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Main literary trends. Literary movement

The concepts of “direction”, “current”, “school” refer to terms that describe the literary process - the development and functioning of literature on a historical scale. Their definitions are debatable in literary studies.

In the 19th century, direction was understood as general character content, ideas of all national literature or any period of its development. IN early XIX century, the literary movement was generally associated with the “dominant trend of minds.”

Thus, I. V. Kireevsky in the article “The Nineteenth Century” (1832) wrote that the dominant direction of minds at the end of the 18th century is destructive, and the new consists in “the desire for a soothing equation of the new spirit with the ruins of old times...

In literature, the result of this trend was the desire to harmonize imagination with reality, correctness of forms with freedom of content... in a word, what is in vain called classicism, with what is even more incorrectly called romanticism.”

Even earlier, in 1824, V.K. Kuchelbecker declared the direction of poetry as its main content in the article “On the direction of our poetry, especially lyrical, in last decade" Ks. A. Polevoy was the first in Russian criticism to apply the word “direction” to certain stages in the development of literature.

In the article “On trends and parties in literature,” he called a direction “that internal striving of literature, often invisible to contemporaries, which gives character to all or at least very many of its works in the known given time...The basis of it, in in a general sense, there is an idea of ​​the modern era.”

For " real criticism" - N. G. Chernyshevsky, N. A. Dobrolyubov - the direction correlated with the ideological position of the writer or group of writers. In general, the direction was understood as a variety of literary communities.

But the main feature that unites them is that the unity of the most general principles embodiment of artistic content, commonality of the deep foundations of artistic worldview.

This unity is often due to the similarity of cultural and historical traditions, often associated with the type of consciousness of the literary era; some scientists believe that the unity of direction is due to the unity of the creative method of writers.

There is no set list of literary trends, since the development of literature is associated with the specifics of historical, cultural, social life society, national and regional characteristics of a particular literature. However, traditionally there are such trends as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, symbolism, each of which is characterized by its own set of formal and content features.

For example, within the framework of the romantic worldview, general features of romanticism can be identified, such as the motives for the destruction of customary boundaries and hierarchies, the ideas of “spiritualizing” synthesis, which replaced the rationalistic concept of “connection” and “order”, the awareness of man as the center and mystery of existence , open and creative personality, etc.

But the concrete expression of these general philosophical and aesthetic foundations of worldview in the works of writers and their worldview itself are different.

Thus, within romanticism, the problem of the embodiment of universal, new, non-rational ideals was embodied, on the one hand, in the idea of ​​rebellion, a radical reorganization of the existing world order (D. G. Byron, A. Mitskevich, P. B. Shelley, K. F. Ryleev) , and on the other hand, in the search for one’s inner “I” (V. A. Zhukovsky), harmony of nature and spirit (W. Wordsworth), religious self-improvement (F. R. Chateaubriand).

As we see, such a community of principles is international, largely of different quality, and exists in rather vague chronological framework, which is largely due to national and regional specifics literary process.

The same sequence of changing directions in different countries usually serves as proof of their supranational character. This or that direction in each country acts as a national variety of the corresponding international (European) literary community.

According to this point of view, French, German, Russian classicism are considered varieties of an international literary movement - European classicism, which is a set of the most common typological features inherent in all varieties of the movement.

But you should definitely take into account that often national characteristics of one direction or another can manifest themselves much more clearly than the typological similarity of varieties. In generalization there is some schematism that can distort real historical facts literary process.

For example, classicism manifested itself most clearly in France, where it is presented as a complete system of both substantive and formal features of works, codified by theoretical normative poetics (“Poetic art” by N. Boileau). In addition, it is represented by significant artistic achievements that influenced other European literature.

In Spain and Italy, where the historical situation was different, classicism turned out to be a largely imitative direction. Baroque literature turned out to be leading in these countries.

Russian classicism becomes a central trend in literature, also not without the influence of French classicism, but it acquires its own national sound and crystallizes in the struggle between the “Lomonosov” and “Sumarokov” movements. IN national varieties classicism has many differences, yet more problems is associated with the definition of romanticism as a single pan-European movement, within which very different phenomena often occur.

Thus, the construction of pan-European and “world” models of trends as the largest units of the functioning and development of literature seems to be a very difficult task.

Gradually, along with “direction”, the term “flow” comes into circulation, often used synonymously with “direction”. Thus, D. S. Merezhkovsky, in an extensive article “On the causes of the decline and new trends in modern Russian literature” (1893), writes that “between writers with different, sometimes opposite temperaments, special mental currents, a special air are established, like between opposite poles, full of creative trends." It is this, according to the critic, that accounts for the similarity of “poetic phenomena” and the works of different writers.

Often “direction” is recognized as a generic concept in relation to “flow”. Both concepts denote the unity of leading spiritual, substantive and aesthetic principles that arises at a certain stage of the literary process, covering the work of many writers.

The term “direction” in literature is understood as the creative unity of writers of a certain historical era who use common ideological and aesthetic principles for depicting reality.

Direction in literature is considered as a general category of the literary process, as one of the forms of artistic worldview, aesthetic views, ways of displaying life associated with a peculiar artistic style. In the history of national literatures European peoples There are such trends as classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, naturalism, symbolism.

Introduction to literary criticism (N.L. Vershinina, E.V. Volkova, A.A. Ilyushin, etc.) / Ed. L.M. Krupchanov. - M, 2005

Literary directions (theoretical material)

Classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism are the main literary trends.

Main features of literary movements :

· unite writers of a certain historical era;

· represent a special type of hero;

· express a certain worldview;

· choose characteristic themes and plots;

· use characteristic artistic techniques;

· work in certain genres;

· stand out for their artistic speech style;

· put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals.

Classicism

A movement in literature and art of the 17th – early 19th centuries, based on examples of ancient (classical) art. Russian classicism is characterized by national and patriotic themes associated with the transformations of the Peter the Great era.

Distinctive features:

· the significance of themes and plots;

· violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image;

· far-fetched images, schematic characters;

· the edifying nature of the work, the strict division of heroes into positive and negative;

· use of language that is poorly understood to the common people;

· appeal to sublime heroic moral ideals;

· national, civil orientation;

· establishing a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes and tragedies), “middle” (elegy, historical works, friendly letters) and “low” (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams);

· subordination of the plot and composition to the rules of the “three unities”: time, space (place) and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline).

