Former students December 8 Yesterday evening, two former students from my first graduating class visited me. I will always have the warmest memories of this graduation and especially of the company to which these two students belonged. Smart, developed girls,

My former students May 23 My proud former students, now studying in different courses, began to arrive from the university. With most of them I have good relationship, and meeting them is very pleasant. They are divided among themselves, of course, into different circles - according to

M. Gorky

Former people

The entrance street consists of two rows of one-story shacks, closely pressed together, dilapidated, with crooked walls and skewed windows; the leaky roofs of human dwellings, mutilated by time, are covered with patches of splints and overgrown with moss; Here and there high poles with birdhouses stick out above them, they are overshadowed by the dusty greenery of elderberries and gnarled willows - the pitiful flora of the city outskirts inhabited by the poor.

The glass windows of the houses, dull green with age, look at each other with the eyes of cowardly swindlers. In the middle of the street, a winding track crawls uphill, maneuvering between deep ruts washed out by rain. Here and there lie heaps of rubble and various debris overgrown with weeds - these are the remains or beginnings of those structures that were unsuccessfully undertaken by ordinary people in the fight against the streams of rainwater that was rapidly flowing from the city. Above, on the mountain, beautiful stone houses are hidden in the lush greenery of dense gardens, the bell towers of churches rise proudly into the blue sky, their golden crosses sparkle dazzlingly in the sun.

When it rains, the city releases its dirt onto Vezzhaya Street, and when it’s dry, it showers it with dust - and all these ugly houses also seem to have been thrown from there, from above, swept away like garbage by someone’s mighty hand.

Flattened to the ground, they dotted the entire mountain, half-rotten, weak, painted by the sun, dust and rain in that grayish-dirty color that a tree takes on in old age.

At the end of this street, thrown out of the city downhill, stood the long, two-story escheated house of the merchant Petunnikov. He is the last one in order, he is already under the mountain, further behind him there is a wide field, cut off half a mile by a steep cliff to the river.

Big, old house had the gloomiest face among his neighbors. It was all crooked, in two rows of its windows there was not a single one that retained the correct shape, and the glass fragments in the broken frames had the greenish-muddy color of swamp water.

The walls between the windows were dotted with cracks and dark spots of fallen plaster - as if time had written his biography on the walls of the house in hieroglyphs. The roof, sloping towards the street, further increased its deplorable appearance; it seemed as if the house was bent to the ground and was meekly awaiting the final blow from fate, which would turn it into a shapeless pile of half-rotten rubble.

The gate is open - one half of it, torn from its hinges, lies on the ground, and in the gap, between its boards, grass has sprouted, thickly covering the large, deserted courtyard of the house. In the depths of the courtyard there is a low, smoky building with a single-slope iron roof. The house itself is uninhabited, but in this building, formerly a blacksmith shop, there was now a “night shelter” maintained by retired captain Aristide Fomich Kuvalda.

Inside the shelter is a long, gloomy hole, four and six fathoms in size; it was lit - only on one side - by four small windows and a wide door. Its brick, unplastered walls are black with soot, the ceiling, from a baroque bottom, is also smoked black; in the middle of it there was a huge stove, the base of which was a forge, and around the stove and along the walls there were wide bunks with piles of all sorts of junk that served as beds for the night shelters. The walls smelled of smoke, the earthen floor smelled of damp, and the bunks smelled of rotting rags.

The room of the owner of the shelter was located on the stove, the bunks around the stove were a place of honor, and those shelters who enjoyed the favor and friendship of the owner were placed on them.

The captain always spent the day at the door to the lodging house, sitting in some semblance of an armchair, which he himself built from bricks, or in Yegor Vavilov’s tavern, located diagonally from Petunnikov’s house; there the captain dined and drank vodka.

Before renting this premises, Aristide Hammer had an office in the city for the recommendation of servants; going higher into his past, one could find out that he had a printing house, and before the printing house he, in his words, “simply lived! And he lived gloriously, damn it! He lived skillfully, I can say!”

