SPECIFICITY OF THE CREATION OF ARTISTIC TIME AND SPACE IN L. ULITSKAYA’S PROSE
P.I. Mamedova
Baku Slavic University (BSU) st. Suleiman Rustama, 25, Baku, Azerbaijan, AZ1014
The specifics of the creation of artistic time and space in L. Ulitskaya’s story “Merry Funeral” are considered. The originality of the topos in the works of L. Ulitskaya is determined by the fact that it is represented by the space of a house (apartment), filled with numerous objects and details. At the same time, the limited enclosed space of the apartment tends to expand by including the expanses of the homeland, which the emigrants “carried away” on “their soles,” and the space of the new country in which they settled and which they “bring” along with their problems into the hero’s house. And then the space narrows to the limits of the person’s inner world. L. Ulitskaya’s works are characterized by an appeal to the character’s memory as an internal space for the temporary unfolding of events. The category of time in works is presented in two aspects: historical time (memory time) and real time.
Keywords Keywords: artistic time, artistic space, structure of a work of art, women's prose, chronotope.
A literary work is a collection of a large number of elements that are inextricably linked. Sometimes it is enough to analyze one of the elements of the text to understand the characteristic features of the entire work. Such an element can be a composition, a system of images, a detail, a landscape, a color scheme, etc. But perhaps the most polysemantic, meaning-forming elements of the text are artistic time and artistic space.
In the space-time structures developed by both individual and general cultural historical consciousness, the system of spiritual ideas of man and society, the sum of their spiritual experience, is refracted. As noted by D.S. Likhachev, changes in the system of space-time ideas primarily indicate shifts occurring in culture, in the worldview and worldview of the individual, transformations of social character.
V.E. writes about the objective nature of space and time. Khalizev, specifying that they “are endless.” He points to “the universal properties of time - duration, uniqueness, irreversibility; universal properties of space - extension, unity of discontinuity and continuity." His important remark is the following: “... a person perceives them subjectively, even when he tries to capture their objective reality. Time and space in works of literature are determined by the temporal and spatial ideas of the author himself, therefore these categories appear infinitely diverse and deeply significant.”
Literary texts may contain biographical time (childhood, youth, maturity, old age), historical time (epochs, destinies of generations, major events public life), cosmic (eternity and universal history), calendar (the cycle of seasons, a series of everyday life and holidays), daily (any time within 24 hours). Also important are ideas about movement and immobility, about the correlation between the past, present, and future. Space is usually described through categories such as enclosure and openness. It can appear in reality and appear in the imagination. In addition, phenomena can be removed from the subject or brought closer to it, and a correlation between the earthly and cosmic can arise.
The development of problems of artistic space and time, being a significant part of literary analysis, has acquired new impulses in recent years. So, N.K. Shutaya emphasizes that “one of the productive areas of modern literary criticism has become the study of spatio-temporal models implemented at various levels of systematicity: within the work of one writer, within a literary movement, within a certain era.” Each author interprets time and space in his own way, endowing them with various characteristics that reflect his worldview and attitude. As a result, the artistic space created by a particular author becomes different from that created by another artist. That is why so many studies have recently appeared devoted to the chronotope in the works of individual authors - A. Chekhov, M. Tsvetaeva, M. Bulgakov, A. Platonov, etc.
Space and time are the main forms of existence; in works of art they are transformed, creating complex intermediate formations, “flowing” into one another. As noted by A.Ya. Esalnek, “space and time do not exist along with other features, but fill and penetrate all the details of the work, making them chronotopic.” Time and space form the basis of the plot, and in the twists and turns of the plot, a picture of the world is born, recreated by the author.
Researchers at modern stage studies of the categories of time and space are beginning to pay more and more attention to the specifics of their disclosure in the works of female writers, i.e. offer a gender approach. Although this type of research has not yet received unconditional support, certain comments and observations undoubtedly deserve attention. The most convincing are the conclusions voiced in N. Gabrielyan’s article “Eve means “life” (the problem of space in modern women’s prose).” The author is convinced that the perception of the problem of artistic space “has to do not so much with a purely physical phenomenon, but with the attitude of consciousness,” i.e. the female author depicts a picture of the world seen from her, female, point of view.
A special complex relationship between the categories of time and space clearly characterizes the specifics of the artistic thinking of one of the brightest representatives of “women's prose” L. Ulitskaya. This specificity will be analyzed using the example of the story “Merry Funeral”.
In the artistic world, the stories intertwine and closely interact between the present and the past, as well as the geographical spaces of Russia and the USA. The work raises problems family relations, the meaning of life, the perception of death, art, memory, understanding of professional duty. These problems are revealed in the images of characters created using nominal, portrait, behavioral, and speech characteristics. The writer pays special attention to the sphere of the subconscious (dreams).
The reader is struck by the paradoxical properties of the space created by the writer: it also has a tendency to expand (description of a city, then a country), as a result of which an open space appears before us. However, the action can also be confined within four walls, separating what is happening indoors from the outside world. But at the same time, echoes from outside penetrate - along with people coming- and there. Visitors to the apartment-studio where the terminally ill artist, who emigrated from Russia 30 years ago, is living out his last days, bring news, share details of their life, and discuss the events that happened to them. Therefore, the house turns into a “passage yard” where people “crowd” from morning to night and even stay overnight. The author notes: “The premises here were excellent for receptions, but impossible for normal life: a loft, a converted warehouse with the end cut off, into which was driven a tiny kitchen, a toilet with a shower and a narrow bedroom with a piece of window. And a huge, two-light workshop..." . From the first lines of the story, the apartment is perceived as a “small madhouse.” People appear and disappear in it, often unknown visitors appear. This is exactly the kind of apartment that seems to change its shape and size: it was a warehouse - it became a workshop, from which they fenced off a nook for the kitchen, in the bedroom - half a window, from the elevator you get into the living room, etc. - conveys the attitude of people who are deprived of ground under their feet, unsettled.
The impossibility of normal living in such an apartment is emphasized by the original way of communication with the outside world. The entrance to Alik’s workshop is directly from the elevator - after all, to facilitate the movement of goods, warehouses do not have doors. Therefore, it seems that the people here are “suspended” in space. On the other hand, when they come to Alik, they seem to go straight to the top. And since he lives somewhere on the upper floors, his stay here may well be associated with heaven, and his visitors with sinners who are received by a sick person leaving this earth. And it is believed that, although he is burdened with sins, he is no longer capable of committing new ones, and therefore forgives them their past sins, forgives them - and they forgive him and say goodbye to him forever.
“Alik was spread out in a chair, and around him his friends were shouting, laughing and drinking, everyone seemed to be on their own, but everyone was turned to him, and he felt it.” We can say that Alik turns out to be the center of a certain system around which people-planets revolve. And - to some extent, God, since - in the earthly shell - he leaves the earth, but is reborn and in the image of undying universal love (spirit) returns to people. Thus,
we can talk about the “mysteriousness” of the time of the story, when the transformation of the base into the light and sublime takes place.
So, the artistic space of the apartment contains a whole world, and the relatively small living space becomes its projection. And all space-time “threads” are drawn to the image of Alik, who has taken a central position in this space. This hero connects different (geographical, real, metaphysical) spaces, since he was separated from his homeland, found himself in a foreign land (another continent), and now (due to a fatal illness) is parting with it, moving into a “different” space-time dimension. The fates of other characters in the story are inextricably linked with him. These are mainly representatives of the Russian-Jewish emigration of the “third wave”, who experienced the transition from socialism to capitalism. They are characterized by a feeling of complete unreality of what is happening, which at first frees them from ordinary human anxieties. As N.M. rightly notes. Malygina, “the author correctly captures one of the saving and incomprehensible features of the psychology of emigrants - the ability not to notice the drama of the absurd situations in which they happen to find themselves. The lack of housing and means of subsistence, the need to earn a living in the most fantastic ways are perceived by the heroes of the story as something completely natural. Ulitskaya shows that the instinct of self-preservation helps a person to abstract from what is happening.”
The characters in the story are simultaneously in the past (unfulfilled completion), present (unreal) and in the future (hopes), which, no matter what it turned out to be, still seemed better than the past - “... everything was too rotten behind.” All three times are constantly mixed in the minds of visitors and residents of the apartment. The heroes of this work by Ulitskaya are lonely, and only in the space of Alik’s apartment, where he, in fact, “arranged Russia around himself,” do they stop feeling loneliness, bringing their past and dreaming of the future. Thus, in Alik’s apartment and workshop, the disappeared space and bygone time are recreated. And all this together becomes Russia, which they left physically, but which they took with them, as it seems, forever: “And the people here, the former Russians, rejoiced in complete unanimity, and the general joy on this occasion was not expressed in the fact that they drank more usual, but that they sang old Soviet songs.”
Gathered in one place, they ended up here due to different circumstances: “The majority emigrated legally, some were defectors, the most daring fled across the border, and it was this new world in which they found themselves that brought them together, so different.” But since “they were united by one decision, one action - that they chose to part with their homeland,” everyone needed one thing: proof of the correctness of the action taken.
But it is not enough for them to rationally convince themselves of this. Dreams in which they are transported to their homeland help emigrants survive and not psychologically degrade. In psychology, this phenomenon is called regression. This is a form of psycho-
logical defense, when a person tries to mentally return to where he felt calm and confident. In a dream, a person is subconsciously transferred from the real world to the fictional world, mutual transitions are obtained, “tunnels” arise between spaces and times (from real space to fictitious space, from objective time to subjective time). And it begins to seem to Ulitskaya’s characters that Russia already exists only in the form of dreams: “everyone had the same dream, but in different versions,” that is, the space that actually exists somewhere in the subjective consciousness turns out to be illusory, variable.
Alik even started a notebook in which he “collected” dreams. Here is one of them: “The structure of this dream was as follows: I get home, to Russia, and there I find myself in a locked room, or in a room without doors, or in a garbage container, or other circumstances arise that do not give me the opportunity to return to America, - for example, loss of documents, imprisonment; and one Jew’s late mother even appeared and tied him with a rope...” Thus, huge Russia is narrowed down to a tiny room (container), which means spiritual mustiness, lack of freedom, from which at one time they fled from their habitable places in search of a better refuge.
