Continuing the series of articles on music theory, we would like to tell you about how genres in music were formed and developed. After this article, you will never confuse a musical genre with a musical style again.

So, first, let's look at how the concepts of “genre” and “style” differ. Genre- This is a type of work that has developed historically. It implies the form, content and purpose of music. Music genres began their formation at an early stage of the development of music, in the structure of primitive communities. Then music accompanied every step of human activity: everyday life, work, speech, and so on. Thus, the main genre principles were formed, which we will examine further.

Style also implies the sum of materials (harmony, melody, rhythm, polyphony), the way in which they were used in piece of music. Typically, a style is based on a particular era or is classified by composer. In other words, style is a set of means musical expressiveness, which defines the image and idea of ​​music. It may depend on the individuality of the composer, his worldview and tastes, and approach to music. Style also determines trends in music, such as jazz, pop, rock, folk styles, and so on.

Now let's get back to music genres. There are five main genre beginnings, which, as we said, originated in primitive communities:

• Motor skills
• Declamation
• Chanting
• Signaling
• Sound-imagery

They became the basis of all subsequent genres that appeared with the development of music.

Quite soon after the formation of the basic genre principles, genre and style began to be intertwined into a single system. Such genre-style systems were formed depending on the occasion for which the music was created. This is how genre-style systems appeared, which were used in certain ancient cults, for ancient rituals and in everyday life. The genre had a more applied nature, which shaped a certain image, style and compositional features of ancient music.

On the walls Egyptian pyramids and in the surviving ancient papyri, lines of ritual and religious hymns were found, which most often told about the ancient Egyptian gods.

It is believed that its highest point development ancient music received it exactly at Ancient Greece. It was in ancient Greek music that certain patterns were discovered on which its structure was based.

As society developed, so did music. IN medieval culture new vocal and vocal skills have already formed instrumental genres. During this era, genres such as:

• Organum is the earliest form of polyphonic music in Europe. This genre was used in churches, and flourished at the Notre Dame school in Paris.
• Opera is a musical and dramatic work.
• Chorale is liturgical Catholic or Protestant singing.
• Motet – vocal genre, which was used both in church and at social events. His style depended on the text.
• Conduct is a medieval song, the text of which was most often spiritual and moralizing. They still cannot accurately decipher the medieval notes of the conductors, since they did not have a specific rhythm.
• Mass is a liturgical service in Catholic churches. Requiem also belongs to this genre.
• Madrigal is a short work on lyrical and love themes. This genre originated in Italy
• Chanson - this genre appeared in France, and initially choral peasant songs belonged to it.
• Pavana - a smooth dance that opened holidays in Italy
• Galliarda is a cheerful and rhythmic dance also originating from Italy.
• Allemande is a procession dance that originated in Germany.

IN XVII-XVIII centuries in North America Rural music—country—developed quite actively. The genre is heavily influenced by Irish and Scottish folk music. The lyrics of such songs often talked about love, rural life and cowboy life.

IN late XIX century and at the beginning of the twentieth century in Latin America and Africa, folklore developed quite actively. In the African American community, the blues originated, which was originally a “work song” that accompanied work in the fields. The blues is also based on ballads and religious chants. Blues formed the basis of a new genre - jazz, which is the result of a mixture of African and European cultures. Jazz has become quite widespread and universally recognized.

Based on jazz and blues, rhythm and blues (R'n'B), a song and dance genre, appeared in the late 40s. He was quite popular in youth environment. Subsequently, funk and soul appeared within this genre.

It is curious that along with these African-American genres, the genre of pop music appeared in the 20s of the twentieth century. The roots of this genre are in folk music, street romances and ballads. Pop music has always mixed with other genres to form quite interesting musical styles. In the 70s, within the framework of pop music, the “disco” style appeared, which became the most popular dance music at that time, pushing rock and roll into the background.

In the 50s, rock burst into the ranks of already existing genres, the origins of which were in blues, folk and country. It quickly gained wild popularity and grew into many various styles, mixing with other genres.

Ten years later, the reggae genre was formed in Jamaica, which became widespread in the 70s. The basis of reggae is the mento genre folk music Jamaica.

In the 1970s, rap appeared, which was “exported” by Jamaican DJs to the Bronx. DJ Kool Herc is considered the founder of rap. Initially, rap was read for fun, to throw out one’s emotions. The basis of this genre is the beat, which sets the rhythm of the recitative.

In the second half of the 20th century Electonic music established itself as a genre. It is strange that it did not gain recognition at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the first electronic instruments appeared. This genre involves creating music using electronic musical instruments, technologies and computer programs.

