Indian city. Trade and craft
Despite the predominance of natural forms of economy, trade and commodity-money relations received a very significant development in feudal India, but they were associated with the feudal mode of production. On the irrigated lands of India, as noted by the famous Soviet Indologist I.M. Reisner, “the ratio of the necessary product used to reproduce the labor force of the peasant, his family and household, and the surplus product taken by the feudal lords was... more favorable for the exploiters than in the natural-geographical environment of a temperate climate.” As a result, the Indian feudal lords concentrated their large number products received as rent-tax. The feudal lord could not only satisfy his own needs and the needs of his servants for food agriculture and village crafts, but also had a significant surplus for sale. Indian merchants were closely associated with the feudal lords, and the feudal lords themselves, including the Great Mogul, were often engaged in trade.
Peculiarities feudal relations largely determined the character of the Indian city. Many of the Indian cities arose as headquarters of large feudal lords. Such a city was closely connected with the feudal lord and his army. The population of the city consisted of numerous artisans and merchants, who served mainly the feudal lord and his servants, servants, guards, and warriors. Often cities of this type also became important centers of trade, but their economic connection with the countryside was weak. If the feudal lord's headquarters moved, major cities grew weaker. For example, the richest city of Fathpur Sikri, which at one time was the capital of Emperor Akbar, fell into complete decline a few years after Akbar moved to Agra. “In the very center it is all in ruins...” wrote an Englishman who visited Fathpur Sikri at the beginning of the 17th century. - The buildings are empty, without inhabitants. A significant part of the soil is divided into vegetable gardens...”
In addition to the cities that arose as the headquarters of feudal lords, there were also cities that served as centers of internal trade and craft. But here too the feudal lords dominated. Together with the corresponding region or district, the city was also transferred to the feudal lords as a jagir.
Indian cities did not have self-government. The social division of labor between city and village was weaker than in European countries, because in India the needs of the rural population for handicraft products were almost completely satisfied by village community artisans. Nevertheless, the Indian cities themselves could not do without the import of food and agricultural raw materials from the villages.
The underdevelopment of the social division of labor between city and countryside made it difficult to form elements of capitalist relations, despite the fact that exchange and commodity-money relations became widespread in feudal India. Under these conditions, a significant share of the products that fell into the sphere of commodity-money circulation was exported to other countries. It is significant that in India, which had almost no deposits of precious metals, as a result of extensive foreign trade, a huge amount of gold and silver was concentrated.
Religious relations
By religious affiliation, about three-quarters of India's population were followers of Hinduism (Hindus). Hinduism combines numerous religious ideas, beliefs and rituals that have developed among the peoples of India over thousands of years. It does not have strictly canonized holy books (such as the Koran among Muslims). Hindus consider not only the Vedas their sacred books, but also the epic poems “Mahabharata” and “Ramayana”. Synthesized in Hinduism, numerous folk beliefs recognize a large number of gods who are considered to be incarnations of the main gods: Brahma, the creator god, the creator of the universe and all living things; Vishnu, representing the ever-living nature; Shiva, personifying her formidable powers and ability for constant rebirth. The Hindu religion states that the purpose of life is to connect man with God. It requires respect for caste distinctions. The cow is considered a sacred animal by Hindus; its meat is forbidden to be eaten.
The Arab and subsequent Muslim conquests brought Islam to Hindustan, which became widespread in the north-west and East Bengal. He was state religion the Mughal Empire, the religion of the majority of the feudal nobility. Muslims constituted approximately a quarter of the population of Hindustan.
A relatively small part of the population professed Buddhism, Jainism and other beliefs.
Buddhism arose in India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Its creation is attributed to the legendary Shakya Muni, who appeared in the form of Prince Gautama. According to Buddhist dogmas, the external world is illusory and is only a product of the consciousness of individual beings, a manifestation of the movement of mystical immaterial “particles” - “dharmas”. Certain combinations of “dharmas” determine the consciousness of every living being. Changing such a combination means the death of this creature and its reincarnation into another living creature. Every person, every living creature is the result of past reincarnations. New reincarnations await him. An all-powerful ruler can transform into a slave or animal, and a slave into a ruler. The nature of these reincarnations depends on the ratio of virtues and sins. At the same time, human life is interpreted as suffering. Therefore, Buddhists strive to achieve “nirvana” (literally, “extinction”), when the process of reincarnation, and therefore suffering, will completely cease. People who have achieved the greatest holiness and immersed themselves in “nirvana” are called Buddhas (lit., “enlightened one”). The main Buddha is Shakya Muni (Buddha).