Ulitskaya carefully peers into the faces and destinies of those who in one way or another played a significant role in Alik’s life. These are completely different women - Irina, Nina, Valentina. At the beginning of the story, they surround the dying Alik, reminiscent of Moira, cutting off the thread of his fate. Each of these women represents a certain stage in the hero’s life. These women are brought together by their love for the same man and their common emigrant fate.
The strongest character is possessed by Irina, Alik’s ex-wife and the mother of his only daughter, whose existence he learned about shortly before his death. It was the only one that could take place in a foreign country. Having been a circus actress in Russia, she became a fairly successful lawyer in America. Irina, knowing that Alik and his new wife alcoholic Ninka needs money, does not leave her ex-husband in trouble, who left her with her child, explaining that without him Ninka would disappear, and Irina, brave and decisive, will be able to “arrange her own life.” She tries to help them in America too, suing the gallery for money for Alik’s paintings, and under the guise that she was able to get some of the money, she brings it to him. Alik spends most of the money on a fur coat for his wife. And although this, of course, hurts Irina, she continues to bring them money and pay their bills. Only after Alik’s death does Irina decide that she no longer has anything in common with the inhabitants of the apartment and that it is time to arrange her own life. Consequently, in the future she will have an “expanded” space, which she “earned” with her nobility.
Alik's wife Ninka is a completely different type of woman: she is feminine, indecisive, and mentally unstable. She perceives America enthusiastically, but cannot adapt to a new life in another country. Only once did Ninka make an independent decision: she decided to baptize Alik, despite the fact that Alik is a Jew and did not give consent to this
rite. But that didn't stop her. She still, albeit in a primitive way, even without a priest, with a soup bowl and a paper icon, baptizes him. And she commits this, essentially, blasphemy, driven by a good goal: she wants their souls to unite there, in another world. She sacrificially loves her husband, completely dissolving in him. Ninka still cannot come to terms with Alik’s death; for her, he continues to live in her dreams and visions, and continues to take care of her just as he did during his life. Thus, her subjective time “absorbs” the objective, “suppresses” it.
Like Nina, another of Alik’s lovers, Valentina, knows how to love sacrificially, forgiving everything. Valentina became Alik's mistress in America, meeting him almost by accident. Their meetings were short-lived and usually took place secretly, at night. She never claimed anything other than the brief moments of intimacy that he gave her, and was grateful to him for opening up a new unknown world for her. After the wake for Alik, we see Valentina in the bathroom with a short-legged, wiry Indian, and this scene seems to mark a new stage in Valentina’s life. Alik seemed to free her from himself, but she is ready to almost repeat the pattern of past relationships with a new partner, i.e. she does not feel real time, her subjective time is always the same, she does not “create” it, she does not “create” it, it dictates its conditions to her, acquiring the force of law...
Thus, all together these women in a peculiar way “triple” after the death of their lover the space “fixed” in the present time, “vectorally” pushing it apart, now rushing into the future (Irina), now focusing on the present (Valentina), now plunging into the past (Nina).
Many events are happening around Alik; his relatives and acquaintances are followed by a trail of stories that, it would seem, have nothing in common. These stories are not included in the general time system, they unfold (are told) sequentially, one after another, and they are all turned to the past. Their “authors” recall what happened to them there, in Russia. These stories become a bridge between the past and the present. Time, like a pendulum, swings between them, and in these transitions the scale of its reference changes. The time intervals become either short, everyday, or larger, capturing historical time, panoramicly depicting the historical process in Russia in the 70s, which is perceived by almost everyone as a country of denunciation and stu-quality, as well as later stages. Fundamentally important are the “temporary disruptions” that arise at the moment of telling the backstory of the hero’s life and which largely predetermine what is happening to people now. These inserted story-episodes, closed on themselves, embody concentric time, which, interacting with the linear time of the plot, slows it down, at the same time accelerating or lengthening it.
It is also important to emphasize that if time in the story is open, then the apartment where the action takes place is a closed space throughout the entire story. The hero, confined to a wheelchair, never leaves
confines of your home. Only in memories does he find himself outside the apartment. The hero’s personal time slows down in all its aspects and is divided into actual and imaginary. And gradually in the story, time begins to disintegrate into “external” and “internal”, each attached to different spaces in which the hero continues or begins to exist. But a certain border is clearly felt between them - this is the border between life and non-existence, death.
The space of death appears inside the hero, coinciding with “internal” time. It forms a special game world, an imaginary space where Alik imagines himself “as a little boy, squeezed into a thick brown fur coat, wearing a tight hat over a white scarf... his mouth is tightly tied with a woolen scarf, and in the place where his lips are, a scarf wet and warm, but he needs to breathe hard, very hard, because as soon as you stop breathing, the ice crust seals this warm hole, and the scarf immediately freezes, and it becomes impossible to breathe.” Consequently, the time of the past is realized in the space of childhood that is born in the imagination (in its own way coinciding with the space of death as the beginning and the end). But it is significant that already in childhood everything that the adult Alik will feel is programmed: stuffiness, dumbness, lack of freedom. During one equal objective period of time (“external” time) in the space of death (“internal” time), the hero experiences the past and present. They merge, flow into one another, the dead come to life, people who have disappeared from life appear again, those lost in childhood are found as adults, things, without growing old or worn out, reappear in the world around them. Therefore, among the arriving guests, “Alik saw his school teacher physicist, Nikolai Vasilyevich, nicknamed Galosha, and was languidly surprised: did he really emigrate in his old age?.. How old is he now?.. Kolka Zaitsev, a classmate who was hit by a tram, thin, in a ski jacket with pockets, was throwing a rag ball with his foot ...how nice that he brought it with him... Cousin Musya, who died as a girl from leukemia, walked through the room with a basin in her hands, only not as a girl, but as a fully grown girl. All this was not at all strange, but in the order of things. And there was even a feeling that some long-standing mistakes and irregularities had been corrected.”
This feeling of subjective time is caused precisely by the experience of the space of death, which in turn is closely connected with the awareness of one’s finitude: “He was in oblivion, only occasionally wheezing. At the same time, he heard everything that was said around him, but as if from a terrible distance. At times he even wanted to tell them that everything was okay, but the scarf was tied tightly and he couldn’t untangle it.” But at the same time, in the space of death there is no longer the former heaviness and stuffiness: “he felt light, foggy and completely mobile.”
Death in the space that belongs to it loses its temporal dimension, becoming an entirely spatial category: it is no longer expected here and now, it no longer represents the future, it is entirely determined by space. And to move into this space means ending your life, ending it.
But - and this is surprising - after Alik’s death, which “gathers around him all the people he once loved,” the author destroys the border between life and death. The fact is that Alik cheated, “ensuring” himself eternal life here on earth: while dying, he secretly recorded on tape an appeal to his friends, where he bequeathed to appreciate life and enjoy it. And at the wake, his voice sounded indicated the destruction of the border between life and death: “in a simple and mechanical way, he destroyed the eternal wall in an instant, threw a light pebble from that shore, covered with an insoluble fog, easily stepped out for a moment from the power of an irresistible law, not resorting neither to violent methods of magic, nor to the help of necromancers and mediums, shaky tables and fidgety saucers... He simply extended his hand to those he loved.”
Thus, the space of death seems to disappear as insignificant, non-existent or existing only temporarily. It is replaced by the space of love. The writer and critic O. Slavnikova precisely defined the ultimate task to which Ulitskaya’s creative logic is subordinated: to express the idea of “death as a part of life, which under no circumstances can be absolutely hostile to man.”
Thus, in the story the main space is the house (apartment), which is an outwardly closed model, but capable of expansion. It is here that the preservation and transmission of family and cultural traditions and values takes place (it is no coincidence that Alik’s paintings painted in the studio end up in the museum, as if continuing his cut short life), here everyone feels protected. Time in the story tends to move from objective to subjective, revealing the inner world of a person, becoming a laboratory of everyday experience. Also, time, recreating an important historical era - Russia of the Soviet period - acquires the features of “historically documented”. As N.M. rightly noted. Malygin, the story rather resembles an “artistic embodiment of a documentary-reliable journalistic narrative” about “paradise lost,” although, in fact, there was very little truly heavenly there.
LITERATURE
Gabrielyan N. Eva - this means “life” (The problem of space in modern Russian
women's prose) // Questions of literature. - 1996. - No. 4.
Likhachev D.S. Poetics of Old Russian Literature. - L., 1967.
Malygina N.M. Here and now: the poetics of disappearance // October. - 2000. - No. 9.
IKY: http://magazines.russ.rU/october/2000/9/malyg.html
Slavnikova O. Shortage indicates the target // Ural. - 1999. - No. 2. ИКБ: http://www.art.uralinfo.ru/LITERAT/Ural/Ural_02_99_09.htm
See: Galkina A.B. Space and time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky // Questions of literature. - 1996. - No. 1. URL: http://magazines.russ.rU/voplit/1996/1/galkin.html; Feshchenko O.A. The space of the house in the prose of M. Tsvetaeva // Language and culture. - Novosibirsk, 2003. иИБ: http://www.philology.ru/literature2/feshenko-03.htm; Laponina L.V. Hero and time in the prose of A.P. Chekhov // Comparative and general literary studies. - Vol. 3. - M., 2010, etc.
Ulitskaya L. Three stories. - M., 2008.
Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. - M., 1999.
Shutaya N.K. Typology of artistic time and space in the Russian novel of the 18th-19th centuries: Autotef. diss. ... Dr. Philol. Sci. - M., 2007.
Esalnek A.Ya. Theory of literature: Textbook. allowance. - M., 2010.