Genres that emerged in the 20th century have many styles. For example:

Jazz:

• New Orleans jazz
• Dixieland
• Swing
• Western swing
• Bop
• Hard bop
• Boogie Woogie
• Cool or cool jazz
• Modal or modal jazz
• Avant-garde jazz
• Soul jazz
• Free jazz
• Bossa Nova or Latin American Jazz
• Symphonic jazz
• Progressive
• Fusion or jazz rock
• Electric Jazz
• Acid jazz
• Crossover
• Smooth jazz

• Cabaret
• Minstrel show
• Music hall
• Musical
• Ragtime
• Lounge
• Classic crossover
• Psychedelic pop
• Italo disco
• Eurodisco
• High energy
• Nu-disco
• Space disco
• Ye-ye
• K-pop
• Europop
• Arabic pop music
• Russian pop music
• Rigsar
• Laika
• Latin pop music
• J-pop

• Rock'n'roll
• Big Bit
• Rockabilly
• psychobilly
• Neorocabilly
• Skiffle
• Doo-wop
• Twist
• Alternative rock (Indie rock/College rock)
• Math rock
• Madchester
• Grunge
• Shoegazing
• Britpop
• Noise rock
• Noise pop
• Post-grunge
• lo-fi
• Indie pop
• Twi-pop
• Art rock (Progressive rock)
• Jazz rock
• Krautrock
• Garage rock
• Freakbeat
• Glam rock
• Country rock
• Merseybeat
• Metal (Hard Rock)
• Avant-garde metal
• Alternative metal
• Black metal
• Melodic black metal
• Symphonic black metal
• True black metal
• Viking metal
• Gothic metal
• Doom metal
• Death metal
• Melodic death metal
• Metalcore
• New metal
• Power metal
• Progressive metal
• Speed ​​metal
• Stoner rock
• Thrash metal
• Folk metal
• Heavy metal
• New wave
• Russian rock
• Pub rock
• Punk rock
• Ska-punk
• Pop punk
• Crust punk
• Hardcore
• Crossover
• Riot folk
• Pop rock
• Postpunk
• Gothic rock
• No Wave
• Post-line
• Psychedelic rock
• Soft rock
• Folk rock
• Techno rock

As you can see, there are many styles. It would take a lot of time to list the full list, so we won’t do that. The main thing is that you now know how modern popular genres and you will definitely no longer confuse genre and style.

fr. genre - genus, species) - historically established, stable variety work of art, eg. – in painting – portrait, landscape, still life, etc.; in music – symphony, cantata, song, etc.; in literature - novel, poem, etc. The concept of genre generalizes the features characteristic of a vast group of works of any era, nation or world art in general.

Great definition

Incomplete definition ↓

GENRE

French genre - genus, type), type of work, which has its own characteristic features and divided into subtypes. A literary genre develops historically, summarizing the features that distinguish a group of works in a particular era. A literary genus is formed from the combination of several genres. A genre is divided into types (sometimes these terms are used in the opposite way: a type is a larger set, for example a poem, a genre is a specific type, for example. lyric poem). Overall theory literary families does not exhaust the entire wealth of genres. Other principles for classifying genres can be outlined. The genus unites genres mainly on a formal basis (prose, poetry or form of presentation of text for the stage) and on the basis of the general content text (personal feelings and experiences in the lyrics, events in the epic, dramatic plot in drama). Genres can also be divided according to the principle author's attitude to the subject of the image, the general intonation of the work - comic (comedy, comic poem, humorous story), satirical (pamphlet, epigram, feuilleton), tragic, elegiac, etc. Since antiquity, the division of genres into high, medium and low has been known. The high genres include those that tell in a sublime language about the deeds of gods and heroes (tragedy, ode), the low genres are those that ridicule the low actions of people in rude and common language (comedy, satire), the middle genres occupy an intermediate position - they tell about a person’s life without investing in it. neither heroic nor comic content and using the basic fund of words of the language (drama, story). This theory was developed by classicists (M.V. Lomonosov in Russia, who combined the doctrine of genres with the doctrine of three styles - high, medium and low). High genres use words of high and middle style, middle - middle and low, and in low genres words of high and low styles are combined, while “high” words are used in a reduced meaning. Sometimes this classification also includes mixed genres - tragicomic and parody works that combine elements of high and low genres.

Genres are distinguished based on a set of characteristics. In addition to the general content and belonging to a specific literary family, the volume of the work, its composition and the richness of ideological content are important. So, for example, a novel and a story differ from each other in volume (the volume of a novel is, as a rule, larger) and the number of problems, themes, and ideas covered (there are more of them in a novel). The same difference exists between a novel and an epic, which is an even larger work designed to convey the life and flavor of an entire era. In some cases, it is difficult to draw a line between genres (for example, many researchers consider the novels of I. S. Turgenev to be stories). It is easier to distinguish genres on a formal basis. Such criteria are common in poetry. For example, a sonnet is distinguished solely on the basis of external features - a poem of 14 lines, consisting of two quatrains and two tercets. The criteria for distinguishing rondo, triolet, ghazal, etc. are also formal. It is difficult to introduce such a criterion in prose, due to its freer nature, and therefore prose genres often differ not in form, but in content. For example, the difference between a short story and a short story is an unexpected ending, which is mandatory for a short story, at least in the modern interpretation of this term.