He was a broad-shouldered, tall man of about fifty, with a pockmarked face, swollen from drunkenness, and a wide, dirty yellow beard. His eyes are gray, huge, and boldly cheerful; He spoke in a deep voice, with a rumble in his throat, and almost always a German porcelain pipe with a curved stem stuck out in his teeth. When he was angry, the nostrils of his large, humpbacked, red nose flared wide and his lips quivered, revealing two rows of large, wolf-like yellow teeth. Long-armed, lanky-legged, dressed in a dirty and torn officer's overcoat, in a greasy cap with a red band but without a visor, in thin felt boots that reached his knees - in the morning he was invariably in in serious condition hangover, and in the evening - tipsy. He could not get drunk, no matter how much he drank, and he never lost his cheerful mood.

In the evenings, sitting in his brick chair with a pipe in his mouth, he received guests.

What kind of person? - he asked a ragged and depressed person approaching him, thrown out of the city for drunkenness or for some other good reason who had fallen down.

The man answered.

Provide legal paper to support your lies.

The paper was presented if there was one. The captain put it in his bosom, rarely interested in its contents, and said:

Everything is fine. For a night - two kopecks, for a week - a kopeck, for a month - three kopecks. Go and find a place for yourself, but make sure it’s not someone else’s, otherwise they’ll blow you up. People living with me are strict...

Newcomers asked him:

Don’t you sell tea, bread or anything edible?

I only sell walls and roofs, for which I myself pay the swindler owner of this hole, the merchant of the 2nd guild Judas Petunnikov, five rubles a month,” Kuvald explained in a businesslike tone, “people come to me, unaccustomed to luxury... and if you I’m used to eating every day - there’s a tavern across the street. But it’s better if you, you bastard, unlearn this bad habit. After all, you are not a gentleman - so what do you eat? Eat yourself!

"Former People" is a work created in 1897. It is based on the author’s personal impressions, which he received when he had to live in a rooming house on the outskirts of Kazan. In terms of genre, this work can be defined as an essay, since it is characterized by authenticity of the image, lack of dynamics, attention to everyday life, as well as detailed portrait characteristics. In "Former People" Gorky evaluates the tramp type in a new way. There is no romantic aura, familiar to us from his early works.

"Former people": summary

A significant place in the first part is given to description. First, a suburban street appears before us. She's dirty and sad. The houses located here are nondescript: with skewed windows and crooked walls, leaky roofs. We see piles of garbage and rubble. The following describes the house of the merchant Petunnikov. This is a rickety building with broken windows. Its walls are all riddled with cracks. In this house, which bears little resemblance to housing, there is a rooming house. It resembles a dark, long hole.

Portraits of homeless people

Aristide Kuvalda is the owner of the flophouse, who previously served as a captain. He heads the company of so-called “former people” and represents its “general headquarters”. Gorky describes him as a tall, broad-shouldered man of about 50 years old, with a pockmarked face, swollen from drunkenness. He is dressed in a torn and dirty officer's overcoat, and on his head is a greasy cap.

Below are portraits of other night shelters. One of them is the Teacher. He is a stooped, tall man with a bald skull and a long, pointed nose. Another roommate is Alexey Maksimovich Simtsov, also known as Kubar. This man is a former forester. Gorky notes that he is “thick as a barrel.” He has a small crimson nose, a thick white beard and cynical, watery eyes.

The next inhabitant of the shelter is Luka Antonovich Martyanov, nicknamed The End. He used to work as a prison guard, and now he is one of the "former people." This is a silent and gloomy drunkard.

Pavel Solntsev (Obyedok), a mechanic, also lives here. He is a consumptive, lopsided man of about thirty years of age. Next, the author describes Kiselnikov. This night shelter is a former convict. He is bony and tall, “crooked in one eye.” He was nicknamed One and a Half Taras, since his friend Taras, a former deacon, was one and a half times shorter than him. Next we meet a long-haired “ridiculous” young man “with a stupid, high-cheekbone face.” His nickname is Meteor. Then the author introduces us to the ordinary inhabitants of the shelter, the men. One of them is Tyapa, an old rag picker.

Characteristics of overnight shelters

Maxim Gorky draws our attention to how indifferent these people are to their fate, as well as to the life and fate of others. They are apathetic and show powerlessness in the face of external circumstances. At the same time, bitterness grows in their souls, which is directed against prosperous people. By the way, the world of “former people” in M. Gorky’s play “At the Lower Depths” is very reminiscent of the one created in the essay that interests us.