Representatives of classicism

Western European literature:

· P. Corneille – tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Cinna”;

· J. Racine – tragedies “Phaedra”, “Midridate”;

· Voltaire - tragedies “Brutus”, “Tancred”;

· Moliere - comedies “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”;

· N. Boileau – treatise in verse “Poetic Art”;

· J. Lafontaine - “Fables”.

Russian literature

· M. Lomonosov - poem “Conversation with Anacreon”, “Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”;

· G. Derzhavin - ode “Felitsa”;

· A. Sumarokov – tragedies “Khorev”, “Sinav and Truvor”;

· Y. Knyazhnin - tragedies “Dido”, “Rosslav”;

· D. Fonvizin - comedies “The Brigadier”, “The Minor”.

Sentimentalism

Movement in literature and art of the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. He declared that the dominant “human nature” was not reason, but feeling, and sought the path to the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality in the release and improvement of “natural” feelings.

Distinctive features:

· revealing human psychology;

· feeling is proclaimed to be the highest value;

· interest in to the common man, to the world of his feelings, to nature, to everyday life;

· idealization of reality, subjective image of the world;

· ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature;

· the work is often written in the first person (narrator - author), which gives it lyricism and poetry.

Representatives of sentimentalism

· S. Richardson – novel “Clarissa Garlow”;

· – novel “Julia, or the New Eloise”;

· - novel “The Sorrows of Young Werther.”

Russian literature

· V. Zhukovsky - early poems;

· N. Karamzin - stories " Poor Lisa" - the pinnacle of Russian sentimentalism, "Bornholm Island";

· I. Bogdanovich - poem “Darling”;

· A. Radishchev (not all researchers classify his work as sentimentalism; it is close to this trend only in its psychologism; travel notes “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”).

Romanticism

A movement in art and literature of the late 18th – first half of the 19th centuries, reflecting the artist’s desire to contrast reality and dreams.

Distinctive features:

· unusualness, exoticism in the depiction of events, landscapes, people;

· rejection of the prosaic nature of real life; expression of a worldview characterized by daydreaming, idealization of reality, and the cult of freedom;

· striving for ideal, perfection;

· a strong, bright, sublime image of a romantic hero;

· depiction of a romantic hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate);

· contrast in the mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual.

Representatives of romanticism

Western European literature

· J. Byron - poems “Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage”, “The Corsair”;

· – drama “Egmont”;

· I. Schiller - dramas “Robbers”, “Cunning and Love”;

· E. Hoffman - fantastic story"Golden Pot"; fairy tales “Little Tsakhes”, “Lord of the Fleas”;

· P. Merimee - short story “Carmen”;

· V. Hugo – historical novel"Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris»;

· V. Scott - historical novel “Ivanhoe”.

Russian literature

  1. Literary movement - often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. The laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed in the struggle and change of directions. It is customary to distinguish the following literary trends:

    a) Classicism,
    b) Sentimentalism,
    c) Naturalism,
    d) Romanticism,
    d) Symbolism,
    f) Realism.

  2. Literary movement- often identified with a literary group and school. Designates a set of creative personalities who are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, a literary movement is a variety (as if a subclass) of a literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends.

Classicism

Artistic style and direction in European literature and art of the XVII-beginning. XIX centuries. The name is derived from the Latin “classicus” - exemplary.

Features of classicism:

  1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard, putting forward on this basis the principle of “imitation of nature,” which implies strict adherence to immutable rules drawn from ancient aesthetics (for example, in the person of Aristotle, Horace).
  2. Aesthetics is based on the principles of rationalism (from the Latin “ratio” - reason), which affirms the view of a work of art as an artificial creation - consciously created, intelligently organized, logically constructed.
  3. Images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable, generic, enduring characteristics over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
  4. The social and educational function of art. Education of a harmonious personality.
  5. A strict hierarchy of genres has been established, which are divided into “high” (tragedy, epic, ode; their sphere is public life, historical events, mythology, their heroes - monarchs, generals, mythological characters, religious ascetics) and “low” (comedy, satire, fable that depicted private daily life people of the middle classes). Each genre has strict boundaries and clear formal characteristics; no mixing of the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic, the heroic and the ordinary was allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
  6. Classical dramaturgy approved the so-called principle of “unity of place, time and action,” which meant: the action of the play should take place in one place, the duration of the action should be limited to the duration of the performance (possibly more, but the maximum time about which the play should have been narrated is one day), the unity of action implied that the play should reflect one central intrigue, not interrupted by side actions.

Classicism originated and developed in France with the establishment of absolutism (classicism with its concepts of “exemplaryness”, a strict hierarchy of genres, etc. is generally often associated with absolutism and the flourishing of statehood - P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. Lafontaine, J. B. Moliere, etc. Having entered a period of decline at the end of the 17th century, classicism was revived during the Enlightenment - Voltaire, M. Chenier, etc. After the Great French Revolution, with the collapse of rationalistic ideas, classicism came into decline, the dominant style European art becomes romanticism.

Classicism in Russia:

Russian classicism arose in the second quarter of the 18th century in the works of the founders of new Russian literature - A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky and M. V. Lomonosov. In the era of classicism, Russian literature mastered the genre and style forms that had developed in the West and joined the pan-European literary development while preserving its national identity. Characteristics Russian classicism:

A) Satirical orientation - an important place is occupied by such genres as satire, fable, comedy, directly addressed to specific phenomena of Russian life;
b) The predominance of national historical themes over ancient ones (the tragedies of A. P. Sumarokov, Ya. B. Knyazhnin, etc.);
V) High level of development of the ode genre (M. V. Lomonosov and G. R. Derzhavin);
G) The general patriotic pathos of Russian classicism.

At the end of the XVIII - beginning. In the 19th century, Russian classicism was influenced by sentimentalist and pre-romantic ideas, which is reflected in the poetry of G. R. Derzhavin, the tragedies of V. A. Ozerov and the civil lyrics of the Decembrist poets.

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - “sensitive”) is a movement in European literature and art XVIII century. It was prepared by the crisis of Enlightenment rationalism and was the final stage of the Enlightenment. Chronologically, it mainly preceded romanticism, passing on a number of its features to it.

