity... And it simply lies in the fact that “the river flows how it flows” so that “everything will be as it is.” No fiction. But “people are always making things up.” And here is the peculiarity that even “fiction” does not destroy the truth of the fact: every dream, wish, cobweb of thought will enter. This is not at all a “Diary” or a “memoir” or a “repentant confession”: exactly and precisely - only “sheets...””/

The discrete structure of the text and the weakening of connections between its fragments correlate with the cross-cutting images of the work - images of solitude and loneliness, closely related to each other:

The worst loneliness in my entire life. Since childhood. Lonely souls are hidden souls.

It's better to be alone - because when I'm alone, I'm with God.

If solitude is a conscious choice of the narrator, then loneliness is his constant internal state, which manifests itself not only in the severance of ties with others, but also “in the desire of the Self to be infinitely distant from the Self.”

"Solitary", opening autobiographical trilogy Rozanov, reflects a new approach to self-expression and self-interpretation in literature. The image of the Self is created not through a consistent life story, not by characterizing actions, but by fixing individual thoughts, conveying “individuality of state of mind.” The history of life is replaced by an expanded self-reflection, revealing the fluidity, multidimensionality and inexhaustibility of the “I”. Personal identity is emphasized by self-esteem, often figurative:

No interest in self-realization, absence of any external energy, “will to be.” I am the most unrealistic person.

A wanderer, an eternal wanderer and everywhere only a wanderer (Luga - St. Petersburg, carriage; about myself).

Rozanov rejects the traditionally given coherence of the description of the life path - it is contrasted with the intermittency and mobility of individual “records”, including memories, reflections and assessments. The syntactic organization, which Rozanov first addressed in “Solitary,” determined the freedom of form and associative “looseness” of the text and opened up new expressive possibilities for fiction and documentary prose. The structure of this work anticipates the development of fragmentary discourse in twentieth-century literature. with its inherent signs of discontinuity, semantic inconsistency, non-normativity and permutation (possible interchangeability of parts).

Questions and tasks

I. 1. Read the story by F.M. Dostoevsky "The Meek" Explain the author's definition of the genre of the work - “fantastic story”.

2. Describe the compositional division of the text.

3. Determine the principles for selecting chapters and subchapters in the structure of the text.

4. Analyze their titles. Do they form a system?

5. Identify the end-to-end images of the text that determine its integrity.

II. 1. Read the story “The Meaning of Life” by L. Petrushevskaya, part of the “Requiem” cycle. What is special about its architectonics?

2. Highlight the semantic parts in the text of the story. Explain the lack of compositional and syntactic division of the text (dividing it into paragraphs).

3. Describe cohesion and coherence of the text.

4. Analyze the semantic composition of the story. What are its features?

5. Consider the contextual and variable division of the text. How are contexts containing the narrator’s speech and “alien” speech combined? How do the volumetric-pragmatic and conceptual-variable division of the text correlate?

Architecture (lat. architectura, gr. archi - main and tektos - build, erect) - architecture, the art of designing and building. Architecture creates a materially organized environment that people need for their life, in accordance with its purpose, modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society. As an art form, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically shaping a person’s environment, expressing social ideas in artistic images: a person’s ideas about the world, time, greatness, joy, triumph, loneliness and many other feelings. This is probably why they say that architecture is frozen music. The architect cares about the beauty, usefulness and strength of the structures he creates, in other words, aesthetic, constructive and functional qualities in architecture are interconnected. The historical development of society determines the functions and types of structures, technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures. In different historical periods A variety of building materials and technologies were used, which significantly influenced the creation of architectural structures. Modern level Developments in technology, the use of reinforced concrete, glass, plastics and other new materials make it possible to create unusual shapes of buildings in the form of a ball, spiral, flower, shell, ear, etc.