Conflict with Petunnikov

In the second part of the work, the discontent of all these characters results in open conflict with Petunnikov, a local merchant. The nature of this conflict is social. The captain noticed that some part of the merchant’s plant was located on Vavilov’s land. He persuades the innkeeper to file a lawsuit against Petunnikov. It should be noted that Aristide Hammer in this case is not driven by the desire to profit. He just wants to annoy Petunnikov, whom he privately calls the hated Judas.

Result of the confrontation

However, the lawsuit, which promised 600 rubles, ends in settlement. The businesslike, educated and cruel son of Petunnikov convinces Vavilov of the need to withdraw the lawsuit from the court. Otherwise, he threatens to close the pub run by the innkeeper. The inhabitants of the shelter understand that now they will need to leave their beloved place, because the merchant, of course, will not forgive them for this offense.

Soon Petunnikov actually demands to leave the “hut” immediately. But the troubles don't end there. Uchiel dies, for whose death Aristide Sledgehammer is blamed. This is how the community of night shelters finally disintegrates. Petunnikov is triumphant.

Psychology of heroes

Maxim Gorky pays great attention not only to the study of the life of the so-called former people. He is also interested in their psychology and inner world. The author believes that life in a shelter gives rise to weak people who are not capable of rebirth and self-realization. They deny everything, including own life. This position (its ideologist is Sledgehammer) is destructive and unpromising. It lacks a creative, positive beginning. And discontent, which is caused by powerlessness, can only give rise to despair and anger.

We can say that he is presented above) in his essay “Former People” pronounces a verdict on the inhabitants of the “bottom”. These are degraded, powerless and inactive characters. Analysis of the essay “Former People” shows that they are not capable of good feelings and actions. In this regard, the episode of the Teacher’s death is indicative. Sledgehammer, who considered this man his friend, could not even find human words for him. Social problems, reflected in the stories of the tramp cycle, will continue to develop in the future in the plays of Maxim Gorky.

The difference between the work and physiological essays

The main subject of the image was social roles heroes, not specific characters. The authors were interested, for example, in the St. Petersburg organ grinder, the St. Petersburg janitor, cab drivers, officials, and merchants. In the artistic essay created by M. Gorky (“Former People”), the main attention is paid to the study of the characters who are united social status. The heroes found themselves in a shelter, at the very bottom of their lives. The shelter is run by Aristide Kuvalda, who himself is a “former” person, because he is a retired captain.

Lack of an autobiographical hero

Some other features of the work can be noted. For example, in Former People there is no autobiographical hero, an image so familiar to Gorky. The narrator in this work seems to want to distance himself from everything and not give away his presence. We can say that his role in the work “Former People” by Maxim Gorky is somewhat different than in the cycle “Across Rus'” or in romantic stories author. The autobiographical hero is not a listener of the characters, their interlocutor. Only the details of the portrait of the young man whom Hammer nicknamed Meteor, and the characteristics of how he treats others, allow us to discern in him an autobiographical hero. True, he is somewhat distanced from the narrator in this work.

The transition from romanticism to realism

The main thing that distinguishes “Former People” from those related to early creativity, is a transition from a romantic interpretation of character to a realistic one. The author still portrays people from the people. However, his appeal to realism allows him to show much more clearly the contrast between dark and light, weak and strengths folk character, its inconsistency. This is precisely the subject of research in the work “Former People”.

It seems that the author, having taken a position of realism, cannot find a way to resolve the conflict between a person’s destiny (his height) and his tragic lack of fulfillment in the lives of “former” people, the low social position that they occupy. The insurmountability of this conflict forces Gorky to return to the worldview characteristic of romanticism in the final landscape. Only in the elements can one find a solution to the insoluble. The author writes that there was something inexorable and tense in the strict gray clouds that completely covered the sky. As if they were about to burst into a downpour and wash away all the dirt from the sad, tormented earth. However, overall the landscape is realistic. It is necessary to say a few words about him.

Scenery

In the early stories of the author, it was intended to emphasize the exclusivity of the characters, and the spirituality and beauty southern night, the horror of a dark forest or the endless free steppe could be the background against which the romantic hero, at the cost of his life, asserting his ideal. Now Gorky Maxim ("Former People") turns to a realistic landscape. He is interested in its anti-aesthetic features. The ugly outskirts of the city appear before us. The cloudiness of colors, dimness, and pallor are needed to create a feeling of abandonment of the environment in which the shelters live.