The main signs of sentimentalism:

  1. Sentimentalism remained true to the ideal of the normative personality.
  2. In contrast to classicism with its educational pathos, it declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature.”
  3. The condition for the formation of an ideal personality was considered not by the “reasonable reorganization of the world,” but by the release and improvement of “natural feelings.”
  4. The hero of sentimental literature is more individualized: by origin (or convictions) he is a democrat, rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the conquests of sentimentalism.
  5. However, unlike romanticism (pre-romanticism), the “irrational” is alien to sentimentalism: he perceived the inconsistency of moods and the impulsiveness of mental impulses as accessible to rationalistic interpretation.

Sentimentalism took its most complete expression in England, where the ideology of the third estate was formed first - the works of J. Thomson, O. Goldsmith, J. Crabb, S. Richardson, JI. Stern.

Sentimentalism in Russia:

In Russia, representatives of sentimentalism were: M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin (most famous work - “Poor Liza”), I. I. Dmitriev, V. V. Kapnist, N. A. Lvov, young V. A. Zhukovsky.

Characteristic features of Russian sentimentalism:

a) Rationalistic tendencies are quite clearly expressed;
b) The didactic (moralizing) attitude is strong;
c) Educational trends;
d) Improving the literary language, Russian sentimentalists turned to colloquial norms and introduced vernaculars.

The favorite genres of sentimentalists are elegy, epistle, epistolary novel (novel in letters), travel notes, diaries and other types of prose in which confessional motifs predominate.

Romanticism

One of the largest destinations in European and American literature late XVIII-first half of the 19th century century, gaining worldwide significance and distribution. In the 18th century, everything fantastic, unusual, strange, found only in books and not in reality, was called romantic. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. “Romanticism” begins to be called a new literary movement.

Main features of romanticism:

  1. Anti-Enlightenment orientation (i.e., against the ideology of the Enlightenment), which manifested itself in sentimentalism and pre-romanticism, and reached its highest point in romanticism. Social and ideological prerequisites - disappointment in the results of the Great French Revolution and the fruits of civilization in general, protest against the vulgarity, routine and prosaicness of bourgeois life. The reality of history turned out to be beyond the control of “reason,” irrational, full of secrets and unforeseen events, and the modern world order turned out to be hostile to human nature and his personal freedom.
  2. The general pessimistic orientation is the ideas of “cosmic pessimism”, “world sorrow” (heroes in the works of F. Chateaubriand, A. Musset, J. Byron, A. Vigny, etc.). The theme of the “terrible world lying in evil” was particularly clearly reflected in the “drama of rock” or “tragedy of rock” (G. Kleist, J. Byron, E. T. A. Hoffmann, E. Poe).
  3. Belief in the omnipotence of the human spirit, in its ability to renew itself. The Romantics discovered the extraordinary complexity, the inner depth of human individuality. For them, a person is a microcosm, a small universe. Hence the absolutization of the personal principle, the philosophy of individualism. In the center romantic work There is always a strong, exceptional personality opposing society, its laws or moral standards.
  4. “Dual world”, that is, the division of the world into real and ideal, which are opposed to each other. Spiritual insight, inspiration, which is subject to the romantic hero, is nothing more than penetration into this ideal world (for example, the works of Hoffmann, especially vividly in: “The Golden Pot”, “The Nutcracker”, “Little Tsakhes, nicknamed Zinnober”) . The romantics contrasted the classicist “imitation of nature” with the creative activity of the artist with his right to transformation real world: the artist creates his own, special world, more beautiful and true.
  5. "Local color" A person opposed to society feels a spiritual closeness with nature, its elements. This is why romantics so often use exotic countries and their nature (the East) as the setting for action. Exotic wild nature was quite consistent in spirit with the romantic personality striving beyond the boundaries of everyday life. Romantics are the first to convert close attention on the creative heritage of the people, their national, cultural and historical characteristics. National and cultural diversity, according to the philosophy of the romantics, was part of one large unified whole - the “universum”. This was clearly realized in the development of the genre of the historical novel (authors such as W. Scott, F. Cooper, V. Hugo).

The Romantics, absolutizing the creative freedom of the artist, denied rationalistic regulation in art, which, however, did not prevent them from proclaiming their own, romantic canons.

Genres have developed: the fantastic story, the historical novel, the lyric-epic poem, and the lyricist reaches an extraordinary flowering.

The classical countries of romanticism are Germany, England, France.

Since the 1840s, romanticism in the main European countries gives way to critical realism and fades into the background.

Romanticism in Russia:

The origin of romanticism in Russia is associated with the socio-ideological atmosphere of Russian life - the nationwide upsurge after the War of 1812. All this determined not only the formation, but also the special character of the romanticism of the Decembrist poets (for example, K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker, A. I. Odoevsky), whose work was inspired by the idea of ​​civil service, imbued with the pathos of love of freedom and struggle.

Characteristic features of romanticism in Russia:

A) The acceleration of the development of literature in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century led to the “invasion” and combination various stages, which in other countries were experienced in stages. In Russian romanticism, pre-romantic tendencies were intertwined with the tendencies of classicism and the Enlightenment: doubts about the omnipotent role of reason, the cult of sensitivity, nature, elegiac melancholy were combined with the classic ordering of styles and genres, moderate didacticism (edification) and the fight against excessive metaphor for the sake of “harmonic accuracy” (expression A. S. Pushkin).

b) A more pronounced social orientation of Russian romanticism. For example, the poetry of the Decembrists, the works of M. Yu. Lermontov.

In Russian romanticism, such genres as elegy and idyll receive special development. The development of the ballad (for example, in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky) was very important for the self-determination of Russian romanticism. The contours of Russian romanticism were most clearly defined with the emergence of the genre of lyric-epic poem (southern poems by A. S. Pushkin, works by I. I. Kozlov, K. F. Ryleev, M. Yu. Lermontov, etc.). The historical novel is developing as a large epic form (M. N. Zagoskin, I. I. Lazhechnikov). A special way of creating a large epic form is cyclization, that is, the combination of seemingly independent (and partially published separately) works (“Double or My Evenings in Little Russia” by A. Pogorelsky, “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” by N. V. Gogol, “Our Hero” time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, "Russian Nights" by V. F. Odoevsky).

Naturalism

Naturalism (from the Latin natura - “nature”) is a literary movement that developed in the last third of the 19th century in Europe and the USA.