SPECIFICITY OF LITERARY TIME AND SPACE PRESENTATION IN L. ULITSKAYA’S PROSE
Baku Slavic University (BSU)
Suleyman Rustam str., 25, Baku, Azerbaijan, AZ10 14
The article observes on the specificity of literary time and space presentation in female prose (on the material of the novel “Funeral party” by L. Ulitskaya. The peculiarity of topos in L. Ulitskaya's work is defined by the representation of the house space ( apartment) filled with the numerous details. With this, the apartment's limited secluded space tends to widening at the expense of inclusion of the homeland"s open spaces, which emigrants had taken away on “their soles” and spaces of the new country, in which they have settled and which they “bring in” along with their problems in the hero's house. And then the space is narrowed to the bounds of the person"s inner world. An approach to the memory of a character as an internal space for the temporal development of the events is typical of L. Ulitskaya works. The category of time in literary works is represented in two aspects: historical time - memory time (reconstructed by means of familiar details) and real time (depiction by means of reliable features ).
Key words: literary time, literary space, structure of artistic work, female prose, topos.
The world of heroes (the reality of a literary work through the eyes of its characters, in their horizons = the narrated event) in literary theory is described in a system of categories: chronotope, event, plot, motive, type of plot. Chronotope – literally "timespace" = a work of art represents a "little universe". The concept of chronotope characterizes the general features (characteristics) of the world depicted in the work. From the side of the hero (characters)- these are the integral conditions of his (their) existence, the action of the hero is his reaction to the state of the artistic world. From the author's side chronotope is the author’s value reaction to the world he depicts, the actions and words of the hero. Spatial and temporal characteristics do not exist in isolation from each other; in the picture of the world, the categories of space and time are basic, they determine other characteristics of this world = the nature of connections in the artistic world follows from the spatio-temporal organization of the work = from the chronotope. “Space is comprehended and measured time” = the reality of the artistic world looks different for the author who contemplates it from the outside and from another time and the hero who acts and thinks inside this reality. Art space is not measured in universal units (meters or minutes). Artistic space and time is a symbolic reality.
Therefore, artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: The hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. In a fairy tale there is a long period of time. But, despite this, the heroes remain as young as they were at the beginning of the fairy tale. Time in work of art may be inverted - events do not occur in a “natural” sequence, but in a special one; here space and time are perceived as forms of consciousness, i.e. a form of human understanding of existence, and not its “objective” reproduction. (for example, Tolstoy’s story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich” begins with an image of how the hero’s friends, having learned about his death, come to say goodbye to the deceased. And only after that the whole life of the hero, starting from childhood, unfolds before the reader. The space of any work of art is organized as a number of value oppositions: Opposition “closedness - openness”.
In the novel “Crime and Punishment,” images of a closed space are directly associated with death and crime (the closet where Raskolnikov’s “idea” matures is directly called a “coffin,” and he himself is correlated with the Gospel Lazarus, who “has been stinking for three days now”).
Raskolnikov wanders around the city, moving further and further from his closet-coffin = instinctively strives to break the vicious circle of St. Petersburg, which in this regard is associated with the closet-coffin. It is no coincidence that Raskolnikov’s renunciation of his “idea” takes place on the banks of the Irtysh, from where a view of the endless steppes opens up. Opposite value orientation. For example, idyll like literary genre organized by contrasting the open, open space of the “big world”, as a world of anti-values, with the world of a closed space as a world of genuine values, in which only they can exist, and the hero’s exit beyond this world is the beginning of his spiritual or physical death.Vertical organization of space. An example is Dante’s “Divine Comedy” with its hierarchically ordered picture of the world.Horizontal organization of artistic space. Center-to-periphery relationship: landscape or portrait, focusing on details that come to the center of the image. For example, the emphasis on the eyes of the hero (Pechorin), or the “red hands” of Bazarov. When one and the same historical event occupies a different place in the picture of the world: in Mayakovsky’s poem “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin” Lenin’s death is the center of artistic space, and in Nabokov’s novel “The Gift” it is said in passing about the same event “Lenin somehow died imperceptibly "The opposition of “right” and “left”.For example, in a fairy tale, the world of people is invariably located on the right, and on the left is a “different” world in everything, including, first of all, the value opposite. The same patterns can be found when analyzing artistic time. The nature of artistic time is manifested in the fact that in a work of art the time of coverage of events and the time of events almost never coincide. Because such slowing down and speeding up time is a form of assessment (self-esteem) of the hero’s life as a whole. Events covering a large period of time can be given in one line, or not even mentioned, but simply implied, while events that take up moments can be depicted in extreme detail (Praskukhin’s dying thoughts in “ Sevastopol stories») . The opposition of cyclical, reversible and linear, irreversible time: Time can move in a circle, passing through the same points. For example, natural cycles (change of seasons), age cycles, sacred time, when all events occurring in time realize a certain invariant, i.e. changing only externally the situation = behind the variety of events occurring in it, there is one and the same repeating situation, revealing their true and unchanging, repeating meaning “A lamb went to the stream to drink on a hot day.” When did this event happen? In the world of fables, this question makes no sense, because in the world of fables it is repeated at any time . While in the world of a historical or realistic novel this question is of fundamental importance. Historical time can act as an anti-value, it can act as destructive time, then cyclical time acts as a positive value. For example, in the book of a Russian writer of the 20th century. Ivan Shmelev’s “Summer of the Lord”: here is life organized according to church calendar, from one sacred holiday to another is the key to preserving genuine spiritual values,
and involvement in historical time is the key to spiritual catastrophe both for an individual human personality and for the human community as a whole. A common option in the literature is when, in the value hierarchy, open-ended time is placed higher in value than cyclic time, for example, in a Russian realistic novel, the degree of the hero’s involvement with the forces of historical renewal turns out to be a measure of his spiritual value. The chronotope, being unified, is nevertheless internally heterogeneous. Within the general chronotope there are private. For example, within the general chronotope " Dead souls"Gogol, separate chronotopes can be distinguished roads, "estates", Let's start with the chronotope of the city and country in the work. Thus, in the general chronotope of Russia given in Eugene Onegin, the division of the spaces of the village and the capital is significant. Chronotopes are historically changeable; the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of one historical era is significantly different from the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of another historical era. Chronotopes also have genre variability. = All the real diversity of chronotopes of the same genre can be reduced to one model, one type.
The concept of the space-time continuum is essential for the philological analysis of a literary text, since both time and space serve as constructive principles for the organization of a literary work. Artistic time is a form of existence of aesthetic reality, a special way of understanding the world.
Features of time modeling in literature are determined by the specifics of this type of art: literature is traditionally viewed as art temporary; unlike painting, it recreates the concreteness of the passage of time. This feature of a literary work is determined by the properties of linguistic means that form its figurative structure: “grammar determines for each language an order that distributes ... space in time,” transforms spatial characteristics into temporal ones.
The problem of artistic time has long occupied literary theorists, art historians, and linguists. So, A.A. Potebnya, emphasizing that the art of words is dynamic, showed the limitless possibilities of organizing artistic time in the text. He considered the text as a dialectical unity of two compositional speech forms: descriptions (“depiction of features, simultaneously existing in space") and narration ("Narration transforms a series of simultaneous signs into a series of sequential perceptions, into an image of the movement of gaze and thought from object to object"). A.A. Potebnya distinguished between real time and artistic time; Having examined the relationship between these categories in works of folklore, he noted the historical variability of artistic time. Ideas by A.A. Potebny received further development in the works of philologists late XIX-began- - la XX century However, interest in the problems of artistic time has especially revived in last decades XX century, which was associated with the rapid development of science, the evolution of views on space and time, with the acceleration of the pace of social life, with the increased attention in connection with this to the problems of memory, origins, tradition, on the one hand; and the future, on the other hand; finally, with the emergence of new forms in art.
“The work,” noted P.A. Florensky - aesthetically forcibly develops... in a certain sequence.” Time in a work of art is the duration, sequence and correlation of its events, based on their cause-and-effect, linear or associative relationship.
Time in the text has clearly defined or rather blurred boundaries (events, for example, can cover tens of years, a year, several days, a day, an hour, etc.), which may or, on the contrary, not be designated in the work in relation to the historical time or time set conditionally by the author (see, for example, E. Zamyatin’s novel “We”).
Artistic time wears systemic character. This is a way of organizing the aesthetic reality of a work, its inner world, and at the same time an image associated with the embodiment of the author’s concept, with a reflection of precisely his picture of the world (remember, for example, M. Bulgakov’s novel “ White Guard"). From time as an immanent property of a work, it is advisable to distinguish the time of the passage of the text, which can be considered as the time of the reader; Thus, when considering a literary text, we are dealing with the antinomy “the time of the work - the time of the reader.” This antinomy in the process of perceiving the work can be resolved different ways. At the same time, the time of the work is heterogeneous: thus, as a result of temporal shifts, “omissions,” highlighting central events in close-up, the depicted time is compressed and shortened, while when juxtaposing and describing simultaneous events, it, on the contrary, is stretched.
A comparison of real time and artistic time reveals their differences. The topological properties of real time in the macroworld are one-dimensionality, continuity, irreversibility, orderliness. In artistic time, all these properties are transformed. It may be multidimensional. This is due to the very nature of a literary work, which has, firstly, an author and presupposes the presence of a reader, and secondly, boundaries: a beginning and an end. Two time axes appear in the text - the “axis of storytelling” and the “axis of events described”: “the axis of storytelling is one-dimensional, while the axis of events described is multidimensional.” Their relationship destroys the multidimensionality of artistic time, makes temporal shifts possible, and determines the multiplicity of temporal points of view in the structure of the text. Thus, in a prose work, the narrator’s conditional present tense is usually established, which correlates with the narration about the past or future of the characters, with the characteristics of situations in various time dimensions. The action of a work can unfold in different time planes (“The Double” by A. Pogorelsky, “Russian Nights” by V.F. Odoevsky, “The Master and Margarita” by M. Bulgakov, etc.).
Irreversibility (unidirectionality) is also not characteristic of artistic time: the real sequence of events is often disrupted in the text. According to the law of irreversibility, only folklore time moves. In the literature of modern times, temporal displacements, disruption of temporal sequence, and switching of temporal registers play an important role. Retrospection as a manifestation of the reversibility of artistic time is the principle of organization of a number of thematic genres (memoirs and autobiographical works, detective novels). Retrospective in a literary text can also act as a means of revealing its implicit content - subtext.