On the other hand, it is important for the genre ideological content. On this basis inside general genre or type of novel or story, one can distinguish utopian (about non-existent ideal countries and cities, written for didactic purposes), adventure (about the adventures of a hero), detective (about the search for a criminal), psychological (dedicated to revealing the psychology of heroes) and other novels (or corresponding story).

The genre develops and changes historically. IN different eras arose different theories, devoted to the criteria for separating one genre from another and the norms for creating text of various genres. The most famous theories belong to the era of antiquity and classicism.

Not only the content of each genre changes, but also the composition of genres as a whole. Thus, the solemn ode, which originated in the poetry of Pindar, went to the periphery of literature for some time, then was revived in the 18th century, during the era of classicism, and after that gradually faded away. Genres can arise in a certain era, in the work of a certain writer - for example, with the novel by P. Abelard “The History of My Disasters” a genre arose literary confession. A one-act drama appeared in the work of playwright M. Maeterlinck. Other genres, such as fable and comedy, which arose in antiquity, continue to exist throughout all periods of literary history, right up to modern times, and are constantly filled with new content.

Different eras in the history of literature differ from each other not only in the composition of genres, but also in their number. For literature of the 20th century. characterized by a large number of genres and their interpenetration. At the intersection of several genres there is new type literary work. In previous periods, literature tended to emphasize several genres (eg, tragedy, ode, epic poem in classicism; lyric poem, ballad, elegy in romanticism). In this regard, in modern literature There were statements about the disappearance of genres - their boundaries expanded to such an extent. Anti-genres appeared - anti-novel, anti-drama.

Genre originality is considered not only in relation to an era or movement in literature, but also in relation to an individual writer. Specific forms always appear in the work of each writer, and their genre affiliation is usually a subject of debate for researchers. Thus, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky combines the features of a psychological, social, detective and adventure novel.

Great definition

Incomplete definition ↓

Russian literature is enriched by a unique work, known in two versions - “The Word” and “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik. “The Lay” (second half of the 12th century) contains the author’s plea, addressed, apparently, to the Novgorod prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich (great-grandson of Vladimir Monomakh) so that the prince would rescue the author from the beggarly state in which he, an educated man, for some reason found himself .

The “Prayer,” compiled on the basis of the “Word” in the second quarter of the 13th century, makes a similar request to Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (father of Alexander Nevsky), who reigned in Pereyaslav of Suzdal, and then received “eldership” over the Russian princes from Batu Khan.

With the help of skillfully selected authoritative quotations and aphorisms, both versions of the monument strive to create perfect image such a prince who would become reliable protection for subjects. The prince revives “all people with his mercy,” he is the protector of orphans and widows, he is an energetic master and commander, he is sharply different from his “tivun” assistants, who ruin the people.

The author of “Prayer” condemns the boyars; he agrees to wear “lychnitsy” (bast shoes) in the princely house rather than walk “in a black boot in the boyar’s courtyard.” Here, the image of the prince largely preserves the ideas about the ideal ruler that Vladimir Monomakh created in his “Instruction” to children.

Unlike literary traditions Kievan Rus, where vassal relations were usually considered in the sphere of military activity and were interpreted as a princely-squad quest for “honor and glory,” Daniil Zatochnik did not even hesitate to tell the prince about himself that he was not brave “in the army.” But he was strong in “words” and “strong in thought,” and therefore opened up to him new way princely service.

Skillfully using the sayings of biblical books, “The Physiologist”, “The Tale of Akira the Wise”, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, “Izbornik” of Svyatoslav (1076), “Bees” and other monuments, the author proved to the prince his education. His witty speech was sprinkled with sayings (“To whom is Pereslavl, and to me is Goreslavl”; “To whom is Bogolyubovo, and to me is fierce grief”).

Offering himself to the prince as a wise adviser, the humble and poor author laid claim to the high place occupied by the senior squad, like, for example, the boyars - interpreters of the “muddy” dream of Prince Svyatoslav of Kyiv in “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign.” Thus, for the first time in Russian literature, the idea of ​​“mind” appears as a decisive sign of personal dignity and professional activity.

The author of the “Prayer” considered himself a “nobleman” (employee at the prince’s “court”), he wanted the prince to protect him from the boyars with the fear of “his thunderstorm.” The sharpener looked at the prince as the main defender of the fatherland and prayed to God to strengthen his strength in order to repel the conquerors, and this revealed the features of the new patriotic concept of North-Eastern Rus'.