Characteristics of naturalism:

  1. The desire for an objective, accurate and dispassionate depiction of reality and human character, determined by physiological nature and environment, understood primarily as the immediate everyday and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. The main task of naturalists was to study society with the same completeness with which a natural scientist studies nature; artistic knowledge was likened to scientific knowledge.
  2. A work of art was considered as a “human document”, and the main aesthetic criterion was the completeness of the cognitive act carried out in it.
  3. Naturalists refused to moralize, believing that reality depicted with scientific impartiality was in itself quite expressive. They believed that literature, like science, has no right in choosing material, that there are no unsuitable plots or unworthy topics for a writer. Hence, plotlessness and social indifference often arose in the works of naturalists.

Naturalism received particular development in France - for example, naturalism includes the work of such writers as G. Flaubert, the brothers E. and J. Goncourt, E. Zola (who developed the theory of naturalism).

In Russia, naturalism was not widespread; it played only a certain role in initial stage development of Russian realism. Naturalistic tendencies can be traced among the writers of the so-called “natural school” (see below) - V. I. Dal, I. I. Panaev and others.

Realism

Realism (from the late Latin realis - material, real) is a literary and artistic movement of the 19th-20th centuries. It originates in the Renaissance (the so-called “Renaissance realism”) or in the Enlightenment (“ educational realism"). Features of realism are noted in ancient and medieval folklore and ancient literature.

Main features of realism:

  1. The artist depicts life in images that correspond to the essence of the phenomena of life itself.
  2. Literature in realism is a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.
  3. Knowledge of reality occurs with the help of images created through typification of facts of reality (“typical characters in a typical setting”). Typification of characters in realism is carried out through the “truthfulness of details” in the “specifics” of the characters’ conditions of existence.
  4. Realistic art is life-affirming art, even with a tragic resolution to the conflict. The philosophical basis for this is Gnosticism, the belief in knowability and an adequate reflection of the surrounding world, in contrast, for example, to romanticism.
  5. Realistic art is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect and capture the emergence and development of new forms of life and social relations, new psychological and social types.

Realism as a literary movement was formed in the 30s of the 19th century. The immediate predecessor of realism in European literature was romanticism. Having made the unusual the subject of the image, creating an imaginary world of special circumstances and exceptional passions, he (romanticism) at the same time showed a personality richer in spirituality, emotionally, more complex and contradictory than was available to classicism, sentimentalism and other movements of previous eras. Therefore, realism developed not as an antagonist of romanticism, but as its ally in the fight against idealization public relations, for national-historical originality artistic images(color of place and time). It is not always easy to draw clear boundaries between romanticism and realism of the first half of the 19th century; in the works of many writers, romantic and realistic features merged - for example, the works of O. Balzac, Stendhal, V. Hugo, and partly Charles Dickens. In Russian literature, this was especially clearly reflected in the works of A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov (the southern poems of Pushkin and “Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov).

In Russia, where the foundations of realism were already in the 1820-30s. laid down by the work of A. S. Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Captain’s Daughter”, late lyrics), as well as some other writers (“Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboedov, fables by I. A. Krylov ), this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. Realism of the 19th century is usually called “critical”, since the defining principle in it was precisely social-critical. Heightened social-critical pathos is one of the main distinctive features Russian realism - for example, “The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls” by N.V. Gogol, the activities of writers of the “natural school”. Realism of the 2nd half of the 19th century reached its peak precisely in Russian literature, especially in the works of L. N. Tolstoy and F. M. Dostoevsky, who became late XIX century by the central figures of the world literary process. They enriched world literature with new principles for constructing a socio-psychological novel, philosophical and moral issues, and new ways of revealing the human psyche in its deepest layers.

LITERARY DIRECTION (METHOD)- a set of basic features of creativity, formed and repeated in a certain historical period development of art.

At the same time, the features this direction can be traced in authors who worked in the eras preceding the formation of the movement itself (traits of romanticism in Shakespeare, features of realism in Fonvizin’s “The Minor”), as well as in subsequent eras (traits of romanticism in Gorky).

There are four main literary trends:CLASSICISM, ROMANTICISM, REALISM, MODERNISM.

LITERARY CURRENT- finer division compared to the direction; currents either represent branches of one direction ( German romanticism, French romanticism, Byronism in England, Karamzinism in Russia), or arise during the transition from one direction to another (sentimentalism).

MAIN LITERARY DIRECTIONS (METHODS) AND TRENDS

1. CLASSICISM

The main literary movement in Russia XVIII century.

Main features

  1. Imitation of examples of ancient culture.
  2. Strict construction rules works of art.Chapter II. Literary trends (methods) and currents 9
  3. Strict hierarchy of genres: high (ode, epic poem, tragedy); medium (satire, love letter); low (fable, comedy).
  4. Rigid boundaries between genders and genres.
  5. Creating an ideal social life scheme and ideal images members of society (enlightened monarch, statesman, military man, woman).

Main genres in poetry

Ode, satire, historical poem.

The main rules for constructing dramatic works

  1. The rule of “three unities”: place, time, action.
  2. Division into positive and negative characters.
  3. The presence of a hero-reasoner (a character expressing the author’s position).
  4. Traditional roles: reasoner (hero-reasoner), first lover (hero-lover), second lover, ingénue, soubrette, deceived father, etc.
  5. Traditional denouement: the triumph of virtue and the punishment of vice.
  6. Five actions.
  7. Speaking names.
  8. Long moralizing monologues.

Main representatives

Europe - writer and thinker Voltaire; playwrights Corneille, Racine, Moliere; fabulist La Fontaine; poet Guys (France).

Russia - poets Lomonosov, Derzhavin, playwright Fonvizin (comedies "The Brigadier", 1769 and "The Minor", 1782).

Traditions of classicism in the literature of the 19th century

Krylov . Genre traditions of classicism in fables.

Griboyedov . Features of classicism in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

The main literary movement in Russia in the first third of the 19th century.

Main features

  1. Creation of an ideal dream world, fundamentally incompatible with real life, opposed to it.
  2. In the center of the image - human personality, her inner world, her attitude to the surrounding reality.
  3. Portrayal of an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances.
  4. Denial of all the rules of classicism.
  5. The use of fiction, symbolism, the absence of everyday and historical motivations.

Main genres

Lyric poem, poem, tragedy, novel.

Main genres in Russian poetry

Elegy, message, song, ballad, poem.

Main representatives

Europe - Goethe, Heine, Schiller (Germany), Byron (England).

Russia - Zhukovsky.

Traditions of romanticism in the literature of the 19th-20th centuries

Griboyedov . Romantic traits in the characters of Sofia and Chatsky; a parody of Zhukovsky's ballads (Sofia's dream) in the comedy "Woe from Wit".