The multidirectionality and reversibility of artistic time is especially clearly manifested in the literature of the 20th century. If Stern, according to E.M. Forster, “turned the clock upside down,” then “Marcel Proust, even more inventive, swapped the hands... Gertrude Stein, who tried to banish time from the novel, smashed her clock into pieces and scattered its fragments around the world..." It was in the 20th century. a “stream of consciousness” novel arises, a “one day” novel, a sequential time series in which time is destroyed, and time appears only as a component of a person’s psychological existence.
Artistic time is characterized as continuity, so and discreteness.“Remaining essentially continuous in the sequential change of temporal and spatial facts, the continuum in textual reproduction is simultaneously divided into separate episodes.” The selection of these episodes is determined by the author’s aesthetic intentions, hence the possibility of time gaps, “compression” or, conversely, expansion of plot time. - nor, see, for example, the remark of T. Mann: “At the wonderful festival of narration and reproduction, omissions play an important and indispensable role.”
The possibilities of expanding or compressing time are widely used by writers. So, for example, in the story by I.S. Turgenev's "Spring Waters" highlights Sanin's love story for Gemma in close-up - the most striking event in the hero's life, its emotional peak; At the same time, artistic time slows down, “stretches out,” but the course of the hero’s subsequent life is conveyed in a generalized, summary way: And there - living in Paris and all the humiliation, all the disgusting torments of a slave... Then- return to homeland, poisoned, devastated life, petty fuss, petty troubles...
Artistic time in the text acts as a dialectical unity final And infinite. In the endless flow of time, one event or a chain of events is singled out; their beginning and end are usually fixed. The ending of the work is a signal that the time period presented to the reader has ended, but time continues beyond it. Such a property of real-time works as orderliness is also transformed in a literary text. This may be due to the subjective determination of the starting point or measure of time: for example, in S. Bobrov’s autobiographical story “Boy”, the measure of time for the hero is a holiday:
For a long time I tried to imagine what a year was... and suddenly I saw in front of me a rather long ribbon of grayish-pearl fog, lying horizontally in front of me, like a towel thrown on the floor.<...>Was this towel divided for months?.. No, it was unnoticeable. For seasons?.. It’s also somehow not very clear... It was clearer something else. These were the patterns of the holidays that colored the year.
Artistic time represents unity private And general.“As a manifestation of the private, it has the features of individual time and is characterized by a beginning and an end. As a reflection of the limitless world, it is characterized by infinity; temporary flow." As a unity of discrete and continuous, finite and infinite, and can act. a separate temporary situation in a literary text: “There are seconds, five or six of them pass at a time, and you suddenly feel the presence of eternal harmony, completely achieved... As if you suddenly feel all of nature and suddenly say: yes, this is true.” The plane of the timeless in a literary text is created through the use of - the use of repetitions, maxims and aphorisms, various kinds of reminiscences, symbols and other tropes. In this regard, artistic time can be considered as a complementary phenomenon, to the analysis of which N. Bohr’s principle of complementarity is applicable (opposite means cannot be combined synchronously; to obtain a holistic view, two “experiences” separated in time are needed). The antinomy “finite - infinite” is resolved in a literary text as a result of the use of conjugate, but spaced apart in time and therefore ambiguous means, for example, symbols.
Fundamentally significant for the organization of a work of art are such characteristics of artistic time as duration / brevity the event depicted, homogeneity / heterogeneity situations, the connection of time with subject-event content (its full/unfilled,"emptiness"). According to these parameters, both works and fragments of text in them, forming certain time blocks, can be contrasted.
Artistic time is based on a certain system of linguistic means. This is, first of all, a system of tense forms of the verb, their sequence and opposition, transposition (figurative use) of tense forms, lexical units with temporal semantics, case forms with the meaning of time, chronological marks, syntactic constructions that create a certain time plan (for example, nominative sentences represent in the text there is a plan of the present), names of historical figures, mythological heroes, nominations of historical events.
Of particular importance for artistic time is the functioning of verb forms; the predominance of statics or dynamics in the text, the acceleration or slowdown of time, their sequence determines the transition from one situation to another, and, consequently, the movement of time. Compare, for example, the following fragments of E. Zamyatin’s story “Mamai”: Mamai wandered lost in the unfamiliar Zagorodny. The penguin wings were in the way; his head hung like the faucet of a broken samovar...
And suddenly his head jerked up, his legs began to prance like a twenty-five-year-old...
Forms of time act as signals of various subjective spheres in the structure of the narrative, cf., for example:
Gleb lying on the sand, resting my head in my hands, it was a quiet, sunny morning. He wasn't working on his mezzanine today. It's all over. Tomorrow are leaving, Ellie fits, everything is overdrilled. Helsingfors again...
(B. Zaitsev. Gleb’s Journey )
The functions of types of tense forms in a literary text are largely typified. As noted by V.V. Vinogradov, narrative (“event”) time is determined primarily by the relationship between the dynamic forms of the past tense of the perfect form and the forms of the past imperfect, acting in a procedural-long-term or qualitative-characterizing meaning. The latter forms are correspondingly assigned to the descriptions.
The time of the text as a whole is determined by the interaction of three temporal “axes”:
1) calendar time, displayed mainly by lexical units with the seme “time” and dates;
2) event-based time, organized by the connection of all predicates of the text (primarily verbal forms);
3) perceptual time, expressing the position of the narrator and the character (in this case, different lexical and grammatical means and temporal shifts are used).
Artistic and grammatical tenses are closely related, but they should not be equated. “Grammatical tense and the tense of a verbal work can diverge significantly. The time of action and the author’s and reader’s time are created by a combination of many factors: among them, only partly grammatical time...”
Artistic time is created by all elements of the text, while the means expressing temporal relations interact with the means expressing spatial relations. Let's limit ourselves to one example: for example, change of designs C; predicates of motion (we left the city, drove into the forest, arrived in Nizhneye Gorodishche, drove up to the river etc.) in the story of A.P. Chekhov ) “On the Cart,” on the one hand, determines the temporal sequence of situations and forms the plot time of the text, on the other hand, reflects the character’s movement in space and participates in the creation of artistic space. To create an image of time, spatial metaphors are regularly used in literary texts.
Ancient works are characterized mythological time a sign of which is the idea of cyclical reincarnations, “world periods”. Mythological time, not in the opinion of K. Levi-Strauss, can be defined as the unity of such characteristics as reversibility-irreversibility, synchronicity-diachronicity. The present and the future in mythological time appear only as different temporal hypostases of the past, which is an invariant structure. The cyclical structure of mythological time turned out to be significantly significant for the development of art in different eras. “The exceptionally powerful orientation of mythological thinking towards establishing homo- and isomorphisms, on the one hand, made it scientifically fruitful, and on the other, determined its periodic revival in various historical eras.” The idea of time as a change of cycles, “eternal repetition”, is present in a number of neo-mythological works of the 20th century. So, according to V.V. Ivanov, this concept is close to the image of time in the poetry of V. Khlebnikov, “who deeply felt the ways of science of his time.”
IN medieval culture time was viewed primarily as a reflection of eternity, while the idea of it was predominantly of an eschatological nature: time begins with the act of creation and ends with the “second coming.” The main direction of time becomes orientation towards the future - the future exodus from time to eternity, while the metrization of time itself changes and the role of the present, the dimension of which is connected with the spiritual life of a person, significantly increases: “... for the present of past objects we have memory or memories; for the present of real objects we have a look, an outlook, an intuition; for the present of future objects we have aspiration, hope, hope,” wrote Augustine. Thus, in ancient Russian literature, time, as D.S. notes. Likhachev, not as egocentric as in the literature of modern times. It is characterized by isolation, one-pointedness, strict adherence to the real sequence of events, and a constant appeal to the eternal: “Medieval literature strives for the timeless, for overcoming time in the depiction of the highest manifestations of existence - the divine establishment of the universe.” The achievements of ancient Russian literature in recreating events “from the angle of eternity” in a transformed form were used by writers of subsequent generations, in particular F.M. Dostoevsky, for whom “the temporary was... a form of realization of the eternal.” Let us limit ourselves to one example - the dialogue between Stavrogin and Kirillov in the novel “Demons”:
There are minutes, you get to minutes, and time suddenly stops and will be forever.
Are you hoping to get to that point?
“This is hardly possible in our time,” Nikolai Vsevolodovich responded, also without any irony, slowly and as if thoughtfully. - In the Apocalypse, the angel swears that there will be no more time.
I know. This is very true there; clearly and accurately. When the whole person achieves happiness, there will be no more time, because there is no need.
Since the Renaissance, the evolutionary theory of time has been affirmed in culture and science: spatial events become the basis for the movement of time. Time, thus, is understood as eternity, not opposed to time, but moving and being realized in every instantaneous situation. This is reflected in the literature of modern times, which boldly violates the principle of irreversibility of real time. Finally, the 20th century is a period of particularly bold experimentation with artistic time. The ironic judgment of Zh.P. is indicative. Sartre: “...most of the largest modern writers- Proust, Joyce... Faulkner, Gide, W. Wolf - each in their own way tried to cripple time. Some of them deprived him of his past and future in order to reduce him to the pure intuition of the moment... Proust and Faulkner simply simply “decapitated” him, depriving him of the future, that is, the dimension of action and freedom.”
Consideration of artistic time in its development shows that its evolution (reversibility → irreversibility → reversibility) is a forward movement in which each higher stage negates, removes its lower (preceding) one, contains its richness and again removes itself in the next , third, stage.
Features of modeling artistic time are taken into account when determining the constitutive characteristics of the genus, genre, and movement in literature. So, according to A.A. Potebni, "lyrics" - praesens","epic - perfectum"; the principle of recreating times - can distinguish between genres: aphorisms and maxims, for example, are characterized by a constant present; reversible artistic time is inherent in memoirs, autobiographical works. Literary direction is also definitely connected with the concept of mastering time and the principles of its transmission, while, for example, the measure of adequacy of real time is different. Thus, symbolism is characterized by the implementation of the idea of eternal movement-becoming: the world develops according to the laws of the “triad (the unity of the world spirit with the Soul world - rejection of the Soul of the world from unity - defeat of Chaos).
