Essay: The "melting pot" model of ethnic development in American society. History lesson on Latin America in the 19th century

Chapter 4 America Doesn't Deserve Forgiveness I am a revolutionary dedicated to overthrowing the imperial system. Bill Ayers. “Enemy of the People” The terrorists who detonated the Pentagon bombs believed that they were doing nothing wrong. They believed that their actions were justified because America is

Who lit the Debaltsevo Cauldron? In the east of Ukraine there is an intensification of the military conflict, especially the military operation around the “cauldron” in Debaltseve. What are the reasons for the exacerbation? You need to understand what the strategies of the two opposing sides in eastern Ukraine are.

Select the correct answer: 1. In what years did the American Civil War take place? A) , B) , C) In what year was slavery abolished in the USA? 2. In what year was slavery abolished in the United States? A) 1776, B) 1890, C) 1863, D) Historical figures. Abraham Lincoln is 3. Historical figures. Abraham Lincoln is A) the President of the USA B) The man who abolished slavery in the USA C) The man who was assassinated by the actor Booth, a supporter of slavery D) The President of the USA who preserved the integrity of the country E) All answers are correct.

Lesson plan: 1. Meeting of worlds. 2. Creation of a colonial management system. 3. Latin American society. 4. The time of the liberators. Simon Bolivar. 5. Results and significance of the liberation wars. 6. Century of the Caudillo. 7. Slow economic development. 8. Latin American "melting pot".

Meeting of worlds What do we know about South America? 1492 - Columbus's discovery of America. - Columbus's discovery of America. XV-XVI centuries - colonization of South America (Spain, Portugal). XV-XVI centuries - colonization of South America (Spain, Portugal). 17th century - colonization of North America (England and France). 17th century - colonization of North America (England and France).

1. White natives of the metropolis: representatives of the noble nobility and wealthy merchants (highest administrative, military and church positions). 2. Creoles - “pure-blooded” descendants of Europeans born in the colonies: large and medium-sized landowners, the middle layer of bureaucrats. 3. Mestizos (descendants of mixed marriages of whites and Indians); mulattoes (white and black); sambo (Indians and blacks) - were deprived of civil rights: they could not participate in elections of local authorities, they could not hold positions of officials and officers; craft, trade free professions. craft, trade free professions. Social structure of colonial society

END XVIII-BEGINNING XIX CENTURY - Strengthening the liberation struggle in Latin America. Exacerbation of contradictions between the population of the colonies and the metropolis (strengthening financial and administrative control; arbitrariness of the colonial administration; increase in taxes). Exacerbation of contradictions between the population of the colonies and the metropolis (strengthening financial and administrative control; arbitrariness of the colonial administration; increase in taxes). August 22, 1791 - uprising on the island of Haiti (French Saint-Domingue). At the head of the uprising was Toussaint Louverture. The conquest of freedom in 1804. The time of the liberators

Main periods of the struggle for independence I period (years) Declaration of independence of the majority of colonies, creation of republics. Creole revolutionaries were unable to attract the masses to their side - massive peasant uprisings in Mexico under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo - the independence of Mexico was proclaimed - Argentina - Chile gained independence. II period(s) Liberation of the territory of Central and South America; formation of independent republics throughout the Spanish colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico - Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador - Peru - creation of Gran Colombia (Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador) - Mexico .- Upper Peru - Bolivia

Independent republics in South America: Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Argentina. IN Central America: Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, El Salvador. Salvador. Brazil separated from Portugal in 1822, but became a republic in 1889; 1844 - Dominican Republic; 1898 - Dominican Republic; 1898 - Cuba; 1903 - Republic of Cuba. That. in the 19th century Together with the Mexican Republic and the Republic of Haiti, 20 Latin American states were formed.

State structure new countries' Constitutions: president, two chambers, a narrow circle of voters. Dominant position: large landowners. Preservation of slavery of blacks and Indians, peonage of the peasantry (abolition of slavery from 1811 (Chile) to 1888 (Brazil)) (Chile) to 1888 (Brazil)).

Caudillo form of government, a regime of personal power of dictators in a number of Latin American countries, established during a military coup and based directly on military force. Caudillo is a form of government, a regime of personal power of dictators in a number of Latin American countries, established during a military coup and based directly on military force. Century of the Caudillo

Multi-structure economy (XVI-XVIII centuries) Subsistence patriarchal economy of Indian tribes Subsistence patriarchal economy of Indian tribes Feudal structure Feudal structure Slave-owning way of life (plantation slavery) Slave-owning way of life (plantation slavery) Small-scale commodity economy (urban crafts, farms of peasant colonists). Small-scale farming (urban crafts, farms of peasant colonists). Elements of a capitalist economy. Elements of a capitalist economy.