Pushkin . Romantic period of creativity (1813--1824); the image of the romantic poet Lensky and discussions of romanticism in the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin"; unfinished novel "Dubrovsky".

Lermontov . Romantic period of creativity (1828-І836); elements of romanticism in poems of the mature period (1837-1841); romantic motifs in the poems “Song about... the merchant Kalashnikov”, “Mtsyri”, “Demon”, in the novel “Hero of Our Time”; the image of the romantic poet Lensky in the poem "The Death of a Poet".

The main literary direction of the 2nd half of the XIX-XX centuries.

Main features

  1. Creation of typical (regular) characters.
  2. These characters act in typical everyday and historical settings.
  3. Life-like verisimilitude, fidelity to details (in combination with conventional forms artistic fantasy: symbol, grotesque, fantasy, myth).

In Russia, the emergence of realism began in the 1820s:

Krylov. Fables.

Griboyedov . Comedy "Woe from Wit" (1822 -1824).

Pushkin . Mikhailovsky (1824-1826) and late (1826-1836) periods of creativity: the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" (1823-1831), the tragedy "Boris Godunov" (1825), "Belkin's Tales" (1830), the poem "Copper" Horseman" (1833), the story "The Captain's Daughter" (1833-1836); late lyrics.

Lermontov . The period of mature creativity (1837-1841): the novel “A Hero of Our Time” (1839-1841), late lyrics.

Gogol . "Petersburg Tales" (1835-1842; "The Overcoat", 1842), the comedy "The Inspector General" (1835), the poem "Dead Souls" (1st volume: 1835-1842).

Tyutchev, Fet . Features of realism in lyrics.

In the years 1839-1847, Russian realism was formed into a special literary movement, called the “natural school” or “Gogolian direction.” Natural school became the first stage in the development of a new movement in realism - Russian critical realism.

Programmatic works of writers of critical realism

Prose

Goncharov . The novel "Oblomov" (1848-1858).

Turgenev . The story "Asya" (1858), the novel "Fathers and Sons" (1861).

Dostoevsky . Novel "Crime and Punishment" (1866).

Lev Tolstoy . Epic novel "War and Peace" (1863-1869).

Saltykov-Shchedrin . "The History of a City" (1869--1870), "Tales" (1869-1886).

Leskov . The story "The Enchanted Wanderer" (1879), the story "Lefty" (1881).

Dramaturgy

Ostrovsky . Drama “The Thunderstorm” (1859), comedy “Forest” (1870).

Poetry

Nekrasov . Lyrics, poems “Peasant Children” (1861), “Who Lives Well in Rus'” (1863-1877).

The development of critical realism ends at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries:

Chekhov . Stories "Death of an Official" (1883), "Chameleon" (1884), "Student" (1894), "House with a Mezzanine" (1896), "Ionych", "Man in a Case", "Gooseberry", "About Love" , “Darling” (all 1898), “Lady with a Dog” (1899), comedy “The Cherry Orchard” (1904).

Bitter . Feature article " Former people"(1897), the story "Ice drift" (1912), the play "At the Bottom" (1902).

Bunin . The stories "Anton's Apples" (1900), "The Gentleman from San Francisco" (1915).

Kuprin . The story "Olesya" (1898), " Garnet bracelet" (1910).

After October revolution the term " socialist realism". However, creativity best writers post-revolutionary period does not fit into the narrow framework of this trend and retains traditional features Russian realism:

Sholokhov . The novel "Quiet Don" (1925-1940), the story "The Fate of a Man" (1956).

Bulgakov . Tale " dog's heart"(1925), novels" White Guard"(1922-1924), "The Master and Margarita" (1929-1940), the play "Days of the Turbins" (1925-1926).

Zamyatin . Dystopian novel "We" (1929).

Platonov . The story "The Pit" (1930).

Tvardovsky . Poems, poem "Vasily Terkin" (1941-1945).

Parsnip . Late lyrics, novel "Doctor Zhivago" (1945--1955).

Solzhenitsyn . The story "One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich", story " Matrenin Dvor" (1959).

Shalamov . Cycle "Kolyma Stories" (1954--1973).

Astafiev . The story "The Shepherd and the Shepherdess" (1967-1989).

Trifonov . The story "The Old Man" (1978).

Shukshin. Stories.

Rasputin . The story "Farewell to Matera" (1976).

5. MODERNISM

Modernism - a literary movement that unites various movements in the art of the late 19th-20th centuries, engaged in experiments with the form of works of art (symbolism, acmeism, futurism, cubism, constructivism, avant-gardeism, abstractionism, etc.).

IMAGINISM (imago - image) is a literary movement in Russian poetry between 1919 and 1925, whose representatives stated that the goal of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. The creator of the movement is Anatoly Borisovich Mariengof. Sergei Yesenin, who was a member of it, brought fame to the Imagist group.

POSTMODERNISM - various movements in the art of the 2nd half of the 20th and early 21st centuries (conceptualism, pop art, socialist art, body art, graffiti, etc.), which prioritized the denial of the integrity of life and art at all levels. In Russian literature, the era of postmodernism opens with the almanac "Metropol", 1979; the most famous authors of the almanac:V.P. Aksenov, B.A. Akhmadulina, A.G. Bitov, A.A. Voznesensky, V.S. Vysotsky, F.A. Iskander.


Literary movements and movements: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism)

Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - an artistic movement in European art at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries - the beginning of the 19th century, formed in France at the end of the 17th century. Classicism asserted the primacy of state interests over personal interests, the predominance of civil, patriotic motives, cult moral duty. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by the rigor of artistic forms: compositional unity, normative style and subjects. Representatives of Russian classicism: Kantemir, Trediakovsky, Lomonosov, Sumarokov, Knyazhnin, Ozerov and others.

One of the most important features of classicism is the perception of ancient art as a model, an aesthetic standard (hence the name of the movement). The goal is to create works of art in the image and likeness of ancient ones. In addition, the formation of classicism was greatly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the cult of reason (the belief in the omnipotence of reason and that the world can be reorganized on a rational basis).

Classicists (representatives of classicism) perceived artistic creativity as strict adherence to reasonable rules, eternal laws, created on the basis of studying the best examples of ancient literature. Based on these reasonable laws, they divided works into “correct” and “incorrect”. For example, even best plays Shakespeare. This was due to the fact that Shakespeare’s heroes combined positive and negative traits. And the creative method of classicism was formed on the basis of rationalistic thinking. There was a strict system of characters and genres: all characters and genres were distinguished by “purity” and unambiguity. Thus, in one hero it was strictly forbidden not only to combine vices and virtues (that is, positive and negative traits), but even several vices. The hero had to embody one character trait: either a miser, or a braggart, or a hypocrite, or a hypocrite, or good, or evil, etc.