At the same time, the principles of mastering artistic time are individual, this is a feature of the artist’s idiostyle (thus, artistic time in the novels of L.N. Tolstoy, for example, differs significantly from the model of time in the works of F.M. Dostoevsky).
Taking into account the peculiarities of the embodiment of time in a literary text, considering the concept of time in it and, more broadly, in the writer’s work is a necessary component of the analysis of the work; underestimation of this aspect, absolutization of one of the particular manifestations of artistic time, identification of its properties without taking into account both objective real time and subjective time can lead to erroneous interpretations of the artistic text, making the analysis incomplete and schematic.
The analysis of artistic time includes the following main points:
1) determination of the features of artistic time in the work in question:
Unidimensionality or multidimensionality;
Reversibility or irreversibility;
Linearity or violation of time sequence;
2) highlighting the temporal plans (planes) presented in the work in the temporal structure of the text and considering their interaction;
4) identifying signals that highlight these forms of time;
5) consideration of the entire system of time indicators in the text, identifying not only their direct, but also figurative meanings;
6) determining the relationship between historical and everyday, biographical and historical time;
7) establishing a connection between artistic time and space.
Let us turn to the consideration of individual aspects of the artistic time of the text based on the material of specific works (“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen and the story “Cold Autumn” by I. A. Bunin).
“The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen: features of temporary organization
In a literary text, a moving, often changeable and multidimensional time perspective arises; the sequence of events in it may not correspond to their real chronology. The author of the work, in accordance with his aesthetic intentions, sometimes expands, sometimes “thickens” time, sometimes slows it down; it speeds up.
A work of art correlates different aspect of artistic time: plot time (the temporal extent of the depicted actions and their reflection in the composition of the work) and plot time (their real sequence), author’s time and the subjective time of the characters. It presents different manifestations(forms) of time (everyday historical time, personal time and social time). The center of attention of a writer or poet can be himself image of time, associated with the motive of movement, development, formation, with the opposition of the transitory and the eternal.
Of particular interest is the analysis of the temporal organization of works in which different time plans are consistently correlated, a broad panorama of the era is given, and a certain philosophy of history is embodied. Such works include the memoir-autobiographical epic “The Past and Thoughts” (1852 - 1868). This is not only the pinnacle of A.I.’s creativity. Herzen, but also a work of “new form” (as defined by L.N. Tolstoy). It combines elements of different genres (autobiography, confession, notes, historical chronicles), combines different forms of presentation and compositional and semantic types of speech, “ tombstone and confession, past and thoughts, biography, speculation, events and thoughts, heard and seen, memories and... more memories” (A.I. Herzen). “The best... of the books dedicated to review own life"(Y.K. Olesha), "The Past and Thoughts" - the history of the formation of a Russian revolutionary and at the same time the history of social thought of the 30-60s of the 19th century. “There is hardly another work of memoirs so imbued with conscious historicism.”
This is a work characterized by a complex and dynamic temporal organization, involving the interaction of various time plans. Its principles are defined by the author himself, who noted that his work is “and a confession around which, about which, here and there, captured memories from the past, here and there, stopped thoughts and other m" (highlighted by A.I. Herzen. - N.N.). This author’s characteristic, which opens the work, contains an indication of the basic principles of the temporal organization of the text: this is an orientation towards the subjective segmentation of one’s past, the free juxtaposition of different time plans, the constant switching of time registers; The author’s “thoughts” are combined with a retrospective, but devoid of strict chronological sequence. - features of the story about past events, include characteristics of persons, events and facts of different historical eras. The narration of the past is supplemented by stage reproduction of individual situations; the story about the “past” is interrupted by fragments of text that reflect the immediate position of the narrator at the moment of speech or the reconstructed period of time.
This construction of the work “clearly reflected the methodological principle of “The Past and Thoughts”: the constant interaction of the general and the particular, the transitions from the author’s direct reflections to their substantive illustration and back.”
Artistic time in “Bygone...” reversible(the author resurrects past events), multidimensional(the action unfolds in different time planes) and nonlinear(the story about past events is disrupted by self-interruptions, reasoning, comments, assessments). The starting point that determines the change of time plans in the text is mobile and constantly moving.
The plot time of the work is time first of all biographical, The “past”, reconstructed inconsistently, reflects the main stages in the development of the author’s personality.
At the heart of biographical time is the end-to-end image of a path (road), embodying in symbolic form life path a narrator seeking true knowledge and undergoing a series of tests. This traditional spatial image is realized in a system of expanded metaphors and comparisons, regularly repeated in the text and forming a cross-cutting motif of movement, overcoming oneself, and passing through a series of steps: The path we chose was not easy, we never left it; wounded, broken, we walked, and no one overtook us. I reached... not to the goal, but to the place where the road goes downhill...; ...the June of coming of age, with its painful work, with its rubble on the road, takes a person by surprise.; Like lost knights in fairy tales, we waited at a crossroads. You'll go right- you will lose your horse, but you yourself will be safe; if you go to the left, the horse will be intact, but you yourself will die; if you go forward, everyone will leave you; If you go back, this is no longer possible, the road there is overgrown with grass for us.
These tropical series developing in the text act as a constructive component of the biographical time of the work and form its figurative basis.
Reproducing past events, evaluating them ("Past- not a proof sheet... Not everything can be corrected. It remainsas cast in metal, detailed, unchanging, dark as bronze. People generally forget only what is not worth remembering or what they do not understand") and refracting through his subsequent experience, A.I. Herzen makes maximum use of the expressive capabilities of the tense forms of the verb.
The situations and facts depicted in the past are assessed by the author in different ways: some of them are described extremely briefly, while others (the most important for the author in an emotional, aesthetic or ideological sense), on the contrary, are highlighted “close-up”, while time “stops” or slows down. To achieve this aesthetic effect, imperfective past tense forms or present tense forms are used. If the forms of the past perfect express a chain of successively changing actions, then the forms of the imperfect form convey not the dynamics of the event, but the dynamics of the action itself, presenting it as an unfolding process. Performing in a literary text not only a “reproducing”, but also a “visually pictorial”, “descriptive” function, the forms of the past imperfect stop time. In the text of “Past and Thoughts” they are used as a means of highlighting in “close-up” situations or events that are especially significant for the author (the oath on Vorobyovy Mountain, the death of his father, a meeting with Natalie, leaving Russia, a meeting in Turin, the death of his wife). The choice of forms of the past imperfect as a sign of a certain author’s attitude towards the depicted performs in this case an emotional and expressive function. Wed, for example: The nurse in a sundress and a shower jacket is still watched follow us and cried; Sonnenberg, that funny figure from childhood, waved foulard- All around is an endless steppe of snow.
This function of the forms of the past imperfect is typical of artistic speech; it is associated with the special meaning of the imperfect form, which presupposes the obligatory presence of a moment of observation, a retrospective point of reference. A.I. Herzen also uses the expressive possibilities of the past imperfect form with the meaning of multiple or habitually repeated action: they serve for typification, generalization of empirical details and situations. Thus, to characterize life in his father’s house, Herzen uses the technique of describing one day - a description based on the consistent use of imperfective forms. “Past and Thoughts” is thus characterized by a constant change in the perspective of the image: isolated facts and situations, highlighted in close-up, are combined with the reproduction of long-term processes, periodically repeating phenomena. Interesting in this regard is the portrait of the Chaadaevs, built on the transition from the author’s specific personal observations to a typical characteristic:
I loved to look at him in the midst of this tinsel nobility, flighty senators, gray-haired rakes and honorable nonentity. No matter how dense the crowd, the eye found him immediately; summer did not distort his slender figure, he dressed very carefully, his pale, tender face was completely motionless, when he was silent, as if made of wax or marble, “a forehead like a naked skull”... For ten years he stood with folded arms , somewhere near a column, near a tree on the boulevard, in halls and theaters, in a club and - the embodiment of veto, he looked with lively protest at the whirlwind of faces spinning meaninglessly around him...
The forms of the present tense against the background of the forms of the past can also perform the function of slowing down time, the function of highlighting events and phenomena of the past in close-up, but they, unlike the forms of the past imperfect in the “picturesque” function, recreate, first of all, the immediate time of the author’s experience associated with the moment of lyrical concentrations, or (less often) convey predominantly typical situations, repeatedly repeated in the past and now reconstructed by memory as imaginary:
The peace of the oak forest and the noise of the oak forest, the continuous buzzing of flies, bees, bumblebees... and the smell... this grass-forest smell... which I so greedily sought in Italy, and in England, and in the spring, and in the hot summer, and almost never found it. Sometimes it seems to smell like it, after mown hay, in broad daylight, before a thunderstorm... and I remember a small place in front of the house... on the grass, a three-year-old boy, lying in clover and dandelions, between grasshoppers, all sorts of beetles and ladybugs, and ourselves, both youth and friends! The sun has set, it’s still very warm, we don’t want to go home, we’re sitting on the grass. The catcher picks mushrooms and scolds me for no reason. What is this, like a bell? to us, or what? Today is Saturday - maybe... The troika rolls through the village, knocking on the bridge.
The forms of the present tense in “The Past...” are associated primarily with the subjective psychological time the author, his emotional sphere, their use complicates the image of time. The reconstruction of events and facts of the past, again directly experienced by the author, is associated with the use of nominative sentences, and in some cases with the use of forms of the past perfect in the perfect meaning. The chain of forms of the historical present and nominatives not only brings the events of the past as close as possible, but also conveys a subjective sense of time and recreates its rhythm:
My heart was beating strongly when I again saw familiar, dear streets, places, houses that I had not seen for about four years... Kuznetsky Most, Tverskoy Boulevard... here is Ogarev’s house, they stuck some kind of huge coat of arms on him, it’s someone else’s already... here Povarskaya - the spirit is engaged: in the meso- - Nina, in the corner window, a candle is burning, this is her room, she writes to me, she thinks about me, the candle burns so cheerfully, so to me burns.