The literary genre of prayers spread mainly in those eras of the Developed Middle Ages, when the principles of monarchical statehood, based not on old feudal-tribal traditions, but on the personal service of subjects, began to strengthen in the public consciousness again.

The new position of the writer, a minor vassal, in relation to his first reader - the autocratic overlord - was not to epically glorify his exploits, as happened before, or, on the contrary, to publicly condemn his mistakes from the standpoint of the common good of the Russian land, but in order to contrast the prince with his largest vassals (boyars) and offer him his devoted service, while catering to his political views and personal tastes.

Appearance in ancient Russian literature The genre of such political words and prayers indicates that it has entered a new period of its development, determined by serious changes in the field of social thought. This genre was well known in the European Middle Ages.

It included a petitionary elegy by the monk Ermold, which he sent from prison to the French prince, the son of King Louis the Pious (IX century), and “Proverbs” (XIII century), the work of a certain Italian “sharpener”. More significant were the Byzantine prayers - literary petitions for pardon and release from prison.

Byzantine poets paid much attention to the ironic depiction of troubles family life and the grumpiness of women. The Russian Sharpener cited the same issue traditional word about "evil wives".

Against the background of such typological correspondences in the genre structure, theme and style of prayers of the Middle Ages, the originality of the ancient Russian writer - the first pamphleteer - clearly stands out.

Daniil Zatochnik was far from historical experience and the education of the Byzantine writers of his time, therefore, unlike them, with the naivety of a neophyte, he was filled with the deepest respect for the authorities of ancient wisdom, admiration for the “mind” in general and for his own in particular.

It seemed to him that, having mastered ancient Christian books, he had already put on “the robe of the wise.” Although he was “poor in clothing, he was abundant in mind.” There were significant shifts in the worldview of the ancient Russian writer.

If in the old literary tradition In Byzantium and Bulgaria, it was only fitting for a true Christian ascetic to “fly the mountain with his mind,” if Metropolitan Nikephoros in his Greek letter to Vladimir Monomakh could say to such a high addressee “your mind flies quickly,” and in “The Tale of Igor’s Host” it was fitting to sing about Boyan the Prophet, “flying with his mind under the clouds,” then Daniil Sharpener, without any hesitation, assigned himself the same exalted characteristics; he himself was already able to “soar with his thoughts” like an eagle through the air. He even rhetorically invited his readers to “blow a trumpet,” like a golden trumpet, “into the mind of your mind.”

This rational self-confidence of the writer, clothed in archaic literary forms, was based on such new features of feudal self-awareness that were associated with the emerging prospects for the political role of the humble “service” person at the historical stage of the reviving ancient Russian statehood. Zatochnik’s “Prayer” was a literary harbinger of the noble journalism of the Moscow state.

History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.

novel literary narrative genre

The term “novel,” which arose in the 12th century, has undergone a number of semantic changes over the nine centuries of its existence and covers an extremely diverse range of literary phenomena. Moreover, the forms called novels today appeared much earlier than the concept itself. The first forms of the novel genre go back to antiquity, but neither the Greeks nor the Romans left a special name for this genre. Using later terminology, it is usually called a novel. Bishop Yue at the end of the 17th century, in search of the predecessors of the novel, first applied this term to a number of phenomena of ancient narrative prose. This name is based on the fact that the ancient genre that interests us, having as its content the struggle of isolated individuals for their personal, private goals, represents a very significant thematic and compositional similarity with some types of the later European novel, in the formation of which antique novel played a significant role. The name “novel” arose later, in the Middle Ages, and initially referred only to the language in which the work was written.

The most common language of medieval Western European writing was, as is known, literary language ancient Romans - Latin. In the XII-XIII centuries. AD, along with plays, tales, stories written in Latin and existing mainly among the privileged classes of society, the nobility and clergy, stories and stories began to appear written in Romance languages ​​and distributed among democratic strata of society who do not know the Latin language, among trading bourgeoisie, artisans, villans (the so-called third estate). These works, unlike the Latin ones, began to be called: conte roman - a Romanesque story, a story. Then the adjective acquired an independent meaning. This is how a special name arose for narrative works, which later became established in the language and, over time, lost its original meaning. A novel began to be called a work in any language, but not just any one, but only one that is large in size, distinguished by certain features of the theme, compositional structure, plot development, etc.

We can conclude that if this term, closest to its modern meaning, appeared in the era of the bourgeoisie - the 17th and 18th centuries, then the origin of the theory of the novel can logically be attributed to the same time. And although already in the 16th - 17th centuries. certain “theories” of the novel appear (Antonio Minturno “Poetic Art”, 1563; Pierre Nicole “Letter on the Heresy of Writing”, 1665), only together with classical German philosophy did the first attempts appear to create a general aesthetic theory of the novel, to include it in the system of artistic forms. “At the same time, the statements of great novelists about their own writing practice acquire greater breadth and depth of generalization (Walter Scott, Goethe, Balzac). The principles of the bourgeois theory of the novel in its classical form were formulated precisely during this period. But more extensive literature on the theory of the novel appeared only in the second half of the 19th century. Now the novel has finally established its dominance as a typical form of expression of bourgeois consciousness in literature.”