The 19th century was the time of the formation of the Latin American nation. Latin America had a population of 60 million. Latin America had a population of 60 million. There were 20 independent states. There were 20 independent states. In 18 countries the population spoke Spanish, in Brazil in Portuguese, in Haiti in French. In 18 countries the population spoke Spanish, in Brazil Portuguese, and in Haiti French. Latin American melting pot

Homework § 26, questions p. Fill out the table p. 241, task 4.

The problem of interethnic relations, the ability of people of different ethnic and religious origins to coexist peacefully within one state, the ability to be different, but at the same time equal to each other - these are some of the main problems that concern modern society.

Currently, there are more than 2,000 nations in the world, living in 197 states.

In the near future, humanity will live in multi-ethnic countries, as they are becoming stronger every year. New territorial entities are emerging.

Today the national problem has become global significance. Together with the fight against the threat of nuclear war and the protection environment she was included in the number critical issues on a global scale. The most acute ethnic conflicts exist in Angola, Nigeria, Iraq, and Ukraine. The population of many countries around the world was imbued with nationalist ideas. IN different forms The ethnic issue comes to the fore in the public life of France, Great Britain, Belgium, Spain, and Canada.

There is an opinion among scientists that it was nationalism at the end of the 20th century that almost brought humanity to the brink of a new catastrophe.

The problem of interethnic relations is also very relevant in the United States, one of the largest multinational states in the world, where about 106 ethnic groups live. The national question in the history of this country has always been one of the main ones. The USA is a country of immigrants, that’s what Roosevelt called it, and Kennedy John wrote the book “A Nation of Immigrants”.

The US experience in this area is unique. Due to the constant influx of population as a result of resettlement, people different nationalities join the country along with their traditions, culture, language and acute ethnic problems. As a result of the mixing of a racially and ethnically diverse population, the process of formation of the American people took place, which received a very specific name - the “melting pot of nations.” This model of interethnic development of society will be discussed in the article.

Definition of the concept

The very concept of “melting pot” or “melting crucible” is a translation from English of the expression melting pot. This is a model of ethnic development of society that is promoted in American culture. The dominance of this thought is associated with the ideals of the idea of ​​free democratic society, in which people live comfortably with racially and ethnically diverse neighbors.

This concept is very similar to the policy of multiculturalism.

According to the "melting pot" theory, the formation of the American nation was to follow the formula of mixing or fusing all peoples. This assumed both cultural and biological fusion (mixing). This theory denied the existence of any social, ethnic or national conflicts in society. The famous American researcher Mann A. believed that the term melting pot in the USA became national symbol 20th century.

Origin of the concept

The concept itself was formulated in a play by British playwright and journalist Zanguill Israel, who visited the United States very often and knew the life, customs and culture of the country. The essence literary work was that there was a merger or mixing in the USA various peoples and cultures, resulting in the formation of a single American nation. The play was called "The Melting Pot". This expression became very popular first in American culture and then throughout the world. A little later, a whole concept of the development of a society with the same name was formed.

The essence of the concept is also borrowed from the play, where the main character, looking from a ship that arrived at the port of New York, exclaimed that America is the greatest cauldron in which everything is melted and that this is how the Almighty created the American nation.

History of the development of the theory of merger of nations

The history of the merger of peoples from different countries into one common ethnic group or culture interested scientists and writers even before the appearance of the play “The Melting Pot.” Essays on this topic and descriptions of the American people as a single nation can be traced back to the 18th century by authors, historians and philosophers. For example, Payne Thomas, an Anglo-American philosopher and writer, in his book Common Sense describes Americans as united people, which was formed from immigrants from Europe who were persecuted there because of their ideas of religious and civil freedom.

But the very first author to use the expression “melting pot” to describe the American people and society was the Frenchman John Crevecoeur, who in his “Letters from an American Farmer” discussed the topic of who an American is. He wrote that in America all nationalities mix in new race, which will one day change the whole world.

History of the concept in the 19th century

The concept gained the greatest popularity in the 19th century. She was supported by the outstanding intellectual of the era, Emerson Ralph.

Roosevelt Theodore, in his four-volume work The Conquest of the West, describes the colonization of the West and praises American strength, which he saw in unity. And in conclusion, he writes that American individualism was tempered precisely by the power of unity.