The main conflict of classic works is the hero’s struggle between reason and feeling. At the same time, a positive hero must always make a choice in favor of reason (for example, when choosing between love and the need to completely devote himself to serving the state, he must choose the latter), and a negative one - in favor of feeling.

The same can be said about genre system. All genres were divided into high (ode, epic poem, tragedy) and low (comedy, fable, epigram, satire). At the same time, touching episodes were not supposed to be included in a comedy, and funny ones were not supposed to be included in a tragedy. In the high genres, “exemplary” heroes were depicted - monarchs, generals who could serve as role models. In the low genres, characters were depicted who were seized by some kind of “passion,” that is, a strong feeling.

Special rules existed for dramatic works. They had to observe three “unities” - place, time and action. Unity of place: classical dramaturgy did not allow a change of location, that is, throughout the entire play the characters had to be in the same place. Unity of time: the artistic time of a work should not exceed several hours, or at most one day. Unity of action implies that there is only one storyline. All these requirements are related to the fact that the classicists wanted to create a unique illusion of life on stage. Sumarokov: “Try to measure the clock for me in the game for hours, so that I, having forgotten myself, can believe you.”

So, the characteristic features of literary classicism:

Purity of the genre (in high genres funny or everyday situations and heroes could not be depicted, and in low ones - tragic and sublime ones);

- purity of language (in high genres - high vocabulary, in low genres - colloquial);

Heroes are strictly divided into positive and negative, while goodies When choosing between feeling and reason, they give preference to the latter;

- compliance with the rule of “three unities”;

- the work must affirm positive values ​​and a state ideal.

Russian classicism is characterized by state pathos (the state (and not the person) was declared the highest value) combined with faith in the theory of enlightened absolutism. According to the theory of enlightened absolutism, the state should be headed by a wise, enlightened monarch, requiring everyone to serve for the good of society. Russian classicists, inspired by Peter's reforms, believed in the possibility of further improvement of society, which they saw as a rationally structured organism. Sumarokov: “Peasants plow, merchants trade, warriors defend the fatherland, judges judge, scientists cultivate science.” The classicists treated human nature in the same rationalistic way. They believed that human nature is selfish, subject to passions, that is, feelings that are opposed to reason, but at the same time amenable to education.

Sentimentalism (from English sentimental - sensitive, from French sentiment

Feeling) is a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which replaced classicism. Sentimentalists proclaimed the primacy of feeling, not reason. A person was judged by his capacity for deep experiences. Hence the interest in the hero’s inner world, the depiction of the shades of his feelings (the beginning of psychologism).

Unlike classicists, sentimentalists consider the highest value not the state, but the person. They contrasted the unjust orders of the feudal world with the eternal and reasonable laws of nature. In this regard, nature for sentimentalists is the measure of all values, including man himself. It is no coincidence that they asserted the superiority of the “natural”, “natural” person, that is, living in harmony with nature.

Sensitivity also underlies the creative method of sentimentalism. If classicists created generalized characters (prude, braggart, miser, fool), then sentimentalists are interested in specific people with individual fates. The heroes in their works are clearly divided into positive and negative. Positive people are endowed with natural sensitivity (responsive, kind, compassionate, capable of self-sacrifice). Negative - calculating, selfish, arrogant, cruel. The carriers of sensitivity, as a rule, are peasants, artisans, commoners, and rural clergy. Cruel - representatives of power, nobles, high clergy (since despotic rule kills sensitivity in people). Manifestations of sensitivity often acquire a too external, even exaggerated character in the works of sentimentalists (exclamations, tears, fainting, suicide).

One of the main discoveries of sentimentalism is the individualization of the hero and the image of the rich spiritual world of the commoner (the image of Liza in Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza”). The main character of the works was an ordinary person. In this regard, the plot of the work often represented individual situations of everyday life, while peasant life was often depicted in pastoral colors. New content required a new form. The leading genres were family novel, diary, confession, novel in letters, travel notes, elegy, epistle.

In Russia, sentimentalism originated in the 1760s (the best representatives are Radishchev and Karamzin). As a rule, in the works of Russian sentimentalism the conflict develops between the serf peasant and the serf-owner landowner, and the moral superiority of the former is persistently emphasized.

Romanticism is an artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Romanticism arose in the 1790s, first in Germany, and then spread throughout Western Europe. The prerequisites for its emergence were the crisis of rationalism of the Enlightenment, the artistic search for pre-romantic movements (sentimentalism), the Great French revolution, German classical philosophy.

The emergence of this literary movement, like any other, is inextricably linked with the socio-historical events of that time. Let's start with the prerequisites for the formation of romanticism in Western European literature. The Great French Revolution of 1789-1899 and the associated revaluation of Enlightenment ideology had a decisive influence on the formation of romanticism in Western Europe. As you know, the 18th century in France passed under the sign of the Enlightenment. For almost a century, French educators led by Voltaire (Rousseau, Diderot, Montesquieu) argued that the world could be reorganized on a reasonable basis and proclaimed the idea of ​​natural equality of all people. It was these educational ideas that inspired the French revolutionaries, whose slogan was the words: “Liberty, equality and fraternity. The result of the revolution was the establishment of a bourgeois republic. As a result, the winner was the bourgeois minority, which seized power (previously it belonged to the aristocracy, the upper nobility), while the rest were left with nothing. Thus, the long-awaited “kingdom of reason” turned out to be an illusion, as were the promised freedom, equality and brotherhood. There was general disappointment in the results and results of the revolution, deep dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality, which became a prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. Because at the heart of romanticism is the principle of dissatisfaction with the existing order of things. This was followed by the emergence of the theory of romanticism in Germany.

As you know, Western European culture, in particular French, had a huge influence on Russian. This trend continued into the 19th century, which is why the Great French Revolution also shocked Russia. But, in addition, there are actually Russian prerequisites for the emergence of Russian romanticism. First of all, this is the Patriotic War of 1812, which clearly showed the greatness and strength of the common people. It was to the people that Russia owed the victory over Napoleon, the people were true hero war. Meanwhile, both before the war and after it, the bulk of the people, the peasants, still remained serfs, in fact, slaves. What had previously been perceived as injustice by progressive people of that time now began to seem like a blatant injustice, contrary to all logic and morality. But after the end of the war, Alexander I not only did not abolish serfdom, but also began to pursue a much tougher policy. As a result, a pronounced feeling of disappointment and dissatisfaction arose in Russian society. This is how the soil for the emergence of romanticism arose.