From a historical and literary point of view, it is impossible to talk about the emergence of the novel as a genre, since essentially “novel” is “an inclusive term, overloaded with philosophical and ideological connotations and indicating a whole complex of relatively autonomous phenomena that are not always genetically related to each other.” The “emergence of the novel” in this sense occupies entire eras, starting from antiquity and ending with the 17th or even 18th century.

The emergence and justification of this term was undoubtedly influenced by the history of the development of the genre as a whole. An equally important role in the theory of the novel is played by its formation in various countries.

LITERARY-HISTORICAL CONTEXT IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NOVEL

The historical development of the novel in different European countries reveals quite large differences caused by the unevenness of socio-economic development and the individual uniqueness of the history of each country. But along with this, the history of the European novel also contains some common, recurring features that should be emphasized. In all major European literatures, although each time in its own way, the novel goes through certain logical stages. In the history of the European novel of the Middle Ages and Modern times, priority belongs to the French novel. The representative of the French Renaissance in the field of the novel was Rabelais (the first half of the 16th century), who revealed in his “Gargantua and Pantagruel” the entire breadth of bourgeois freethinking and denial of the old society. "The novel begins in fiction bourgeoisie in the era of the gradual disintegration of the feudal system and the rise of the commercial bourgeoisie. According to its artistic principle, this is a naturalistic novel, according to thematic-compositional one, it is an adventurous one, in the center of which “a hero who experiences all sorts of adventures, amuses readers with his clever tricks, a hero-adventurer, a rogue”; he experiences random and external adventures (a love affair, a meeting with robbers, a successful career, a clever money scam, etc.), without being interested in either deep social and everyday characteristics or complex psychological motivations. These adventures are interspersed with everyday scenes, expressing a penchant for crude jokes, a sense of humor, hostility towards the ruling classes, and an ironic attitude towards their morals and manifestations. At the same time, the authors failed to capture life in its deep social perspective, limiting themselves to external characteristics, showing a tendency to detail, to savoring everyday details. Its typical examples are “Lazarillo from Tormes” (XVI century) and “Gilles Blas” French writer Lesage (first half of the 18th century). From among the petty and middle bourgeoisie by the middle of the 18th century. an advanced petty-bourgeois intelligentsia is emerging, beginning an ideological struggle against the old order and using artistic creativity for this. On this basis, a psychological petty-bourgeois novel arises, in which the central place is no longer occupied by the adventure, but by the deep contradictions and contrasts in the minds of the heroes fighting for their happiness, for their moral ideals. The clearest example This may be called "The New Heloise" by Rousseau (1761). In the same era as Rousseau, Voltaire appeared with his philosophical and journalistic novel “Candide”. In Germany at the end of the 18th century early XIX centuries There is a whole group of romantic writers who have created very vivid examples of psychological novels in different literary styles. Such are Novalis (“Heinrich von Ofterdingen”), Friedrich Schlegel (“Lucinda”), Tieck (“William Lovel”) and finally the famous Hoffmann. “Along with this, we find a psychological novel in the style of the patriarchal noble aristocracy, perishing along with the entire old regime and realizing its death in the plane of the deepest moral and ideological conflicts.” Such is Chateaubriand with his “Rene” and “Atala”. Other layers of the feudal nobility were characterized by a cult of graceful sensuality and boundless, sometimes unbridled epicureanism. From here they come out and noble novels Rococo with its cult of sensuality. For example, Couvray’s novel “The Love Affairs of the Chevalier de Fauble.”

English novel in the first half of the 18th century. puts forward such major representatives as J. Swift with his famous satirical novel “Gulliver’s Travels” and D. Defoe, author of the no less famous “Robinson Crusoe,” as well as a number of other novelists expressing the social worldview of the bourgeoisie.

In the era of the emergence and development of industrial capitalism, the adventurous, naturalistic novel is gradually losing its significance.” It is being replaced by the social novel, which arises and develops in the literature of those strata of capitalist society that turn out to be the most advanced, and in the conditions of a given country. In a number of countries (France, Germany, Russia), during the period of replacement of the adventurous novel with the social and everyday one, i.e., during the period of replacement of the feudal system with the capitalist one, the psychological novel with a romantic or sentimental orientation temporarily acquires great importance, reflecting the social imbalance of the transition period (Jean- Paul, Chateaubriand, etc.). The heyday of the social-everyday novel coincides with the period of growth and prosperity of industrial-capitalist society (Balzac, Dickens, Flaubert, Zola, etc.). A novel is created according to an artistic principle - realistic. In the middle of the 19th century. The English realistic novel is making significant progress. The pinnacle of the realistic novel are the novels of Dickens - “David Copperfield”, “Oliver Twist” and “Nicholas Nickleby”, as well as Thackeray with his “Vanity Fair”, which provides a more embittered and powerful criticism of the noble-bourgeois society. “The realistic novel of the 19th century is distinguished by its extremely acute formulation of moral problems, which now occupy a central place in artistic culture. This is due to the experience of a break with traditional ideas and the task of finding new moral guidelines for the individual in a situation of isolation, to develop moral regulators that do not ignore, but morally streamline the interests of the real practical activity of an isolated individual.”