One of the fundamental roles in the study of the concept is occupied by the work of the historian Turner “Meaning and Boundaries in American History”, in which he pays great attention to geographical factor. The "melting pot" in his scientific work is the process of Americanization. According to his theory, all immigrants became Americanized along fundamental lines. In addition, he believed that American identity was not borrowed from Europe, but that it arose as a result of the continuous advance of settlements to the West. He argued that at first the border of Europe was the Atlantic coast, but as they moved deeper into the continent, there was a gradual removal from European influence and the development of the nation according to the American type.

Criticism of the theory

The theory of the merger of nations was perceived negatively by supporters of cultural pluralism (they advocate the preservation of ethnic and cultural traditions within the national community). Pluralists criticized discrimination and infringement of the rights of minorities, which included representatives of the yellow and black races in the United States.

While in the melting pot concept minorities are secondary and should gradually disappear, pluralists consider minorities to be the main element in the structure of society and they should develop and preserve their identity and culture.

The concept of cultural pluralism took theoretical shape in the 20s of the 20th century. The main doctrines of the theory were set out in the scientific work of the American philosopher Cullen G. “Democracy versus the Melting Pot,” in which he wrote that you can change your clothing style, religion, worldview, but you cannot change your origin. It is pluralists who believe that ethnic groups are united not by culture and language, but by origin, and therefore American society, in their opinion, is a salad bowl in which different cultures coexist peacefully, while maintaining their identity.

Advantages and disadvantages of the theory

Among the advantages of this theory is that it created a favorable social atmosphere and minimized the risks of terrorist attacks and other outbreaks of violence.

This concept allowed the country's productive force to increase, creating the term American people or American nation, which was beneficial to the country's economy at the time.

This theory strengthened the process of assimilation of other peoples, erasing boundaries and contradictions between cultures. At the same time, there was an active process of formation and enrichment of American culture.

Among the shortcomings is the overly idealistic orientation of this concept. In addition, it assumed strict assimilation, which, as practice has shown, was not part of the immigrants’ plans.

The theory could not hold out for long, as evidenced by the presence of a number of national communities that, considering themselves US citizens, remain Mexicans, Jews, Ukrainians, Chinese, Arabs, and so on. Most likely, the theory was unable to reflect the diversity of the processes that took place in the society of a multinational country.

This is how things stood with the fusion of nations in the United States. What was happening in Latin America?

The concept of the "melting pot" in Latin America

Latin American nations began to take shape in the 19th century. They were formed from different nations and ethnic groups living within the borders of a particular state. As in the USA, there was a “melting pot” in which nations and races mixed: Indians, people from Portugal, Spain and other European countries, blacks, Arabs, people from Asia.

Society in these countries was formed under the influence of Portuguese and Spanish customs; there was always a hierarchy in the system of relations between people. Everyone knew their place, hence the tendency towards authoritarian regimes.

Has the "melting pot" concept worked or not in Latin America?

In essays, in nonfiction, and even scientific works some scientists think not. The process of mixing peoples and ethnic groups was facilitated by linguistic unity (most countries speak Spanish, only Brazil speaks Portuguese), common religious affiliation (Catholicism), social similarity, and a common colonial past for the countries, but the differences in behavior, customs, traditions were too obvious, mentality between European migrants, descendants of Indians and people from Africa.

And, despite the so-called Latin American brotherhood, mistrust and rivalry are visible among the countries of the continent. A striking example- Spanish-speaking Argentina and Portuguese-speaking Brazil. If the first one is populated by people from European countries, then the second in ethnic composition population has largely African roots, namely in Brazil in XVI-XVIII centuries brought hundreds of thousands of slaves from the African continent. And it is difficult to expect that these two countries will be able to form a single state in the future.

Melting crucible of Europe

If nothing changes, then in the near future it will begin to resemble New York or some Latin American states, which refute the concept of mixing or fusion of nations. For example, in New York many cultures coexist: Chinese and Koreans, Pakistanis and Puerto Ricans, Mexicans and Russians. Some ethnic groups have merged, for example, the Irish and Spaniards, Poles and Jews, while others have retained their individuality: they live in their own neighborhoods, speak their own language and observe their own traditions. But they all obey general laws and use standard official state English in public places.

The melting pot concept has not worked in the US or Latin America. Will this principle work in Europe, or will it resemble New York? Humanity will know the answer to this question in the very near future.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

on cross-cultural issues of personnel management

Melting Pot Concept

Introduction

In the 20s of the twentieth century, Anglo-conformism gave way to a new model of ethnic development of the “melting pot” or “melting crucible”. In the history of American social thought, this model occupies a special place, because the basic social ideal, which was that in a truly free, democratic society, people would strive to live among racially and ethnically mixed neighbors, existed in the United States for a long time." "This theory represents is a variant of the “amalgamation” theory that arose immediately after the American Revolution, i.e. free fusion of representatives of various European peoples and cultures.