The term “romanticism” when applied to a literary movement is arbitrary and imprecise. In this regard, from the very beginning of its occurrence, it was interpreted in different ways: some believed that it comes from the word “romance”, others - from chivalric poetry created in countries speaking Romance languages. For the first time, the word “romanticism” as a name for a literary movement began to be used in Germany, where the first sufficiently detailed theory of romanticism was created.

The concept of romantic dual worlds is very important for understanding the essence of romanticism.. As already mentioned, rejection, denial of reality is the main prerequisite for the emergence of romanticism. All romantics reject the world around them, hence their romantic escape from existing life and the search for an ideal outside of it. This gave rise to the emergence of a romantic dual world. For romantics, the world was divided into two parts: here and there. “There” and “here” are an antithesis (opposition), these categories are correlated as ideal and reality. The despised “here” is modern reality, where evil and injustice triumph. “There” is a kind of poetic reality, which the romantics contrasted with real reality. Many romantics believed that goodness, beauty and truth, crowded out of public life, were still preserved in the souls of people. Hence their attention to the inner world of man, in-depth psychologism. The souls of people are their “there”. For example, Zhukovsky was looking for “there” in the other world; Pushkin and Lermontov, Fenimore Cooper - in the free life of uncivilized peoples (Pushkin's poem " Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", Cooper's novels about Indian life).

Rejection and denial of reality determined the specifics of the romantic hero. This is a fundamentally new hero; previous literature has never seen anything like him. He is in a hostile relationship with the surrounding society and is opposed to it. This is an extraordinary person, restless, most often lonely and with a tragic fate. The romantic hero is the embodiment of romantic rebellion against reality.

Realism(from the Latin realis - material, real) - a method (creative attitude) or literary direction that embodies the principles of a life-truthful attitude to reality, aimed at artistic knowledge man and the world. The term “realism” is often used in two meanings: 1) realism as a method; 2) realism as a direction formed in the 19th century. Both classicism, romanticism, and symbolism strive for knowledge of life and express their reaction to it in their own way, but only in realism does fidelity to reality become the defining criterion of artistry. This distinguishes realism, for example, from romanticism, which is characterized by rejection of reality and the desire to “recreate” it, rather than display it as it is. It is no coincidence that, turning to the realist Balzac, the romantic George Sand defined the difference between him and herself: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes; I feel a calling within myself to portray him the way I would like to see him.” Thus, we can say that realists depict the real, and romantics depict the desired.

The beginning of the formation of realism is usually associated with the Renaissance. The realism of this time is characterized by the scale of images (Don Quixote, Hamlet) and the poeticization of the human personality, the perception of man as the king of nature, the crown of creation. The next stage is educational realism. In the literature of the Enlightenment, a democratic realistic hero appears, a man “from the bottom” (for example, Figaro in Beaumarchais’s plays “The Barber of Seville” and “The Marriage of Figaro”). New types of romanticism appeared in the 19th century: “fantastic” (Gogol, Dostoevsky), “grotesque” (Gogol, Saltykov-Shchedrin) and “critical” realism associated with the activities of the “natural school”.

The main requirements of realism: adherence to the principles of nationalism, historicism, high artistry, psychologism, depiction of life in its development. Realist writers showed the direct dependence of the social, moral, and religious ideas of heroes on social conditions, and paid great attention to the social and everyday aspect. Central problem realism - the relationship between plausibility and artistic truth. Plausibility, a plausible representation of life is very important for realists, but artistic truth is determined not by plausibility, but by fidelity in comprehending and conveying the essence of life and the significance of the ideas expressed by the artist. One of the most important features of realism is the typification of characters (the fusion of the typical and the individual, the uniquely personal). The persuasiveness of a realistic character directly depends on the degree of individualization achieved by the writer.

Realist writers create new types of heroes: the type of “little man” (Vyrin, Bashmachki n, Marmeladov, Devushkin), the type of “superfluous man” (Chatsky, Onegin, Pechorin, Oblomov), the type of “new” hero (nihilist Bazarov in Turgenev, “new people” of Chernyshevsky).

Modernism(from the French modern - the newest, modern) - a philosophical and aesthetic movement in literature and art that arose in turn of XIX-XX centuries.

This term has different interpretations:

1) denotes a number of non-realistic movements in art and literature at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries: symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, cubism, imagism, surrealism, abstractionism, impressionism;

2) is used as a symbol for the aesthetic searches of artists of non-realistic movements;

3) denotes a complex complex of aesthetic and ideological phenomena, including not only modernist movements themselves, but also the work of artists who do not completely fit into the framework of any movement (D. Joyce, M. Proust, F. Kafka and others).

The most striking and significant directions of Russian modernism were symbolism, acmeism and futurism.

Symbolism- a non-realistic movement in art and literature of the 1870s-1920s, focused mainly on artistic expression through the symbol of intuitively comprehended entities and ideas. Symbolism made itself known in France in the 1860-1870s in the poetic works of A. Rimbaud, P. Verlaine, S. Mallarmé. Then, through poetry, symbolism connected itself not only with prose and drama, but also with other forms of art. The ancestor, founder, “father” of symbolism is considered to be the French writer Charles Baudelaire.

The worldview of symbolist artists is based on the idea of ​​the unknowability of the world and its laws. They considered the spiritual experience of man and the creative intuition of the artist to be the only “tool” for understanding the world.

Symbolism was the first to put forward the idea of ​​​​creating art, free from the task of depicting reality. The symbolists argued that the purpose of art was not to depict the real world, which they considered secondary, but to convey a “higher reality.” They intended to achieve this with the help of a symbol. The symbol is an expression of the poet’s supersensible intuition, to whom in moments of insight the true essence of things is revealed. Symbolists developed a new poetic language, which does not directly name the subject, but hints at its content through allegory, musicality, color scheme, and free verse.

Symbolism is the first and most significant of the modernist movements that arose in Russia. The first manifesto of Russian symbolism was the article by D. S. Merezhkovsky “On the causes of decline and new trends in modern Russian literature,” published in 1893. It identified three main elements of the “new art”: mystical content, symbolization and “expansion of artistic impressionability”.