A special line is represented by the novel of “mysteries and horrors” (the so-called “Gothic novel”), the plots of which, as a rule, are chosen in the sphere of the supernatural and the heroes of which are endowed with features of gloomy demonism. The largest representatives of the Gothic novel are A. Radcliffe and C. Maturin.

The gradual transition of capitalist society into the era of imperialism with its growing social conflicts leads to the degradation of bourgeois ideology. The cognitive level of bourgeois novelists is declining. In this regard, in the history of the novel there is a return to naturalism, to psychologism (Joyce, Proust). In the process of its development, the novel, however, not only repeats a certain logical line, but also retains some genre features. The novel is historically repeated in different literary styles, and in different styles it expresses different artistic principles. And for all that, the novel still remains a novel: a huge number of the most diverse works of this genre have something in common, some repeating features of content and form, which turn out to be signs of the genre, which receives its classical expression in the bourgeois novel. “No matter how different the characteristics of historical class consciousness, those social sentiments, those specific artistic ideas that are reflected in the novel, the novel expresses a certain type of self-awareness, certain ideological demands and interests. The bourgeois novel lives and develops as long as the individualistic self-consciousness of the capitalist era is alive, as long as interest in individual destiny, in personal life, in the struggle of individuality for their personal needs, for the right to life continues to exist.” These features of the novel’s content also lead to the formal characteristics of this genre. Thematically, a bourgeois novel depicts private, personal, everyday life and, against the background of it, the clash and struggle of personal interests. The composition of the novel is characterized by a more or less complex, straight or broken line of a single personal intrigue, a single causal-temporal chain of events, a single course of the narrative, to which all and every descriptive moments are subordinated. In all other respects, the novel is "historically infinitely varied."

Any genre, on the one hand, is always individual, on the other, it is always based on literary tradition. The genre category is a historical category: each era is characterized not only by genre system in general, but also genre modifications or varieties in particular in relation to a particular genre. Today, literary scholars distinguish varieties of the genre on the basis of a set of stable properties (for example, the general nature of the theme, properties of imagery, type of composition, etc.).

Based on the above, the typology of the modern novel can be roughly represented as follows:

Themes vary between autobiographical, documentary, political, social; philosophical, intellectual; erotic, female, family and everyday life; historical; adventurous, fantastic; satirical; sentimental, etc.

According to structural characteristics: a novel in verse, a travel novel, a pamphlet novel, a parable novel, a feuilleton novel, etc.

Often the definition correlates a novel with an era in which one or another type of novel dominated: ancient, chivalric, enlightenment, Victorian, Gothic, modernist, etc.

In addition, the epic novel stands out - a work in which the center of artistic attention is the fate of the people, and not the individual (L.N. Tolstoy “War and Peace”, M.A. Sholokhov “Quiet Don”).

A special type is the polyphonic novel (according to M. M. Bakhtin), which involves such a construction when the main idea of ​​the work is formed by the simultaneous sound of “many voices”, since none of the characters or the author has a monopoly on the truth and is not its carrier.

To summarize all of the above, we note once again that despite the long history of this term and the even older genre form, in modern literary criticism there is no unambiguous view of the problems associated with the concept of “novel”. It is known that it appeared in the Middle Ages, the first examples of novels were more than five centuries ago; in the history of the development of Western European literature, the novel had many forms and modifications.

Finishing the conversation about the novel as a whole, we cannot help but draw attention to the fact that, like any genre, it must have some features. Here we will remain in solidarity with the adherent of “dialogism” in literature – M.M. Bakhtin, who identifies three main features of the genre model of the novel, which fundamentally distinguish it from other genres:

“1) the stylistic three-dimensionality of the novel, associated with the multilingual consciousness realized in it; 2) a radical change in the time coordinates of the literary image in the novel; 3) a new zone for constructing a literary image in a novel, namely the zone of maximum contact with the present (modernity) in its incompleteness.”