The “melting pot”, along with the theory of Angloconformism, formed the theoretical core classical school ethnicity in the United States of America. As M. Gordon wrote, “although Angloconformism in its various manifestations was the predominant ideology of assimilation, in American historical practice there was a competing model with more general and idealistic tones, which had its adherents from the 18th century, and then its successors.”

Multiculturalism is a policy aimed at developing and preserving cultural differences in a particular country and in the world as a whole, and the theory or ideology that justifies such a policy. An important difference from political liberalism is the recognition by multiculturalism of the rights of collective subjects: ethnic and cultural groups. Such rights may take the form of allowing ethnic and cultural communities to direct the education of their members, express political opinions, and so on. Multiculturalism is opposed to the "melting pot" concept. melting pot), where it is assumed that all cultures will merge into one. Examples include Canada, where multiculturalism is cultivated, and the United States, where the concept of a “melting pot” is traditionally proclaimed.

Melting Pot Model

The melting pot, also known as the “melting crucible,” is a model of ethnic development actively promoted in American culture. The dominance of this idea in the American public is closely linked to the ideals of the culture's vision of a truly free democratic society where people would strive to live among racially and ethnically mixed neighbors.

The melting pot is a metaphor for a heterogeneous society. It becomes more and more homogeneous, the various elements of "melting together" are combined into a harmonious whole with common culture. Specifically, the term is used to describe the assimilation of immigrants to the United States. The metaphor became widespread in the 1780s. multiculturalism melting pot integration immigrant

After 1970, the melting pot model was challenged by proponents of multiculturalism, who argue that cultural differences in society are valuable and should be preserved, offering alternative metaphors of a mosaic or salad bowl - a combination of different cultures that remain distinct.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the metaphor "melting pot" was used to describe a merger different nationalities, ethnicities and cultures. It was used along with concepts such as "city on a hill" or "new promised land" to describe the United States. This metaphor was a symbol for the idealized process of immigration and colonization of different nationalities, cultures and races. It was associated with the utopian idea of ​​seeing the emergence of an American "new man."

First use in American literature The concept of "melting" can be found in the writings of St. John de Crevecoeur. In his Letters from an American Farmer (1782), Crevecoeur writes, in response to his own question, “Who is this American, this new person"He says that an American is one who, having abandoned all his ancient prejudices and habits, receives new ones from a new way of life. Here the people of all nations have melted into a new race of men, whose labors and posterity will one day bring about great changes in the world".

While "melting" was in common use, the precise term "melting pot" came into use in 1908 from the title of a play by British journalist and playwright Israel Zangwill, who frequently visited the United States and knew life in that country. The essence of the play "The Melting Pot" was that in the United States of America there was a merging of different peoples and their national cultures, as a result, a united American nation was formed. Main character plays - young Russian immigrant Horace Alger, looking from a ship arriving in the port of New York, exclaimed: “America is the greatest melting pot created by God, in which all the peoples of Europe are fused... Germans and French, Irish and English, Jews and Russians... everything into this crucible. This is how God creates a nation of Americans.”

With regard to immigrants to the United States, the "melting pot" process was equated with Americanization, that is, cultural assimilation and acculturation. "The melting pot" is a metaphor that implies the melting of cultures and ethnic groups through the process of intermarriage, but the process of cultural assimilation or acculturation can also occur without intermarriage.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, European immigration to the United States became more powerful, which of course was reflected in an increase in the number of immigrants. Since the 1890s, big number groups of immigrants from the South and of Eastern Europe, such as Italians, Jews, and Poles came to the United States. Many returned to Europe, but those who remained were brought together into a cultural melting pot, taking American image life.

In the early twentieth century, the meaning of the newly popular melting pot concept was the subject of ongoing debate, which centered on the issue of immigration. The debate around the melting pot concept has taken a different approach to this issue. The main question was how to approach the issue of immigration and how the issue affected American society. The melting pot was equated with either acculturation or complete assimilation of immigrants from Europe and other countries. The discussion focused on the difference between the two approaches to immigration.

Disadvantages of the model

Main disadvantages:

Firstly, There is still ethnic strife in the United States to this day. A certain part of migrants assimilates into the general mass, mainly those who enter into mixed marriages. The majority of migrants are those for whom mastering the English language is difficult and who have not been able to adapt to the new environment. They strive for compact living and gravitate towards communication in their national communities. They carefully preserve their language, identity, national traditions, and they are not going to “jump” into the “melting pot” voluntarily. There are many national communities operating in all cities of the country. For reference: 18% of the US population is African-American, 20% is Latino, and a significant portion is Chinese.