In architecture, functional, technical, and aesthetic principles are interconnected: utility, strength, beauty. The main means of expression used in architecture are composition, tectonics, plasticity of volumes, scale, rhythm, proportionality, as well as the texture and color of surfaces of materials, synthesis of arts, etc. Architectural structures reflect art style era, like works of any other form of art. In its artistic and figurative side, architecture differs from simple construction. Architects create an artistically organized space for human life, which is a possible environment for the synthesis of arts. World-famous architectural structures and ensembles are remembered as symbols of countries and cities (pyramids in Egypt, the Acropolis in Athens, the Colosseum in Rome, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, skyscrapers in Chicago, the Kremlin and Red Square in Moscow, etc.).

Architecture and fashion not only feed on the same ideas, they even use the same professional terms: texture, ornament, sketch, size, image. Issues of a unified approach in setting a creative task and the relationship between the design activities of architects and clothing designers are of interest to art historians around the world and are constantly discussed on the pages of various publications. For example, in the article “Body structure” Alessandra Paudice / Alessandra Paudice ( Vogue No. 3, March 2002. pp. 292–294) quotes Tom Ford: “Both clothes and buildings are the shell in which a person lives.” Architecture is seen as a macrocosm, a living space. Fashion is a microcosm, a second skin that a person can choose for himself. An architectural structure protects a person from the outside world. Clothes help preserve our inner world. The first to compare architecture with clothing was the Roman architect Vitruvius, who lived during the time of Emperor Augustus. In his treatise “On Architecture” he wrote: “From the beauty of the naked body we move on to columns one-eighth thick of their height; where a person's legs are, there is a column's base. The capital is similar to human head with curls, she is decorated with ornate patterns, like a wreath of fruit decorates a hairstyle. The flutes that trace the body of the column look like falling folds of fabric.”

The dialogue between fashion and architecture reached its peak at the end of XIX – early XX centuries, during Art Nouveau and then Art Deco. Architects of the time - Peter Behrens, Henri van de Velde and Frank Lloyd Wright - experimented with the design of women's clothing. It was an era of simple forms, undecorated buildings with open plans and fluid spaces. This style was reflected in fashion thanks to Paul Poiret. He freed women from corsets and later dressed them in trousers and empire-line dresses that allowed freedom of movement.

One of the first fashion architects was Charles James (1906–1978), who introduced quilted satin coats, the prototype of modern puffers, into fashion. Yves Saint Laurent, Thierry Mugler and Azzedine Alaïa admitted that it was from him that they learned the architectural approach to clothing. An architect by training, one of the key designers of the 60s, Paco Rabanne is known for his experiments with materials atypical for fashion - paper, plastic and metal. Instead of scissors, needles and thread, he used pliers, screwdrivers and hammers. He is more of a builder than a tailor. However, all these non-plastic materials, like fabrics, followed the lines of the body. A graduate of the Politecnico di Milano, Gianfranco Ferré is often compared to the outstanding architect of the early XX century by Frank Lloyd Wright. He has always been famous for his precise volumes and perfect shapes, and his famous shirts seem not sewn, but mocked up from crisp white paper. The architectural past sometimes helps to create not monumental, but very practical and comfortable clothes. The designer of Yugoslav origin Zoran, who dressed Isabella Rossellini, with his extreme minimalism is reminiscent of the founder of this movement in architecture, John Pawson. It hides from view even such necessary details as buttons, seams and zippers. In the great works of sartorial art, the solemnity of an architectural structure coexists with the ephemerality and lightness of fashion. Architects' passion for fashion has been brought to its logical conclusion, designing clothing becomes the main business of their lives, architectural education allows specialists to lead the production of clothing and boldly experiment with new materials (Elena Serebryakova, Irkutsk).

These days, the union of fashion and architecture has become stronger. Calvin Klein chose the famous minimalist John Pawson to create his boutique in New York. Miuccia Prada entrusted her New York boutique to Rem Koolhaas. Jan Kaplicki and Amanda Livet from Future Systems created the Marni boutique.