Thus, the biographical plot time of the work is uneven and discontinuous, it is characterized by a deep but moving perspective; the reconstruction of real biographical facts is combined with the transfer of various aspects of the author’s subjective awareness and measurement of time.
Artistic and grammatical time, as already noted, are closely related, however, “grammar appears as a piece of smalt in the overall mosaic picture of a verbal work.” Artistic time is created by all elements of the text.
Lyrical expression and attention to the “moment” are combined in the prose of A.I. Herzen with constant typification, with a social-analytical approach to what is depicted. Considering that “it is more necessary here than anywhere else to take off masks and portraits,” since “we are terribly falling apart from what has just passed,” the author combines; “thoughts” in the present and a story about the “past” with portraits of contemporaries, while restoring the missing links in the image of the era: “the universal without personality is an empty distraction; but a person only has full reality to the extent that he is in society.”
Portraits of contemporaries in “The Past and Thoughts” are conditionally possible; divided into static and dynamic. Thus, in Chapter III of the first volume a portrait of Nicholas I is presented, it is static and emphatically evaluative, speech means, participating in its creation, contain a common semantic feature “cold”: a cropped and shaggy jellyfish with a mustache; His beauty filled him with cold... But the main thing was his eyes, without any warmth, without any mercy, winter eyes.
Otherwise it will be built portrait characteristic Ogarev in Chapter IV of the same volume. A description of his appearance is followed by an introduction; elements of prospection related to the hero’s future. “If a pictorial portrait is always a moment stopped in time, then a verbal portrait characterizes a person in “actions and deeds” relating to different “moments” of his biography.” Creating a portrait of N. Ogarev in adolescence, A.I. Herzen, at the same time, names the traits of a hero in maturity: Early on one could see in him that anointing that not many people receive,- for bad luck or for good luck... but probably so as not to be in the crowd... unaccountable sadness and extreme meekness shone through the big gray eyes, hinting at the future growth of the great spirit; That's how he grew up.
The combination of different time points of view in portraits when describing and characterizing the characters deepens the moving time perspective of the work.
The multiplicity of time points of view presented in the structure of the text is increased by the inclusion of fragments of the diary, letters of other characters, excerpts from literary works, in particular from the poems of N. Ogarev. These elements of the text are correlated with the author's narration or the author's descriptions and are often contrasted with them as genuine, objective - subjective, transformed by time. See for example: The truth of that time, as it was then understood, without the artificial perspective that distance gives, without the cooling of time, without the corrected illumination by rays passing through a series of other events, was preserved in the notebook of that time.
The biographical time of the author is supplemented in the work with elements of the biographical time of other heroes, while A.I. Herzen resorts to extensive comparisons and metaphors that recreate the passage of time: The years of her life abroad passed luxuriantly and noisily, but they went and plucked flower after flower... Like a tree in the middle of winter, she retained the linear outline of her branches, the leaves flew around, the bare branches chilled bonyly, but the majestic growth and bold dimensions were seen all the more clearly. The image of a clock is repeatedly used in “The Past...”, embodying the inexorable power of time: The large English table clock, with its measured*, loud spondee - tick-tock - tick-tock - tick-tock... seemed to be measuring out the last quarter of an hour of her life...; And the spondee of the English clock continued to measure days, hours, minutes... and finally reached the fateful second.
The image of fleeting time in “The Past and Thoughts,” as we see, is associated with an orientation towards the traditional, often general linguistic type of comparisons and metaphors, which, repeated in the text, undergo transformations and affect the surrounding elements of the context; as a result, the stability of tropical characteristics is combined with their constant update.
Thus, biographical time in “My Past and Thoughts” consists of plot time, based on the sequence of events of the author’s past, and elements of the biographical time of other characters, while the subjective perception of time by the narrator, his evaluative attitude to the reconstructed facts are constantly emphasized. “The author is like an editor in cinematography”: he either speeds up the time of the work, then stops it, does not always correlate the events of his life with chronology, emphasizes, on the one hand, the fluidity of time, on the other hand, the duration of individual episodes resurrected by memory.
Biographical time, despite the complex perspective inherent in it, is interpreted in the work of A. Herzen as private time, presupposing subjectivity of measurement, closed, having a beginning and an end (“Everything personal quickly crumbles away... Let “The Past and Thoughts” settle accounts with personal life and be its table of contents”). It is included in the broad flow of time associated with the historical era reflected in the work. Thus, closed biographical time contrasted open historical time. This opposition is reflected in the features of the composition of “The Past and Thoughts”: “in the sixth and seventh parts there is no longer a lyrical hero; in general, the personal, “private” fate of the author remains outside the boundaries of what is depicted,” the dominant element of the author’s speech becomes “thoughts” that appear in a monologue or dialogized form. One of the leading grammatical forms organizing these contexts is the present tense. If the plot biographical time of “The Past and Thoughts” is characterized by the use of the actual present (“the author’s current ... the result of moving the “observation point” to one of the moments of the past, the plot action”) or the historical present, then for “thoughts” and the author’s digressions, constituting the main layer of historical time, characterized by the present in an expanded or constant meaning, acting in interaction with the forms of the past tense, as well as the present of direct author’s speech: The nationality, like a banner, like a battle cry, is only surrounded by a revolutionary aura when the people fight for independence, when they overthrow the foreign yoke... The War of 1812 greatly developed a sense of national consciousness and love for the homeland, but the patriotism of 1812 did not have the Old Believer-Slavic character. We see him in Karamzin and Pushkin...
““The past and thoughts,” wrote A.I. Herzen, is not a historical monograph, but a reflection of history in a person, accidentally caught on her way."
The life of an individual in “Bydrm and Thoughts” is perceived in connection with a certain historical situation and is motivated by it. A metaphorical image of the background appears in the text, which is then concretized, gaining perspective and dynamics: A thousand times I wanted to convey a series of unique figures, sharp portraits taken from life... There is nothing gregarious in them... one common connection- em them or better yet one general unhappiness; Peering into the dark gray background, you can see soldiers under sticks, serfs under rods... wagons rushing to Siberia, convicts trudged there, shaved foreheads, branded faces, helmets, epaulettes, sultans... in a word, St. Petersburg Russia.. They want to run away from the canvas and cannot.
If the biographical time of a work is characterized by a spatial image of a road, then to represent historical time, in addition to the image of the background, images of the sea (ocean) and elements are regularly used:
Impressive, sincerely young, we were easily caught up in a powerful wave... and early we swam across that line at which whole rows of people stop, fold their arms, walk back or look around for a ford - across the sea!
In history, it is easier for him [man] to be passionately carried away by the flow of events... than to peer into the ebb and flow of the waves that carry him. A man... grows by understanding his position into a helmsman who proudly cuts through the waves with his boat, forcing the bottomless abyss to serve him through communication.
Characterizing the role of the individual in the historical process, A.I. Herzen resorts to a number of metaphorical correspondences that are inextricably linked with each other: a person in history is “at once a boat, a wave and a helmsman,” while everything that exists is connected by “ends and beginnings, causes and actions.” A person’s aspirations “are clothed in words, embodied in images, remain in tradition and are passed on from century to century.” This understanding of the place of man in the historical process led to the author’s appeal to the universal language of culture, the search for certain “formulas” to explain the problems of history and, more broadly, of existence, to classify particular phenomena and situations. Such “formulas” in the text of “Past and Thoughts” are a special type of tropes, characteristic of the style of A.I. Herzen. These are metaphors, comparisons, periphrases, which include the names of historical figures, literary heroes, mythological characters, names of historical events, words denoting historical and cultural concepts. These “point quotes” appear in the text as metonymic replacements for entire situations and plots. The paths of which they are included serve to figuratively characterize phenomena of which Herzen was a contemporary, persons and events of other historical eras. See for example: Student young ladies- Jacobins, Saint-Just in the Amazon - everything is sharp, pure, merciless...;[Moscow] with murmuring and contempt she received into her walls a woman stained with the blood of her husband[Catherine II], this Lady Macbeth without repentance, this Lucretia Borgia without Italian blood...
Phenomena of history and modernity, empirical facts and myths, real persons and literary images, as a result, the situations described in the work receive a second plan: through the particular the general appears, through the individual - the repeating, through the transitory - the eternal.
The relationship in the structure of the work of two time layers: private time, biographical time and historical time - leads to a complication of the subjective organization of the text. Copyright I alternates sequentially with We, which in different contexts takes on different meanings: it points either to the author, or to persons close to him, or, with the strengthening of the role of historical time, serves as a means of pointing to the entire generation, national collective, or even, more broadly, to the human race as a whole:
Our historical vocation, our deed lies in this: through our disappointment, through our suffering, we reach the point of humility and submission before the truth and deliver the next generations from these sorrows...
Unity is established in the connection between generations human race, the history of which seems to the author to be a tireless striving forward, a path that has no end, but presupposes, however, the repetition of certain motives. The same repetitions of A.I. Herzen also finds in human life, the course of which, from his point of view, has a peculiar rhythm:
Yes, in life there is an addiction to the returning rhythm, to the repetition of the motive; who doesn’t know how close old age is to childhood? Take a closer look and you will see that on both sides of the full height of life, with its wreaths of flowers and thorns, with its cradles and coffins, eras are often repeated, similar in the main features.
It is historical time that is especially important for the narrative: the formation of the hero of “Past and Thoughts” reflects the formation of the era; biographical time is not only contrasted with historical time, but also acts as one of its manifestations.
Dominant images that characterize both biographical time (the image of the path) and historical time (the image of the sea, the elements) in the text interact, their connection gives rise to the movement of particular end-to-end images associated with the deployment of the dominant: I'm not coming from London. There is nowhere and no reason... It was washed here and thrown by the waves, which so mercilessly broke and twisted me and everything close to me.
The interaction of different time plans in the text, the correlation in the work of biographical and historical time, “the reflection of history in a person” are the distinctive features of the memoir-autobiographical epic of A.I. Herzen. These principles of temporal organization determine the figurative structure of the text and are reflected in the language of the work.