DEFINITIONUTOPIA

Utopia is an idea of ​​an ideal society, uncritical confidence in the possibility of direct implementation of traditional, mythological, possibly modernized, ideological expectations and ideals. For example, U. are the desire to bring to life the ideals of building a large society by analogy with a rural community, the concept of socialism, the implementation of which cannot take place in the corresponding period of time, either due to the complete impossibility of acceptance of the corresponding ideas by broad layers of the population as real values ​​of their own activities, or as a result of the fact that the adoption of these values ​​leads to a dysfunctional system, violate the prohibitions of sociocultural law. W. Mora, Campanella, etc. give pictures of highly regulated societies, industries, personal life in cities and houses. They represent modernized traditional ideals that correspond neither to the past due to elements of modernization, nor to the future due to the burden of traditionalism. U. is an element of a certain stage in the development of any solution, since everything begins with the reproduction of some previously established need, which may turn out to be U. in a changed situation. The effectiveness of a decision depends on a person’s ability to critically rethink all its premises and elements on the basis of changed conditions, the emergence of new means, the maturation of new goals, i.e. it is necessary to overcome the element U in the decision. Any ideas, projects, their implementation must pass the test for the presumption of utopia . An attempt to realize control, that is, first of all, to translate it into social relations, to obtain a result from it can be considered as the result of a miracle of inversion; if realized, it is replaced by a reverse inversion. For example, socialism as a society that immediately saves people from death, from labor, embodies universal equality, ultimately ends in the growth of a discomforting state, a reverse inversion. The death of the boy means that there is no communism in “Chevengur” (Platonov A., Chevengur).

Opera originated in Italy. It “grew up” from theatrical mysteries - spiritual performances in which it served as a background, shading the actors’ performances. In such performances, music was played from time to time, emphasizing important dramatic moments. Subsequently, she became more and more important in such mysteries. From some point on, throughout the entire performance, the music sounded without any pauses. The first prototype of the opera is considered to be a comedy on a spiritual theme called “The Conversion of St. Paul”, which was written by Beverini. In this comedy, music sounds from the very beginning to the end, but still plays the role of accompaniment.

In the sixteenth century, pastorals became fashionable and featured choral performances of motets or madrigals (musical and poetic plays). At the end of the sixteenth century, solo vocal numbers appeared in pastorals. This was the beginning of the birth of opera in the usual to modern man form. This genre was called drama in musica, and “opera” appeared only in the first half of the seventeenth century. It should be noted that a number of people continued to call their works musical dramas even after the appearance and consolidation of “opera”.

There are several types of opera. The main one is rightfully considered the “Grand Opera” or lyrical tragedy. It arose after the Great French Revolution and in fact became the main musical movement of the nineteenth century.

History of opera houses

The first opera house opened in 1637 in Venice. Opera served the entertainment of aristocrats and was not accessible to ordinary people. The first major opera is considered to be Daphne by Jacopo Peri, which was first performed in 1597.

Opera has gained great popularity, becoming the favorite art form. Literary subjects operas make them accessible and understandable musical art, because it is much easier to perceive than traditional ones without a plot.

Nowadays, about twenty thousand opera performances are given per year. This means that more than fifty operas are performed around the world every day.

From Italy, opera quickly spread to other European countries. Over the years, it became publicly available, ceasing to serve exclusively as entertainment for aristocrats. IN opera houses“galleries” began to appear, from which ordinary townspeople could sing delightfully.

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Tip 2: The history of the “herring under a fur coat” salad

Few people know that the traditional “herring under a fur coat” salad, beloved by thousands of people, has political overtones. This dish was invented back in 1918, which, as you know, was a turning point for Russia. If you believe the folk legend, “fur coat” is not the name of a type of clothing, but an abbreviation.

The ingenious invention of an ordinary chef

Since the mid-19th century, taverns have been a favorite vacation spot for city residents. Here they drank, swore, talked and sought the truth in every way. Visitors often broke dishes, started fights, accused each other of harboring revolutionary ideas, and sang “The Internationale” in discordant chorus. One day, Anastas Bogomilov, a merchant and owner of several very popular eateries, decided that it was necessary to calm down the visitors and make the atmosphere in his establishments more relaxed. This happened in 1918. One of Anastas’s employees, cook Aristarkh Prokoptsev, decided that the easiest way to calm the rebels was to satiate their stomachs. But not just like that, but with hidden subtext.

According to legend, it was Prokoptsev who came up with the idea of ​​​​creating the “herring” dish. Herring was a symbol of the proletariat (a widely distributed, affordable and popular product among the people), vegetables (potatoes, onions and carrots) personified the peasantry, and beets represented the red revolutionary banner. The popular French cold sauce "mayonnaise" served as a binder. It is not known exactly why he was chosen. According to one version, this was a sign of respect for those who committed the Great French Revolution. bourgeois revolution, on the other - a reminder of the Entente.

The Entente, which included France, was considered the main external enemy of Bolshevism.