Secondly, no nation, large or even small, wants to be “cooked” in a “melting pot”, even if this is supported by liberal democratic ideas.

Third, a nation that, due to its numerical superiority over others, is forced to take on the role of “broth”, inevitably partially loses its own national identity, because diluted by others.

If you open any textbook on metal science, you will see that only metals with a similar crystalline structure can be melted into a single alloy. If, during the smelting process, you throw various initial elements into the boiler, you will end up with a pile of metal-containing garbage with shells and cracks, from which it is impossible to create a single part or workpiece during processing.

In addition, even the finished alloy that meets all your requirements can, in the process of the reverse operation, again be separated into the original metals, and in its pure form without any impurities. This rule works flawlessly in other areas of science, technology and even Everyday life. No matter how much you combine the most diverse substances in a chemical flask in any unimaginable solutions, they will never lose their properties, due to which all elements can again be isolated in their pure form.

The physical and chemical irreducible properties of matter manifest themselves in the same way in biology in the form of eternal and ineradicable racial characteristics.

Debate "Many cultures - one Europe"

“Melting pot”, “salad bowl” or “historical community”?

Experts from different countries are trying to determine best way immigrant integration

Open debate “Many cultures - one Europe” became central event international festival "Europe Day" held in St. Petersburg for the fourth time. Participants in the debate - both professors invited from European universities and representatives of the host country - tried to determine what European identity is, and which option for integrating migrants from third world countries is preferable for Russia - the American “melting pot” or European “multiculturalism”.

What is European self-identification, the President of the European University Institute in Florence (EUI), Josep Borrell Fontelles, tried to formulate. From his point of view, the basic characteristics of Europe are democracy, human rights, the rule of law and social solidarity. As for pan-European culture, Signor Fontelles is skeptical: “We are seeing a clear dominance of the American and Anglo-Saxon traditions, which are perceived by all peoples. At the same time, in Germany there are few people willing to listen French music, and vice versa,” he noted.

However, the participants in the discussion in the hall noted that all the signs of European self-identification listed by the EUI President are fully applicable to the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand - countries inhabited by the descendants of immigrants, mainly from the Old World.

The Melting Pot is transforming

By the way, “multiculturalism,” the decline of which was announced by the leaders of France, Great Britain and Germany earlier this year, was first proclaimed by the governments of Canada and Australia. This was recalled by Stanislav Tkachenko, Associate Professor of the Department of European Studies at the Faculty of International Relations of St. Petersburg State University, who has repeatedly lectured at the universities of Bologna (Italy), George Mason in Washington, and also at Harvard.

Tkachenko characterized the American integration principle of the “melting pot” as follows: “This model was implemented by a state that was obviously more powerful, richer, and more attractive than other states on the planet. And this cannot be ignored. The melting pot model assumed that representatives different nations come to America, accept the existing culture, and part with their national characteristics, becoming Americans. That is, the state set conditions, and people agreed with them or not.”

At the same time, in recent decades, large national neighborhoods have begun to appear in American megacities - Chinese, Korean, Italian - whose residents have largely preserved the traditional way of their historical homeland, while being considered Americans. This, according to the discussion participants, indicates that the “melting pot” model is being transformed.

"Immigrants must bear their share of responsibility"

To a large extent, the American experience of integrating immigrants was borrowed from France, says Maria Nozhenko, director of the Center for European Studies at the European University of St. Petersburg. But in Belgium, a method is used that Nozhenko conventionally calls a “bowl of salad”: “There the diversity of national segments is preserved, but at the same time they are “seasoned” with a certain sauce, namely the state, which helps them and supports them in everything.”

The participants in the discussion did not separately address the issue of the responsibility of immigrants themselves to the country that received them. A correspondent for the Russian service of the Voice of America asked Josep Borrell Fontelles to address this topic.

“This is a two-way process,” began the commentary from the president of the European University Institute in Florence. - Of course, immigrants must be responsible to the society into which they want to integrate. They can’t come to another country and behave the way they want.”

In response to a clarifying question: do immigrants bear responsibility to the host country, or should they only bear it, the EUI president, after hesitating a little, repeated: “They do not always bear this responsibility, but they must bear it, and this responsibility is great!”