Conflict

The author tries to understand how great the social and personal potential of the so-called “former people” is. It is important for him to find out whether, finding themselves in difficult everyday and social conditions, they can preserve spiritual, intangible values ​​that can be opposed to a world that is so unfair to them. The uniqueness of the conflict is determined by this aspect of the problem. The conflict in the work is of a social nature. After all, the night shelters, led by Kuvalda, are opposed to the merchant Petunnikov, as well as his son - a cold, strong, intelligent and educated representative of the Russian bourgeoisie.

The author is interested in to a greater extent Not social aspect of this confrontation, but the unwillingness of the heroes to comprehend their own position, possible prospects, and their needs. It’s not someone else’s land that interests them, or even money. This is only a manifestation of the hatred of a poor drunkard towards a hard-working and rich man.

Gorky reveals the complete absence in “former people” creativity, internal growth, activity, self-improvement. But these qualities are very important for the author. They are presented in the novel "Mother", as well as in its hero autobiographical trilogy. The inhabitants of the shelter cannot resist anything surrounding reality except for anger. This brings them to the very bottom. Their anger turns against themselves. The “former people” achieved nothing by their opposition to the merchant.

M. Gorky

Former people

The entrance street consists of two rows of one-story shacks, closely pressed together, dilapidated, with crooked walls and skewed windows; the leaky roofs of human dwellings, mutilated by time, are covered with patches of splints and overgrown with moss; Here and there high poles with birdhouses stick out above them, they are overshadowed by the dusty greenery of elderberries and gnarled willows - the pitiful flora of the city outskirts inhabited by the poor.

The glass windows of the houses, dull green with age, look at each other with the eyes of cowardly swindlers. In the middle of the street, a winding track crawls uphill, maneuvering between deep ruts washed out by rain. Here and there lie heaps of rubble and various debris overgrown with weeds - these are the remains or beginnings of those structures that were unsuccessfully undertaken by ordinary people in the fight against the streams of rainwater that was rapidly flowing from the city. Above, on the mountain, beautiful stone houses are hidden in the lush greenery of dense gardens, the bell towers of churches proudly rise into the blue sky, their golden crosses sparkle dazzlingly in the sun.

When it rains, the city releases its dirt onto Vezzhaya Street, and when it’s dry, it showers it with dust - and all these ugly houses also seem to have been thrown from there, from above, swept away like garbage by someone’s mighty hand.

Flattened to the ground, they dotted the entire mountain, half-rotten, weak, painted by the sun, dust and rain in that grayish-dirty color that a tree takes on in old age.

At the end of this street, thrown out of the city downhill, stood the long, two-story escheated house of the merchant Petunnikov. He is the last one in order, he is already under the mountain, further behind him there is a wide field, cut off half a mile by a steep cliff to the river.

The large, old house had the gloomiest face among its neighbors. It was all crooked, in two rows of its windows there was not a single one that retained the correct shape, and the glass fragments in the broken frames had the greenish-muddy color of swamp water.

The walls between the windows were dotted with cracks and dark spots of fallen plaster - as if time had written his biography on the walls of the house in hieroglyphs. The roof, sloping towards the street, further increased its deplorable appearance; it seemed as if the house was bent to the ground and was meekly awaiting the final blow from fate, which would turn it into a shapeless pile of half-rotten rubble.

The gate is open - one half of it, torn from its hinges, lies on the ground, and in the gap, between its boards, grass has sprouted, thickly covering the large, deserted courtyard of the house. In the depths of the courtyard there is a low, smoky building with a single-slope iron roof. The house itself is uninhabited, but in this building, formerly a blacksmith shop, there was now a “night shelter” maintained by retired captain Aristide Fomich Kuvalda.

Inside the shelter is a long, gloomy hole, four and six fathoms in size; it was lit - only on one side - by four small windows and a wide door. Its brick, unplastered walls are black with soot, the ceiling, from a baroque bottom, is also smoked black; in the middle of it there was a huge stove, the base of which was a forge, and around the stove and along the walls there were wide bunks with piles of all sorts of junk that served as beds for the night shelters. The walls smelled of smoke, the earthen floor smelled of damp, and the bunks smelled of rotting rags.