To establish deep (substantive) differences between literary and non-fiction texts, one can turn to the representation of such categories as time and space. The specificity here is obvious; it is not for nothing that corresponding terms exist in philology: artistic time and artistic space.
It is known that the sense of time for a person at different periods of his life is subjective: it can stretch or shrink. This subjectivity of sensations is used in different ways by authors of literary texts: a moment can last a long time or stop altogether, and large periods of time can flash by overnight. Artistic time is a sequence in the description of events that are subjectively perceived. This perception of time becomes one of the forms of depicting reality when, at the will of the author, the time perspective changes. Moreover, the time perspective can shift, the past can be thought of as the present, and the future can appear as the past, etc.
For example, in K. Simonov’s poem “Wait for me,” subjective transfers in time are used: the feeling of expectation is transferred to the plane of the past. The beginning of the poem is structured as a repeated appeal to wait (wait for me, and I will return, just wait very long. Wait when...). This “wait when” and just “wait” is repeated ten times. This is how the prospect of a future that has not yet happened is outlined. However, at the end of the poem a statement of the event is given as having happened:
Wait for me and I will come back
All deaths are out of spite.
Whoever didn't wait for me, let him
He will say: “Lucky.”
Those who were not waiting for them cannot understand,
Like in the middle of fire
By your expectation
You saved me.
We'll know how I survived
Just you and me, -
You just knew how to wait
Like no one else.
So the prospect of the future ended abruptly, and the theme “Wait, and I will return” turned into a statement of the result of this expectation, given in the forms of the past tense: lucky, saved, survived, knew how to wait. The use of the category of time, thus, turned into a certain compositional technique, and subjectivity in the presentation of the time plan resulted in the fact that expectation moved into the past. This shift makes it possible to feel confident in the outcome of events; the future is, as it were, predetermined, inevitable.
The category of time in a literary text is also complicated by its two-dimensionality - this is the time of the narrative and the time of the event. Therefore, temporary shifts are quite natural. Events that are distant in time can be depicted as immediately occurring, for example, in a character's retelling. Temporal splitting is a common storytelling device in which stories intersect. different persons, including the actual author of the text.
But such a split is possible without the intervention of characters in the coverage of past and present events. For example, in “The Last Spring” by I. Bunin there is an episode-picture drawn by the author:
No, it's already spring.
Today we went again. And they were silent all the way - fog and spring drowsiness. There is no sun, but behind the fog there is already a lot of spring light, and the fields are so white that it is difficult to look. Curly lilac forests are barely visible in the distance.
Near the village, a guy in a yellow calfskin jacket with a gun crossed the road. A completely wild trapper. He looked at us without bowing, and went straight through the snow, towards the darkening forest in the ravine. The gun is short, with cut barrels and a homemade stock, painted with red lead. A large yard dog runs indifferently behind.
Even the wormwood sticking out along the road, from the snow, into the frost; but spring, spring. The hawks are blissfully dozing, sitting on snowy dung heaps scattered across the field, gently merging with the snow and fog, with all this thick, soft and light white that the happy pre-spring world is full of.
The narrator here talks about a past (even if not so distant in time - now) trip. However, imperceptibly, unobtrusively, the narrative is transferred to the plane of the present. The picture-event of the past again appears before the eyes and, as it were, freezes in immobility. Time stopped.
Space, just like time, can shift at the will of the author. Artistic space is created through the use of image perspective; this occurs as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is being made: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa.
If, for example, we take the poem by M.Yu. Lermontov's “Sail” and consider it from the point of view of spatial sensations, it turns out that the distant and the near will be combined at one point: at first the sail is seen at a great distance, it is even faintly visible due to the fog (fog would not be a problem near).
The lonely sail is white
In the blue sea fog!..
(By the way, in the original version it was directly stated about the remoteness of the observed object: The distant sail is white.)
The waves are playing, the wind is whistling,
And the mast bends and creaks...
In the foggy distance it would be difficult to discern the details of the sailboat, much less see how the mast bends and hear how it creaks. And finally, at the end of the poem, we, together with the author, moved to the sailboat itself, otherwise we would not have been able to see what was under and above it:
Below him is a stream of lighter azure,
Above him is a golden ray of sun...
This significantly enlarges the image and, as a result, enhances the detail of the image.
In a literary text, spatial concepts can generally be transformed into concepts of a different plane. According to M.Yu. Lotman, artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial ideas.
Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial. For example, for B. Pasternak, the “horizon” is both a temporary concept (the future), and an emotional-evaluative one (happiness), and a mythological “path to heaven” (i.e. to creativity). The horizon is the place where the earth meets the sky, or the sky “descends” to the earth, then the poet is inspired, he experiences creative delight. This means that this is not a real horizon as a spatial concept, but something else related to the state of the lyrical hero, and in this case it can shift and end up very close:
In a thunderstorm, purple eyes and lawns
And the horizon smells of damp mignonette, -
it smells, it means it's very close...
Space and time are the main forms of existence, life, precisely as such realities they are recreated in non-fiction texts, in particular in scientific ones, and in artistic texts they can be transformed, transform into one another.
A. Voznesensky wrote:
What asymmetrical time!
The last minutes - in short,
The last separation is longer.
The category of time has a unique form of expression not only in literary text. The non-fiction text is also notable for its “relationship” to time. Texts such as legislative, instructive, and reference texts are focused on the “non-temporal” expression of thought. The verb tense forms used here do not mean at all what they are intended to mean; in particular, the present tense forms convey the meaning of the constancy of a sign, property or constancy of the action being performed. Such meanings are abstracted from specific verb forms. Time seems to be completely absent here. This is how, for example, descriptive material is presented in encyclopedias:
Jays. The jay stands out in the “black family” of corvids with the beauty of its variegated plumage. This is a very smart, agile and noisy forest bird. Seeing a person or beast of prey, she always makes a noise, and her loud cries of “gee-gee-gee” echo throughout the forest. In open spaces, the jay flies slowly and heavily. In the forest, she deftly flies from branch to branch, from tree to tree, maneuvering between them. Moves on the ground by jumping<...>.
Only during nesting do the jays seem to disappear - you can’t hear their cries, you can’t see birds flying or climbing all over the place. The jays fly silently at this time, hiding behind the branches, and quietly fly up to the nest.
After the chicks have fledged, at the end of May - in June, jays gather in small flocks and again noisily roam through the forest (Encyclopedia for children. Vol. 2).
The instructive type of text (for example, prescription, recommendation) is based entirely on a linguistic stereotype, where temporary meanings are completely eliminated: It should be based on...; It is necessary to keep in mind...; It is necessary to indicate...; Recommended...; and so on.
The use of verb forms of time in scientific texts is also peculiar, for example: “An event is determined by the place where it happened and the time when it happened. It is often useful for reasons of clarity to use an imaginary four-dimensional space... In this space, an event is represented by a point. These points are called world points” (L.D. Landau, E.M. Lifshits. Field theory). Verb forms of time indicate in such a text the meaning of constancy.
So, literary and non-fiction texts, although they represent sequences of statements combined into interphrase unities and fragments, are fundamentally different in essence - functionally, structurally, communicatively. Even the semantic “behavior” of a word in artistic and non-artistic contexts is different. In non-fiction texts, the word is focused on expressing the nominative-subject meaning and on unambiguousness, while in a literary text the hidden meanings of the word are updated, creating a new vision of the world and its assessment, diversity, and semantic additions. A non-fiction text is focused on reflecting reality, strictly limited by the laws of logical causality; a literary text, as belonging to art, is free from these restrictions.
Literary and non-fiction texts are fundamentally different in their focus on different aspects of the reader’s personality, his emotional and intellectual structure. A literary text primarily affects the emotional structure (of the soul), is connected with the personal feelings of the reader - hence expressiveness, emotiveness, and an attitude of empathy; non-fiction text appeals more to the mind, the intellectual structure of the individual - hence the neutrality of expression and detachment from the personal-emotional principle.
Plot and text composition
Plot is the dynamic side of the form of a literary work.
Conflict is an artistic contradiction.
The plot is one of the characteristics of the artistic world of the text, but it is not only a list of signs by which the art can be quite accurately described. the world of the work is quite wide - spatio-temporal coordinates - chronotope, figurative structure, dynamics of action development, speech characteristics and others.
Art world– a subjective model of objective reality.
Hood. the world of each work is unique. It is a complexly mediated reflection of the author’s temperament and worldview.
Hood. world– display of all facets of creative individuality.
The specificity of literary representation is movement. And the most adequate form of expression is a verb.
Action, as an event unfolding in time and space or a lyrical experience, is what forms the basis of the poetic world. This action can be more or less dynamic, extensive, physical, intellectual or indirect, BUT its presence is mandatory.
Conflict as the main driving force text.
Hood. the world in its entirety (with spatial and temporal parameters, population, elemental nature and general phenomena, the character’s expression and experience, the author’s consciousness) exists not as a disorderly heap..., but as a harmonious, expedient cosmos in which the core is organized. Such a universal core is considered to be COLLISION or CONFLICT.
Conflict is a confrontation of contradiction either between characters, or between characters and circumstances, or within character, underlying the action.
It is the conflict that forms the core of the theme.
If we are dealing with a small epic form, then the action develops on the basis of one single conflict. In works of large volume, the number of conflicts increases.
PLOT = /FABULA (not equal)
Plot elements:
Conflict– an integrating rod around which everything revolves.
The plot least of all resembles a solid, unbroken line connecting the beginning and end of an event series.
Plots break down into various elements:
Basic (canonical);
Optional (grouped in a strictly defined order).
The canonical elements include:
Exposition;
Climax;
Development of action;
Peripeteia;
Denouement.
Optional include:
Retreat;
Ending;
Title;
Exposition(Latin – presentation, explanation) – a description of the events preceding the plot.
Main functions:
Introducing the reader to the action;
Orientation in space;
Presentation of characters;
Picture of the situation before the conflict.
The plot is an event or group of events that directly leads to a conflict situation. It can grow out of exposure.