"Events on Manezhnaya Square came as a shock"

Meanwhile, nationalist forces in Russia in Lately They are increasingly expressing dissatisfaction not only with the behavior of labor migrants, but also with the very fact of their stay in places with a predominantly Russian population. Not without reason, from the audience the speakers were reminded of the national clashes in the Karelian city of Kondopoga that took place in September 2006, and of the nationalist march on Manezhnaya Square in Moscow at the end of last year, and of the murders of students from third world countries in St. Petersburg.

Stanislav Tkachenko, who is the head of the team developing the Tolerance program under the administration of St. Petersburg, admitted that “the events at Manezhnaya became a real shock for society, for the state and for the institutions of power.”

When asked which of the two models - the “correct cauldron” or the “bowl with salad” - is most suitable for Russia, Tkachenko notes: “Russia has already chosen neither one nor the other model. President Medvedev said a few days ago at the Yaroslavl forum that we must have a third way - “creating Russian nation"If we analyze this path, then Medvedev also mentioned such a phenomenon as “historical community Soviet people”, and said that there is no need to laugh at this model; it was, in principle, good, since it represented a balance of their two extremes - the American “melting pot” and European multiculturalism.”

It is too early to say how successful the experience of “creating the Russian nation” will be. We can only recall that in tsarist Russia not everyone was happy with the name “Russian”, and after the revolution many nations hastened to exercise the right to self-determination. And with the beginning of Perestroika, the “historical community of the Soviet people” began to experience increasing difficulties, which ultimately led to the collapse of the USSR. Students and journalists present at the discussion recalled these facts, but did not receive detailed answers from the speakers. True, the organizers of the open discussion promised to return to the topic of migrant integration during the next Europe Day.

Literature

1. Avdeev V. B. Anti-racial myth about the “melting pot”

2. Open debate “Many cultures - one Europe”, international festival “Europe Day”, St. Petersburg, 2011.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Approaches to the definition of the concept of “multiculturalism” and its semantic levels. Globalization and migration as factors in the activation of multicultural processes. "Multiculturalism" in the system of international relations of the EU countries. Russia as a multi-ethnic state.

thesis, added 06/04/2013


Determining the presence in world culture of various local, regional, national, ethnic differences in the characteristics of the historical conditions for the formation of customs and traditions. Consideration of A. Mohl's model of the spread of cultural samples.

test, added 04/25/2010


Concept and role cultural heritage. The concept of cultural conservatism in Great Britain. Development of the concept of cultural heritage in Russia and the USA. Financing of cultural objects. Venice Convention for the Protection of the Cultural and Natural Heritage.

test, added 01/08/2017


The modern museum world of Russia. The period between world wars. The formation of museum business in 1917 - early 1920s. Mass nationalization of cultural property. Preservation of cultural heritage and familiarization with it. Development of local history museums.

thesis, added 03/25/2011


Multiculturalism: theoretical and doctrinal level of research into the essence and main problems of European multiculturalism. Sweden, the Netherlands and Great Britain face the problem of multiculturalism. The origins of German "multiculturalism" and its significance.

course work, added 06/22/2012


The concept of the game concept of culture as a whole. The game concept of culture as interpreted by J. Huizinga, X. Ortega y Gasset and E. Fink. A brief plot and game concept of culture in G. Hesse’s novel “The Glass Bead Game.” Reflection of problematic ideological aspects.

abstract, added 11/10/2011


Studying the concept of multiculturalism, rules and norms of coexistence of different cultures and their carriers in a single legal, social, economic field. Assessment of the policy of multiculturalism as a means of developing a modern multinational state.

abstract, added 04/29/2015


Trends in cultural globalization in modern culture. Functions musical culture and its transformation in the modern world. Features of local musical and cultural traditions. Ways of their functioning in the conditions of modern Russian society.

thesis, added 07/16/2014


Forms of continuity and general characteristics of traditions and rituals as the most effective ways of transmitting cultural values, their role in older schoolchildren’s ideas about the family. Methods of transferring cultural values ​​in the East and Slavic countries.

course work, added 08/30/2011


The essence of multiculturalism, its modern meaning in scientific discourse. The meaning of globalization and its role in the processes of migration and integration of various cultural minority groups. Main features of multiculturalism in Germany, France, USA and Canada.

By the beginning of the 19th century, the Spanish colonial empire in America had a territory of more than 10 million square kilometers and stretched from San Francisco to Cape Horn. Huge spaces tropical forests, chains of mountains, vast plains, the pampas, great rivers such as the Amazon, constituted the wealth of this continent.

To be able to administer these lands, the Spanish crown divided them into four viceroyalties: New Spain, New Granada, the Kingdom of La Plata and Peru.