The room of the owner of the shelter was located on the stove, the bunks around the stove were a place of honor, and those shelters who enjoyed the favor and friendship of the owner were placed on them.

The captain always spent the day at the door to the lodging house, sitting in some semblance of an armchair, which he himself built from bricks, or in Yegor Vavilov’s tavern, located diagonally from Petunnikov’s house; there the captain dined and drank vodka.

Before renting this premises, Aristide Hammer had an office in the city for the recommendation of servants; going higher into his past, one could find out that he had a printing house, and before the printing house he, in his words, “simply lived! And he lived gloriously, damn it! He lived skillfully, I can say!”

He was a broad-shouldered, tall man of about fifty, with a pockmarked face, swollen from drunkenness, and a wide, dirty yellow beard. His eyes are gray, huge, and boldly cheerful; He spoke in a deep voice, with a rumble in his throat, and almost always a German porcelain pipe with a curved stem stuck out in his teeth. When he was angry, the nostrils of his large, humpbacked, red nose flared wide and his lips quivered, revealing two rows of large, wolf-like yellow teeth. Long-armed, lanky-legged, dressed in a dirty and torn officer's overcoat, in a greasy cap with a red band but without a visor, in thin felt boots that reached his knees - in the morning he was invariably in a severe state of hangover, and in the evening he was tipsy. He could not get drunk, no matter how much he drank, and he never lost his cheerful mood.

In the evenings, sitting in his brick chair with a pipe in his mouth, he received guests.

What kind of person? - he asked a ragged and depressed person approaching him, thrown out of the city for drunkenness or for some other good reason who had fallen down.

The man answered.

Provide legal paper to support your lies.

The paper was presented if there was one. The captain put it in his bosom, rarely interested in its contents, and said:

Everything is fine. For a night - two kopecks, for a week - a kopeck, for a month - three kopecks. Go and find a place for yourself, but make sure it’s not someone else’s, otherwise they’ll blow you up. People living with me are strict...

Newcomers asked him:

Don’t you sell tea, bread or anything edible?

I only sell walls and roofs, for which I myself pay the swindler owner of this hole, the merchant of the 2nd guild Judas Petunnikov, five rubles a month,” Kuvald explained in a businesslike tone, “people come to me, unaccustomed to luxury... and if you I’m used to eating every day - there’s a tavern across the street. But it’s better if you, you bastard, unlearn this bad habit. After all, you are not a gentleman - so what do you eat? Eat yourself!

For such speeches, pronounced in an artificially stern tone, but always with laughing eyes, for attentive attitude To his guests, the captain enjoyed wide popularity among the city residents. It often happened that the captain's former client came to his yard, no longer torn and depressed, but in more or less decent shape and with a cheerful face.

Hello, your honor! How are you doing?

Didn't you recognize it?

I didn't recognize it.

Do you remember that I lived with you for about a month in the winter... when there was a raid and three people were taken away?

Well, brother, the police are under my hospitable roof every now and then!

Oh, my God! Back then you showed the private bailiff a fig!

Wait, you spit on memories and just say what you need?

Would you like to accept a small treat from me? How I lived with you at that time, and you told me...

Gratitude should be encouraged, my friend, because it is rare among people. You must be a nice fellow, and although I don’t remember you at all, I will go to the tavern with you with pleasure and drink to your successes in life with pleasure.

Are you still the same - are you still joking?

What else can you do while living among you Goryunov?

They were walking. Sometimes the captain's former client, all unhinged and shaken by the treat, returned to the lodging house; the next day they treated themselves again, and one fine morning the former client woke up with the consciousness that he had drunk himself to the ground again.

Your honor! That's it! Am I on your team again? What now?

A position that cannot be boasted about, but, being in it, one should not whine,” the captain resonated. “It is necessary, my friend, to be indifferent to everything, without spoiling one’s life with philosophy and without raising any questions.” Philosophizing is always stupid, philosophizing with a hangover is inexpressibly stupid. A hangover requires vodka, not remorse and gnashing of teeth... take care of your teeth, otherwise there will be nothing to hit you with. Here's two kopecks for you - go and bring a box of vodka, a patch of hot tripe or lung, a pound of bread and two cucumbers. When we are hungover, then we will weigh the situation...