Symbolists are usually divided into two groups, or movements:

1) “senior” symbolists (V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub

and others), which debuted in the 1890s;

2) “younger” symbolists who began their creative activity in the 1900s and significantly updated the appearance of the movement (A. Blok, A. Bely, V. Ivanov and others).

It should be noted that the “senior” and “younger” symbolists were separated not so much by age as by the difference in worldviews and the direction of creativity.

The symbolists believed that art is, first of all, “comprehension of the world in other, non-rational ways” (Bryusov). After all, only phenomena that are subject to the law of linear causality can be rationally comprehended, and such causality operates only in lower forms of life (empirical reality, everyday life). The symbolists were interested in the higher spheres of life (the area of ​​“absolute ideas” in terms of Plato or the “world soul”, according to V. Solovyov), not subject to rational knowledge. It is art that has the ability to penetrate into these spheres, and symbolic images with their endless polysemy are capable of reflecting the entire complexity of the world universe. Symbolists believed that the ability to comprehend the true, ultimate reality given only to a select few who, in moments of inspired insight, are able to comprehend the “highest” truth, the absolute truth.

The symbol image was considered by the symbolists as a more effective tool than the artistic image, helping to “break through” the veil of everyday life (lower life) to a higher reality. A symbol differs from a realistic image in that it conveys not the objective essence of a phenomenon, but the poet’s own, individual idea of ​​the world. In addition, a symbol, as Russian symbolists understood it, is not an allegory, but, first of all, an image that requires creative response from the reader. The symbol, as it were, connects the author and the reader - this is the revolution brought about by symbolism in art.

The image-symbol is fundamentally polysemantic and contains the prospect of limitless development of meanings. This feature of his was repeatedly emphasized by the symbolists themselves: “A symbol is only a true symbol when it is inexhaustible in its meaning” (Vyach. Ivanov); “The symbol is a window to infinity” (F. Sologub).

Acmeism(from the Greek act - the highest degree of something, blooming power, peak) - a modernist literary movement in Russian poetry of the 1910s. Representatives: S. Gorodetsky, early A. Akhmatova, L. Gumilyov, O. Mandelstam. The term “Acmeism” belongs to Gumilyov. Aesthetic program was formulated in the articles by Gumilyov “The Heritage of Symbolism and Acmeism”, Gorodetsky “Some Currents in Modern Russian Poetry” and Mandelstam “The Morning of Acmeism”.

Acmeism stood out from symbolism, criticizing its mystical aspirations towards the “unknowable”: “With the Acmeists, the rose again became good in itself, with its petals, smell and color, and not with its conceivable likenesses with mystical love or anything else” (Gorodetsky) . The Acmeists proclaimed the liberation of poetry from symbolist impulses towards the ideal, from polysemy and fluidity of images, complicated metaphors; they talked about the need to return to the material world, the object, the exact meaning of the word. Symbolism is based on rejection of reality, and the Acmeists believed that one should not abandon this world, one should look for some values ​​in it and capture them in their works, and do this with the help of precise and understandable images, and not vague symbols.

The Acmeist movement itself was small in number, did not last long - about two years (1913-1914) - and was associated with the “Workshop of Poets”. The “Workshop of Poets” was created in 1911 and at first united a fairly large number of people (not all of them later became involved in Acmeism). This organization was much more united than the scattered symbolist groups. At the “Workshop” meetings, poems were analyzed, problems of poetic mastery were solved, and methods for analyzing works were substantiated. The idea of ​​a new direction in poetry was first expressed by Kuzmin, although he himself was not included in the “Workshop”. In his article “On Beautiful Clarity,” Kuzmin anticipated many declarations of Acmeism. In January 1913, the first manifestos of Acmeism appeared. From this moment the existence of a new direction begins.

Acmeism proclaimed the task of literature to be “beautiful clarity,” or clarism (from the Latin clarus - clear). The Acmeists called their movement Adamism, associating with the biblical Adam the idea of ​​a clear and direct view of the world. Acmeism preached a clear, “simple” poetic language, where words would directly name objects and declare their love for objectivity. Thus, Gumilyov called for looking not for “shaky words”, but for words “with a more stable content.” This principle was most consistently implemented in Akhmatova’s lyrics.

Futurism- one of the main avant-garde movements (avant-garde is an extreme manifestation of modernism) in European art of the early 20th century, which received its greatest development in Italy and Russia.

In 1909, in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the “Manifesto of Futurism.” The main provisions of this manifesto: the rejection of traditional aesthetic values ​​and the experience of all previous literature, bold experiments in the field of literature and art. Marinetti names “courage, audacity, rebellion” as the main elements of futurist poetry. In 1912, Russian futurists V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, and V. Khlebnikov created their manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste.” They also sought to break with traditional culture, welcomed literary experiments, sought to find new means of speech expression (proclamation of a new free rhythm, loosening of syntax, destruction of punctuation marks). At the same time, Russian futurists rejected fascism and anarchism, which Marinetti declared in his manifestos, and turned mainly to aesthetic problems. They proclaimed a revolution of form, its independence from content (“it is not what is important, but how”) and the absolute freedom of poetic speech.

Futurism was a heterogeneous movement. Within its framework, four main groups or movements can be distinguished:

1) “Gilea”, which united the Cubo-Futurists (V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayakovsky, A. Krucheny

2) “Association of Ego-Futurists” (I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev and others);

3) “Mezzanine of Poetry” (V. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev);

4) “Centrifuge” (S. Bobrov, N. Aseev, B. Pasternak).

The most significant and influential group was “Gilea”: in fact, it was it that determined the face of Russian futurism. Its members published many collections: “The Judges’ Tank” (1910), “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” (1912), “Dead Moon* (1913), “Took” (1915).

The futurists wrote in the name of the crowd man. At the heart of this movement was the feeling of “the inevitability of the collapse of old things” (Mayakovsky), the awareness of the birth of a “new humanity.” Artistic creativity, according to the futurists, should have become not an imitation, but a continuation of nature, which, through the creative will of man, creates “a new world, today’s, iron...” (Malevich). This determines the desire to destroy the “old” form, the desire for contrasts, and the attraction to colloquial speech. Relying on living spoken language, futurists were engaged in “word creation” (creating neologisms). Their works were distinguished by complex semantic and compositional shifts - the contrast of the comic and tragic, fantasy and lyricism.

Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.