At the beginning of the 19th century, a patriotic movement of Creoles arose in the Spanish colonies of America, thinking about secession from Spain. Secret organizations were created in the colonies, and the “Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen” and other documents of the French Revolution were illegally published and distributed.

The defeat of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain by Napoleon's army created favorable conditions for the rise of the liberation movement in the Spanish colonies.

"War to the Death"

In 1811, an independent republic was proclaimed in Venezuela. The liberation movement was led by the Patriotic Society, in which wealthy Creoles played a leading role. Among them, the young officer Simon Bolivar stood out. A widely educated man, a brilliant speaker and publicist, he also possessed extraordinary talent as a commander.

At first, the leaders of the liberation movement saw their task only in expelling the colonialists and did not seek to change the existing order. The blacks and Indians did not support them. Taking this into account, Bolivar issued decrees in which he promised to provide freedom to slaves who joined the revolutionary army, and land to peasants. 5 thousand volunteers arrived from European countries to help the rebels.

However, Bolivar understood that Venezuela could not defend its independence alone. He led his army to help the neighboring country - New Granada.

It was a legendary crossing of the Andes. Every day it became colder. The rain turned to snow. The icy wind knocked me off my feet. Mountain falls and trees torn out by the storm blocked the way.

All the horses died, the soldiers lost consciousness from lack of oxygen, and fell into the abyss. Bolivar, in a tattered general's uniform, led the vanguard, inspiring the soldiers with his courage. Of the 3,400 soldiers, only 1,500 came down from the mountains.

The Spanish troops were defeated. Venezuela and New Granada united into a single state - Gran Colombia.

In an effort to strengthen the independence of the young Latin American states, Bolivar advocated their unification into a confederation. He constantly fought for the creation of a democratic republic where skin color would not matter. But Bolivar tried in vain to unite the new independent states that had a common language and religion. The establishment of his personal dictatorship, although motivated by a desire to prevent the collapse of Gran Colombia, aroused resistance. The growth of discontent was expressed in numerous conspiracies and uprisings. Bolivar's power was overthrown in Peru and Bolivia, then Venezuela and Ecuador separated from Colombia.

On September 25, 1829, conspirators entered the Presidential Palace in Bogota with the aim of killing the “Liberator”, but he managed to escape. Bolívar's influence and popularity declined and he resigned in early 1830. An ill and disillusioned Bolívar wrote shortly before his death in 1830: “He who serves the revolution plows the sea!”

Only many years later his merits received universal recognition. The memory of him is preserved in the name of one of the South American republics - Bolivia.

The bourgeois revolution of 1820 in Portugal led to a new rise in the Brazilian independence movement. Brazil was declared an independent empire.

In 1868, a massive uprising began against the Spanish colonialists in Cuba. And the following year the independent Cuban Republic was proclaimed. For ten years, the army, armed with pikes and machetes, fought the Spaniards, but the rebels' resistance was broken. And only at the very end of the 19th century did the Cuban people free themselves from colonial dependence.

Results and significance of the liberation war

The national liberation movement in Latin America ended in victory. In all independent countries, except Brazil, a republican system was established. But some states that were formed during the war for independence, due to deep internal contradictions and the struggle of various factions, turned out to be fragile and collapsed. Political independence put an end to numerous restrictions that had hampered the economic development of the colonies. More favorable conditions have been created for the development of the capitalist system and entry into the world market.

Slavery was abolished in independent states, although not immediately. In Venezuela, Colombia and Peru it survived until the 50s, and in Brazil until the 80s of the 19th century. The poll tax and forced labor service of the indigenous population in favor of private individuals, the state and the church were abolished. During the 19th century, a parliamentary system was established in all newly emerged states and constitutions were adopted. Of no small importance was the destruction of the Inquisition, the class system, and the abolition of noble titles.

The national self-awareness of Latin Americans also strengthened; they began to understand that they belonged to a certain nation that had the right to create an independent state.

A number of scientists believe that the liberation wars were bourgeois revolution. But there is another point of view that denies the revolutionary significance of these events. Moreover, the creation of republics did not bring new classes to power. The peasants did not receive land, but the owners of the latifundia retained huge estates and political power. The development of capitalism in Latin American countries has taken a long and painful path.

Century of the Caudillo

After the War of Independence in political life peace was not established between the young states. They began to fight against each other to seize more territory. This was accompanied by a frenzied struggle for the presidency within each individual country. As a rule, power fell into the hands of military or civilian leaders during the Revolutionary War, who seized it by force of arms. Such a leader - a caudillo - relied either on the people or on the landowners.

In Latin American civilization there are many features of a traditional civilization, when “clan” ties prevail between the “patron” (master), the “leader” and the masses subordinate to him (“clientela” - from the word “client”). Typically, clan ties are stronger than class ties.