“Former People” (1897), This work was based on the writer’s personal impressions when he was forced to live in a rooming house on one of the outskirts of Kazan. In terms of genre, this work can be called an essay, since it is distinguished by the authenticity of the image, special attention to the details of everyday life, lack of a dynamic plot, detailed portrait characteristics. In this work, Gorky already evaluates the type of tramp differently (there is no romantic aura).

In the first part significant place devoted to the description: first of a dirty, dull, outlying street (with crooked walls and skewed windows of houses, “leaky roofs,” “cloudy-green window glass from old age,” heaps of rubble and various garbage), then “the escheated house of the merchant Petunnikov” (crooked , with broken glass, with walls riddled with cracks), where the “night shelter” is located. The shelter itself resembles a “long, gloomy hole” that bears little resemblance to human habitation. “The walls smelled of smoke, the earthen floor smelled of damp, and the bunks smelled of rotting rags.” From a description of the interior, Gorky moves on to detailed portrait characteristics of the shelters. Heads the company.former people", "general staff" Aristide Kuvalda (former captain, owner of the flophouse), "broad-shouldered tall man about fifty years old, with a pockmarked face, swollen from drunkenness,” dressed in “a dirty and torn officer’s overcoat, in a greasy cap with a red band.” This is followed by portrait characteristics of other shelters. This is the Teacher, “tall, stooped, with a long sharp nose and a bald skull”; and Alexey Maksimovich Simtsov, nicknamed Kubar (former forester), “thick as a barrel”, with a white thick beard, with a small crimson nose and watery, cynical eyes,” and Luka Antonovich Martyanov, nicknamed Konets (former prison guard), “a gloomy, silent, black drunkard, and mechanic Pavel Solntsev (aka Obedok), a lopsided consumptive man of about thirty, and “ tall and bony, crooked in one eye” Kiselnikov, a former convict, nicknamed One and a Half Taras, since his inseparable friend, the former deacon Taras, was half a height shorter than him. There was also a “ridiculous”, long-haired, “with a stupid, high-cheekboned face” young man, nicknamed Meteor, and ordinary homeless men, for example, the old rag picker Tyapa. Gorky draws the reader's attention to the indifference of these people to life, to their own and others' fate, to apathy, powerlessness in the face of circumstances and at the same time to the growing bitterness in their souls: directed against prosperous people.

The dissatisfaction of former people with their lives results in the second part of the essay into an open conflict with the merchant Petunnikov. This conflict has a pronounced social character. The captain, who noticed that part of Petunnikov’s factory stands on Vavilov’s land, persuades the innkeeper to file a lawsuit against the merchant. Aristide Kuvalda is driven not at all by the desire to profit, but simply to annoy the hated Judas (as Petunnikova Kuvalda calls himself). But the lawsuit, which promised six hundred rubles, ends in a settlement. Petunnikov’s son, an educated, businesslike and cruel man, convinces Vavilov to withdraw the lawsuit from the court, threatening to completely close the innkeeper’s drinking establishment. The shelters understand that they will have to leave their homes, since Petunnikov will not forgive them for their offense. And, indeed, Petunnikov demands to immediately “free the shack.” To top it all off, the Teacher dies, and Aristide Sledgehammer is blamed for his death. The community of homeless shelters finally disintegrates, and Petuniikov feels like a winner. Gorky pays great attention research not only into the life of “former people”, but also into their inner world, psychology. He notes that the shelter gives rise to weak people, incapable of self-realization, of rebirth; people who deny everything, even their own lives. This position (and its ideologist is Aristide Kuvalda) is unpromising and destructive, there is absolutely no positive, creative principle in it. And discontent caused by powerlessness only gives rise to anger and despair. In fact, in the essay “Former People ~ Gorky pronounces a verdict on people of the bottom, inactive, powerless, degraded, incapable of actions, of good human feelings (indicative in this regard is the episode with the death of the Teacher, when Sledgehammer, who considered him his friend, had no even human words). The stories of the tramp cycle reflect those social topics and problems that will later find their solution in Gorky's plays.