Why a fur coat? SHUBA is an abbreviation that stands for: “Chauvinism and Decadence – Boycott and Anathema.”
Tavern visitors quickly appreciated the revolutionary salad. First of all, it was delicious. Secondly, inexpensive. And thirdly, it was an excellent snack for strong alcoholic drinks. Because of large quantity With mayonnaise, people got drunk less, which meant there were fewer fights. For the first time, salad appeared on the menu of Bogomilov’s taverns before the New Year of 1919. Maybe that’s why “herring under a fur coat” has become a traditional dish for the New Year’s table.

The history of the salad is beautiful. How true it is, no one will ever know.

Classic salad recipe

To prepare the traditional salad “herring under a fur coat” you will need boiled vegetables (except onions), fresh apple, herring and mayonnaise.

It is advisable that the mayonnaise be homemade. If you have to use store-bought, then it is better to take the one with a higher fat content.

You will need:
- 200 g herring fillet;
- 200 g apples;
- 200 g beets;
- 200 g boiled potatoes;
- 200 g;
- 100 g of onion;
- mayonnaise.

After the vegetables are cooked, they need to be cooled, peeled and grated one by one on a coarse grater. The onion is cut as finely as possible. Herring fillets should be cut into small cubes: no more than 1x1 cm. The apple must be peeled and grated on a fine grater. It is better to place the dish on a flat salad bowl. The first layer in classic recipe comes potatoes, then herring, onions, carrots, apples and beets. Each layer is smeared with fatty mayonnaise.

The classic one is known to many, but each housewife still makes “herring under a fur coat” in her own way. Some people put a cucumber instead of an apple, others exclude onions from the ingredients, and still others put cheese in one of the layers. Some chefs strive to “ennoble” the dish and instead of herring they put salmon, salmon and even seafood like shrimp. Housewives also enjoy experimenting. You can find a lot on the Internet original recipes based on the classic: “Herring in a sheepskin coat”, “Fur coat without herring”, “Herring in a new fur coat”, “Herring in a cloak”.

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How to prepare salad "Herring under a fur coat"

Matryoshka dolls are considered an original Russian souvenir and therefore are so popular among tourists coming to the Russian Federation from different countries. All the more interesting is the fact that these wooden painted figurines of elegant beauties, nested inside each other, have far from Russian roots.

The first Russian nesting doll

The prototype of a cheerful, round-faced Russian girl, embodied in classic nesting dolls, was brought to Russia from Japan at the beginning XIX century. The souvenir from the land of the sun consisted of wooden figurines of the Japanese old sage Fukuruma, nested inside each other. They were beautifully painted and stylized in the spirit of the traditions of the ancestor country of the modern nesting doll.

Once in the Moscow Toy Workshop, the Japanese souvenir inspired local turner Vasily Zvezdochkin and artist Sergei Malyutin to create similar toys. The craftsmen carved and painted similar figures nested inside one another. The first analogue of a Japanese souvenir was a girl in a headscarf and sundress; subsequent nesting dolls depicted cute funny children - boys and girls; on the last, eighth nesting doll, a swaddled baby was drawn. Most likely, it got its name in honor of the widespread at that time female name Matryona.

Sergiev Posad nesting dolls

After the closure of the workshop in Moscow, in 1900 craftsmen in Sergiev Posad, in a training and demonstration workshop, began making nesting dolls. This type of folk craft became widespread; workshops of the Bogoyavlenskys, Ivanovs, and Vasily Zvezdochkin, who moved to Posad from Moscow, appeared not far from the capital.

Over time, this souvenir toy gained such popularity that foreigners began to order it from Russian craftsmen: the French, Germans, etc. Such nesting dolls were not cheap, but there was something to admire! The painting of these wooden toys became colorful, ornate, and varied. Artists depicted Russian beautiful girls in long sundresses and painted scarves, with bouquets of flowers, baskets and bundles. At the beginning of the twentieth century, mass production of nesting dolls for foreign countries was established.

Later matryoshka dolls appeared male, for example, depicting shepherds with pipes, mustachioed grooms, bearded old men with sticks, etc. Arranged wooden Toys according to a variety of principles, but a pattern, as a rule, was sure to be traced - for example, matryoshka grooms were paired with matryoshka brides and relatives.

Matryoshka dolls of Nizhny Novgorod province

Towards the middle of the 20th century, the nesting doll spread far beyond the borders of Sergiev Posad. So, in the Nizhny Novgorod province craftsmen appeared who made nesting dolls in the form of slender, tall girls in bright shawls. And Sergiev Posad craftsmen made these toys in the form of more squat and curvy young ladies.

Modern dolls

The matryoshka doll is still considered one of the symbols of Russian culture. Modern nesting dolls are made in the most various genres: in addition to classical drawings, they contain portraits of famous political figures, TV presenters, movie and pop stars.

In Sergiev Posad, in the Toy Museum, there are collections of nesting dolls from various masters of the early and mid-20th century, as well as the first nesting doll painted by the famous artist Sergei Malyutin.

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