In the 90s XX century, Jan Kaplicky, who was then living in Prague, tried to design clothes. But the best “clothing” he created was the streamlined metal case that decorated the new department store building Selfridge's in Birmingham. “We are faced with the same problem that Paco Rabanne faced in the 60s,” says Kaplicki. “We had to create a fairly flexible coating, because the shape of the building was quite complex. We had to make a case out of small pieces. Many architects are afraid of being influenced by fashion, but unconsciously absorb it. Fashion is too influential. She is always looking for new forms and materials. This is exactly what traditional architectural approaches lack.” This is a great example of how the experience of a fashion designer can be translated into architectural language. Kaplicka's buildings are always recognizable by their organic architectural forms. For him, living space is not geometric rigidity, but the plasticity of the human body with all its curves.

In Fig. 2 pleated basques and trains of women's dresses in the collection G.F.F. their sinuous outlines resembled balconies Casa Battlo , the famous creation of Antoni Gaudi, whose flowing lines are reminiscent of the soft forms of living nature.

Rice. 2. Fluid lines of balconies Casa Battlo (1905–1907) architect Antonio Gaudi
reminiscent of the soft forms of living nature, echoed by corrugated basques and trains
in women's dresses from the collection G.F.F.

Embroidery on crinolines from the collection Yohji Yamamoto as if borrowed from the façade of a Renaissance cathedral (Florence, mid. XV century) (Fig. 3). Yohji Yamamoto in the spring-summer 2002 collection almost copies the light and festive design of the facade of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella by Italian architect Leon Battista Alberti. Fine details in the latest collection Gucci similar to the round windows typical of the Italian Middle Ages.

Rice. 3. Embroidery on crinolines from the spring-summer 2002 collection Yohji Yamamoto
as if copied from the facade of the Renaissance Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella by the architect
Leona Battista Alberti

Many images and rigid geometry of 60s fashion XX centuries echo famous architectural structures. The minidress, designed by André Courrages in 1968, is very similar to Villa Savoye in Poisy, France (1928–1929) - a one-story building on stilts, built by Le Corbusier. Stitched, geometrically shaped pockets on the Courrèges dress model, shown in Fig. 4, resemble windows, and the hats resemble roofs.

Rice. 4. The rigid geometry of the minidress designed by André Courrages (1968)
reminds Villa Savoye – a one-story building on stilts, built by Le Corbusier
in Poissy, France (1928–1929)

The architect and the costume designer use the same forms, inspire each other, and exchange ideas. In Fig. 5 we can compare technogenic forms in fashion and architecture. It is not at all surprising that Pierre Cardin's balaclava (1967) is so similar to the John F. Kennedy Airport terminal in New York, built in 1956-62 by American architect Ero Saarinen.

Rice. 5. Technogenic forms in fashion and architecture: balaclava by Pierre Cardin (1967)
and the John F. Kennedy Airport terminal in New York (1962) by architect Ero Saarinen

The analogy in the decorative and spot divisions of the costume and architectural structures is manifested to a lesser extent. An example is shown in Fig. 6 patchwork kaleidoscope on a dress Christian Lacroix from the fall-winter 2001–2002 collection. and the facade of a house in Vienna (1983–1986) by the architect Hundertwasser.

Rice. 6. Patchwork kaleidoscope on a dress Christian Lacroix from the collection
autumn-winter 2001–2002 and on the facade of a house in Vienna (1983-1986) by the architect Hundertwasser

In the Viktor & Rolf collection spring-summer 2002 numerous bows and draperies recall the rich and exuberant Rococo style. In Fig. 7 the giant perforations and vaults of the palm greenhouse in London are compared botanical garden(1870s), architects Desimau Burton and Richard Turner.

Rice. 7. Perforation in the model Viktor & Rolf and the vaults of the Palm Greenhouse in London
botanical garden (1870s), architects Desimau Burton and Richard Turner

The connection between clothing and architecture also has deeper roots: both architecture and costume are functionally determined by man. Like the suit architectural structure serves as a means of covering a person, his hearth, and family from the effects of bad weather. The principles of organization of architectural masses, lines, shapes, proportionality of building divisions, manifestation of the properties of materials - not only tectonic, but also textured - are the direct carriers of figurative content, which are then refracted in the lines and divisions of the volumes of the costume, its rhythmic structure, and the nature of the use of the material.