The essence of this phenomenon is that a circle of people rallies around a “strong” personality, hoping to solve their problems with the help of a “patron”. In the political struggle, the personal qualities of the leader and his ability to control the crowd, winning their trust, came to the fore. Under these conditions, friendly ties become more important than the law. This relationship is expressed by the principle: “Everything is for friends, and for enemies it is law.” Often, behind the mask of a “crowd favorite,” ambition and fierce rivalry between individual families were hidden.

The 19th century saw constant coups d'etat, rigged elections and bloody civil wars. Perhaps it was not in the 19th century. There is not a single country in Latin America that has managed to avoid “caudilism.”

Slow economic development

Decades of internecine wars have had a disastrous effect on the economic development of Latin American countries. Their economy was focused mainly on the production and export abroad of agricultural products or minerals - copper and silver. However, in mid-19th century, a number of countries are drawn into the world market.

Rich deposits of silver were discovered in Chile in 1832, the need for which was increasing in Europe; After the US captured California, Chilean grain was actively exported there. By the end of the 19th century, Chile mastered the extraction of saltpeter and began exporting it to the world market. Between 1880 and 1910, the country's industrial output increased by 2% annually.

In Argentina, in the second half of the 19th century, the free trade camp gained strength as favorable circumstances arose for this. The Industrial Revolution on the European continent increased the need for food and raw materials. Domestic demand for goods also expanded, which was facilitated by a large influx of immigrants providing the country with labor.

By the end of the 19th century, Argentina's economy rested on two strong pillars - livestock and agriculture. Livestock farming involved raising livestock and exporting frozen meat, 2/3 of which was supplied to London.

The abolition of slavery and the influx of immigrants created the conditions for the development of a capitalist economy in Brazil. By the beginning of the 20th century, the main source of income remained the export of coffee, gold, silver and tropical fruits. Gold and silver were exported from Mexico, and coffee and indigo (a dye) from Colombia. Industrial enterprises under construction and railways ended up in the hands of foreign capital.

By the beginning of the 20th century, the countries of the Latin American region looked as follows in terms of the level of capitalist development: the group of the most developed countries consisted of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Cuba, Venezuela, Chile; Bolivia, Mexico and Peru were much more backward, where huge masses of landless, enslaved peasantry remained. In fact, the economic system of colonial times, based on the dominance of large landowners, dominated here.

Latin American melting pot

The 19th century was the time of the formation of Latin American nations. They were formed from representatives of different peoples living within the borders of one state. As in the USA, there was a “melting pot” here, in which different races and nations mixed: Indians, blacks, people from Spain and Portugal, and from other European countries.

Society in Latin American countries was formed under the influence of Spanish and Portuguese customs; hierarchy was always observed in the system of relations between people here. Everyone here had to know their place, their clan, and connect their well-being with the “big” or “small” patron, the caudillo. Hence the tendency to establish authoritarian regimes.

Peculiarities of beliefs among Catholics in Latin America

The Catholic religion had a great influence on the formation of nations. In Mexico, for example, back in the 16th century, the cult of the Holy Virgin Mary, Our Lady of Guadalupe, was formed. Gradually, from a local one, it turned into a cult that embraced the population of the entire country and united the people of Mexico. Anyone who worshiped Saint Mary of Guadalupe was considered to belong to the Mexican nation.

In general, the Catholic religion and the Catholic Church played a very important role in the life of Latin Americans. The Catholic Church, through its parishes, influenced 90% of the population of Latin America.

But since the traditions of Catholicism were established on a continent where the indigenous population were Indians, the Catholic religion in Latin America has a number of features. First of all, this is a huge number of saints, whose sculptural images were zealously worshiped by the population, and home chapels. Scientists believe that the Indians, after the destruction of their idols by the colonialists, transferred their desire to worship “divine powers” ​​to Catholicism, idolize them and even turn them into a simple amulet. Among various segments of the population there have always been stories about “miracles”, about the “appearances” of saints. The fact is that in Latin American countries, since pre-Columbian times, it has been customary to use substances that cause hallucinations. This tradition spread from the Indians to the poor white population.

A special civilization has formed in Latin America, different from European and North American. Wars of independence, the acquisition of this independence, and then decades of bloody internecine wars, the slow development of capitalism, the resolution of conflicts not so much through reforms as through revolutions and the establishment of authoritarian regimes, the weakness of democracy made the history of Latin Americans tragic.

Yudovskaya A.Ya., Baranov P.A., Vanyushkina L.M. New story