The development of action is the entire system of sequential deployment of that part of the event plan from beginning to end that guides the conflict. It can be calm or unexpected turns (vicissitudes).
The moment of highest tension in a conflict is critical to its resolution. After which the development of the action turns to the denouement.
In "Crime and Punishment" the climax - Porfiry comes to visit! Talk! Dostoevsky himself said so.
The number of climaxes can be large. It depends on the storylines.
Resolution is an event that resolves a conflict. Tells along with the ending of the dramas. or epic. Works. Most often, the ending and the denouement coincide. In the case of an open ending, the denouement may recede.
All writers understand the importance of the final final chord.
“Strength, artistic, the blow comes at the end”!
The denouement, as a rule, is juxtaposed with the beginning, echoing it with a certain parallelism, completing a certain compositional circle.
Optional Plot Elements(not the most important):
Title (only in fiction);
Most often, the title encodes the main conflict (Fathers and Sons, Thick and Thin)
The title does not leave the bright field of our consciousness.
Epigraph (from Greek - inscription) - can appear at the beginning of the work, or as parts of the work.
The epigraph establishes hypertextual relationships.
An aura of related works is formed.
Deviation is an element with a negative sign. There are lyrical, journalistic, etc. used to slow down, inhibit the development of action, switch from one storyline to another.
Internal monologues - play a similar role, since they are addressed to oneself, to the side; reasoning of the characters, the author.
Insert numbers - play a similar role (in Eugene Onegin - songs of girls);
Inserted stories - (about Captain Kopeikin) their role is an additional screen that expands the panorama of the artistic world of the work;
The final. As a rule, it coincides with the denouement. Completes the work. Or replaces the junction. Texts from open finals do without decoupling.
Prologue, epilogue (from Greek - before and after what is said). They are not directly related to action. They are separated either by a period of time or by graphic means of separation. Sometimes they can be wedged into the main text.
Epic and drama are plot-based; and lyrical works do without a plot.
Subjective organization of text
Bakhtin was the first to consider this topic.
Any text is a system. This system involves something that seems to defy systematization: the consciousness of a person, the personality of the author.
The author’s consciousness in the work receives a certain form, and the form can already be touched and described. In other words, Bakhtin gives us an idea of the unity of spatial and temporal relations in the text. It gives an understanding of one’s own and someone else’s word, their equality, the idea of an “endless and complete dialogue in which not a single meaning dies, the concepts of form and content come closer together through understanding the concept of worldview. The concepts of text and context come together, and integrity is established human culture in the space and time of earthly existence.
Korman B. O. 60-70s 20th century developed ideas. He established theoretical unity between terms and concepts such as: author, subject, object, point of view, someone else's word and others.
The difficulty lies not in distinguishing the narrator and the narrator, but in UNDERSTANDING THE UNITY BETWEEN CONSCIOUSNESS. And the interpretation of unity as the final author’s consciousness.
Consequently, in addition to realizing the importance of the conceptualized author, a synthesizing view of the work and the system was required and appeared, in which everything is interdependent and is expressed primarily in formal language.
Subjective organization is the correlation of all objects of the narrative (those to whom the text is assigned) with the subjects of speech and subjects of consciousness (that is, those whose consciousness is expressed in the text), this is the correlation of the horizons of consciousness expressed in the text.
It is important to consider 3 viewpoint plans:
Phraseological;
Spatio-temporal;
Ideological.
Phraseological plan:
As a rule, it helps to determine the nature of the bearer of the statement (I, you, he, we or their absence)
Ideological plan:
It is important to clarify the relationship between each point of view and with artistic world, in which it occupies a certain place from another point of view.
Space-time plan:
(see Heart of a Dog analysis)
It is necessary to distinguish distance and contact 9 according to the degree of remoteness), external and internal.
When characterizing the subject organization, we inevitably come to the problem of the author and the hero. Considering different aspects, we come to the ambiguity of the author. Using the concept of “author” we mean a biographical author, an author as a subject of the creative process, an author in his artistic embodiment (the image of the author).
Narration is a sequence of speech fragments of text containing a variety of messages. The subject of the story is the narrator.
The narrator is an indirect form of the author’s presence within the work, performing a mediating function between the fictional world and the recipient one.
The hero’s speech zone is a set of fragments of his direct speech, various forms indirect transmission of speech, fragments of phrases that fell into the author's zone, characteristic words, emotional assessments characteristic of the hero.
Important characteristics:
Motif – repeating elements of the text that have a semantic load.
Chronotope is the unity of space and time in a work of art;
Anachrony is a violation of the direct sequence of events;
Retrospection – shifting events into the past;
Prospection - a look into the future of events;
Peripeteia is a sudden sharp shift in the fate of a character;
Landscape is a description of the world external to man;
Portrait is an image of the hero’s appearance (figure, pose, clothing, facial features, facial expressions, gestures);
There are self-portrait descriptions, comparison portraits, and impression portraits.
- Composition of a literary work.
This is the relationship and arrangement of parts, elements within a work. Architectonics.
Gusev “The Art of Prose”: composition of reverse time (“ Easy breath"Bunin). Composition of direct time. Retrospective (“Ulysses” by Joyce, “The Master and Margarita” by Bulgakov) – different eras become independent objects of depiction. Intensification of phenomena - often in lyrical texts - Lermontov.
Compositional contrast (“War and Peace”) is an antithesis. Plot-compositional inversion (“Onegin”, “ Dead Souls"). The principle of parallelism is in the lyrics, “The Thunderstorm” by Ostrovsky. Composition ring – “Inspector”.
Composition of figurative structure. The character is in interaction. There are main, secondary, off-stage, real and historical characters. Catherine - Pugachev are bound together through an act of mercy.
Composition. This is the composition and specific position of parts of elements and images of works in time sequence. Carries a meaningful and semantic load. External composition– dividing the work into books, volumes / is of an auxiliary nature and serves for reading. More meaningful elements: prefaces, epigraphs, prologues, / they help to reveal the main idea of the work or identify the main problem of the work. Internal– includes various types of descriptions (portraits, landscapes, interiors), non-plot elements, staged episodes, all kinds of digressions, various forms of speech of characters and points of view. The main task of the composition– integrity of the depiction of the artistic world. This decency is achieved with the help of a kind of compositional techniques - repeat- one of the simplest and most effective, it allows you to easily round out the work, especially the ring composition, when a roll call is established between the beginning and the end of the work, carries a special artistic meaning. Composition of motives: 1. motives(in music), 2. opposition(combining repetition, contrasting with mirror compositions), 3. details, installation. 4. default,5. point of view - the position from which stories are told or from which the events of the characters or the narrative are perceived. Types of Viewpoints: ideological-integral, linguistic, spatial-temporal, psychological, external and internal. Types of compositions: simple and complex.
Plot and plot. Categories of material and technique (material and form) in the concept of V.B. Shklovsky and their modern understanding. Automation and disengagement. Correlation of concepts "plot" And "plot" in the structure of the artistic world. The importance of distinguishing these concepts for the interpretation of the work. Stages in plot development.
The composition of a work as its construction, as its organization figurative system in accordance with the author's concept. Subordination of the composition to the author's intention. Reflection of the tension of the conflict in the composition. The art of composition, compositional center. The criterion of artistry is the correspondence of the form to the concept.
Artistic space and time. Aristotle was the first to connect “space and time” with the meaning of a work of art. Then the ideas about these categories were carried out by: Likhachev, Bakhtin. Thanks to their works, “space and time” became established as the basis of literary categories. In any case the work inevitably reflects real time and space. As a result, a whole system of spatio-temporal relations develops in the work. Analysis of “space and time” can become a source of study, the author’s worldview, his aesthetic relationships in reality, his artistic world, artistic principles and his creativity. In science, there are three types of “space and time”: real, conceptual, perceptual.
.Artistic time and space (chronotope).
It exists objectively, but is also subjectively experienced differently by people. We perceive the world differently than the ancient Greeks. Artistic time And artistic space, this is the nature of the artistic image, which provides a holistic perception artistic reality and organizes the compositional work. Artistic space represents a model of the world of a given author in the language of his representation space. In the novel Dostoevsky this is ladder. U Symbolists mirror, in the lyrics Pasternak window. Characteristics artistic time And space. Is them discreteness. Literature does not perceive the entire flow of time, but only certain essential moments. Discreteness spaces are usually not described in detail, but are indicated using individual details. In lyric poetry, space can be allegorical. Lyrics are characterized by the overlap of different time plans of the present, past, future, etc. Artistic time And space symbolic. Basic spatial symbols: house(image of a closed space), space(image of open space), threshold, window, door(border). In modern literature: station, airport(places of decisive meetings). Artistic space May be: point, volumetric. Artistic space Romano Dostoevsky- This stage area. Time in his novels moves very quickly and Chekhov time stopped. Famous physiologist Wow Tomsky combines two Greek words: chronos- time, topos- place. In concept chronotope- a space-time complex and believed that this complex is reproduced by us as a single whole. These ideas had a huge influence on M. Bakhtin, which in the work “Forms of Time and Chronotope” in the novel explores chronotope in novels of different eras since antiquity, he showed that chronotopes different authors and different eras differ from each other. Sometimes the author breaks the time sequence “for example, The Captain’s Daughter.” X character traitschronotope in 20th century literature: 1. Abstract space, instead of concrete, having a symbol and meaning. 2. The place and time of action are uncertain. 3. The character’s memory as the internal space of unfolding events. The structure of space is built on opposition: top-bottom, sky-earth, earth-underworld, north-south, left-right, etc. Time structure: day-night, spring-autumn, light-dark, etc.
2. Lyrical digression - the author’s expression of feelings and thoughts in connection with what is depicted in the work. These digressions allow readers to take a deeper look at the work. Digressions slow down the development of the action, but lyrical digressions naturally enter into the work, imbued with the same feeling as artistic images.
Introductory episodes – stories or novellas that are indirectly related to the main plot or not related to it at all
Artistic appeal – a word or phrase used to name persons or objects to which speech is specifically addressed. Can be used alone or as part of a sentence.