Thus the dome of a cathedral or the roof of a pagoda resembles a headdress; the line of the arch - a symbol of the stability of the opening or ceiling - can be refracted in the lines of a wide waist or shoulder garment of an oval or trapezoidal silhouette. There is a stylistic connection between costume and architecture, which is expressed in commonality, unity of imagery, similarity of silhouette, and the fundamental diagram of internal divisions.

Architectonics - 1) Features of the structure, structure of the verse: poetic size, compositional development, strophic division, strophic or non-strophic construction, rhythmic pattern, number of feet, verse endings. There are several types of architectonics of verse speech: strophic verse, paired rhyming, free rhyming, continuous rhymeless verse, single stanzas. In this sense, the term “architectonics” is sometimes synonymous with the term “strophic”. 2) The idea of ​​a poem as a whole, including all aesthetic components (structure, composition, visual arts and others, on the one hand, and the personality of the author, his sense of self in art, on the other.

The first definition looks more specific, formal, the second - more general, philosophical. At the same time, they do not contradict each other, but only show the direction of viewing a poetic phenomenon: as something “made”, decomposed into formal components, or as an organic whole, inseparable from the personality of its author.

From the first point of view, V.V. Mayakovsky looked at architectonics, writing in the article “How to make poetry?” about poetic work, the creation of a poem as a consistent conscious and rational selection of rhythmic, phonetic, lexical, syntactic and other units that formally correspond to each other. In his interpretation, poetic creativity resembles construction, in which the first quatrain is first created, then, according to his model, all the others are added up. finally together. It should not be forgotten that such excessive attention to poetic art as “doing” - a tribute to the futuristic aesthetics that Mayakovsky adhered to.

The second approach assumes an existential relationship between the author and his creation. Architectonics is the “body”, the bearer of artistry, which disappears when the poem is destroyed, at least when quoted or retold. In this sense, architectonics is not only a direct projection of the author’s personality into art, but also an act, an act of the author, his aesthetic individual action. Thus, it testifies that art is not just a description and perception (both receptive and perceptual) of being, but also its “stage” (M. Heidegger’s term) production.

Since the time of the Symbolists and their followers, the idea has become stronger in art and science that art is not a reflection of reality, but reality itself, and works are the same facts of existence as phenomena of nature and civilization. In this sense, architectonics is the same as any fact of existence, taken individually, on the one hand, and existence in the general context of other phenomena and events, on the other. It shapes and, thanks to artistic truth, allows us to perceive the implied value center - man and his sense of self in the universe. M. M. Bakhtin believed that the elements of the form and content of a work become components of architectonics only in relation to a person, with artistic time and space.

I. A. Brodsky thought in a similar vein. The poet, developing, improves not only the capabilities of his metrics and rhythm (architectonics in the first sense), but also the quality of his own voice, prosody in general. That is why in most cases the choice of the metrical structure of a verse has a philosophical meaning: the “ideological” poetry of Demyan Bedny, the propaganda poems of Mayakovsky or his early poems. “Swan Camp” by M. I. Tsvetaeva and others are all examples of various architectonics that arose thanks to the poet’s unique sense of self in the linguistic, cultural, social and other space in which he exists.

The unity of both approaches can be easily seen in the example of the architectonics of a sonnet. Being one of the “solid forms” that took on the functions of psychological, meditative, philosophical, and intellectual lyrics, the sonnet is characterized by a stable stanza. Fourteen lines, two quatrains and two tercets, an ordered rhyme system (its own for each national variety of sonnet) are the features of its “strophic-syntactic structure.” The same is true for “high demands on the euphonic side [of verse], the quality of rhyme, and vocabulary.”

An example of the same kind is the architectonics of the novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” by A. S. Pushkin. Here is the relationship between the genre nature of the novel and the poem, on the one hand, and the narrative (the story of Onegin and Tatyana) and lyrical ( lyrical digressions) began to create a complex structure of the author’s “objective” presence. The author here is both a narrator, that is, a hero, and a narrator, that is, an outside observer. Accordingly, between these two poles the action unfolds, which is at the same time a version of the author’s internal biography, a biography of the hero and an entire generation, a “panorama” and “encyclopedia” of Russian life.