In the Middle Ages, Buddhism lost its importance in India, but became widespread in a number of other Asian countries.
Some provisions of Jainism are close to Hinduism and Buddhism. Jainism also does not allow any violence against any living beings. Moreover, Jains do not engage in agriculture, because plowing can kill a living being; they cover their nose and mouth to prevent them from inhaling or swallowing any insects.
Often religious differences were intertwined with class contradictions. In some areas, peasants professed Hinduism, and feudal lords professed Islam. It also happened the other way around. Often religious fanaticism led to mutual hostility and intolerance. At the same time, the Muslim feudal nobility was forced to take into account that Hindus constituted the majority of the population of the Mughal Empire, and to show religious tolerance and loyalty towards them. The centuries-old coexistence of the two main religions of the peoples of Hindustan has also given rise to a strong tendency towards rapprochement between Hindus and Muslims. Among the working population of India, religious reformist teachings calling for friendship and brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims were very popular. “The mutual desire of working Hindus and Muslims for friendship was so great,” notes Indian historian Prof. Kabiraj, - that Muslim emirs and padishahs and Hindu rajas, in order to maintain their influence on the people, had to carry out measures that would help maintain friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims.” Before the arrival of the British colonialists, religious contradictions, as a rule, were not irreconcilable. However, the religious situation in Hindustan could, under certain conditions, be used to incite discord between Hindus and Muslims.
Caste system
The dogmas of the Hindu religion reinforced the division of Hindus into numerous castes. The first caste divisions arose in ancient india. Later they became the basis of the hierarchical structure of feudal society. The highest castes were considered brahmins (priests) and kshatriyas (warriors). They were followed by merchant (trading and usurious) castes, and then a huge number of agricultural and craft castes. At the very bottom of the caste ladder were the “untouchable” castes. In various parts of India and among its various peoples, a diverse caste structure has developed with numerous castes and subcastes, the total number of which exceeded 3 thousand. Castes of scribes, weavers, blacksmiths, sweepers, tanners, etc. arose. Craft castes were also guild associations.
The behavior of caste members was strictly regulated, communication between people of higher and lower castes was limited, marriages between them were prohibited, expulsion from the caste placed a person outside of society.
The caste system divided the working population; it served the ruling classes as an instrument of exploitation of the peasantry and artisans. The position of the “untouchable” castes was especially humiliating and powerless. Even the shadow of an “untouchable” was believed to pollute a higher caste Hindu. Some groups of "untouchables" were required to wear special bells to warn of their approach; when representatives of higher castes appeared, they had to move twenty steps to the side of the road.
In the Mughal Empire, caste often no longer corresponded to the actual property and social status of people. It happened that a person of the highest caste became a poor peasant. On the other hand, many Maratha princes and feudal lords came from lower castes. However, the entire social system of India contributed to the preservation of the caste system, and later it was fully supported by the British colonialists.
Economic development of India
Although the unification of India under the rule of the Mughal padishahs was not durable, the formation of a single empire reduced feudal strife, thereby facilitating the development of trade and exchange. The first signs of agricultural specialization appeared in certain regions of the country. Rent-tax in kind was replaced by money rent. The economic isolation of village communities was gradually weakened. Village handicrafts, especially cotton fabrics, began to appear more often on the markets. At the same time, the economic role of Indian cities increased, the number of urban artisans and merchants increased, and the exchange between city and countryside became more noticeable. The first manufactories appeared.
In the XVI and first half XVII century There was a noticeable economic rise of the Mughal Empire. It was accompanied by an exacerbation of the contradictions of the feudal social system.
The development of commodity-money relations in the absence of a capitalist structure led to the growth of trade and usurious capital. Communal peasants and urban artisans fell into bondage to moneylenders. The Frenchman Tavernier, who visited India in the second half of the 17th century, noted: “In India, a village must be very small if it does not have a money changer... who acts as a banker.” In a number of cases, moneylenders ruined not only the peasantry, but also the feudal nobility.
From the second half XVII V. The social contradictions of feudal society are significantly aggravated. Feudal exploitation became so severe that it became more and more difficult for communal peasants to maintain their farms. Increasingly, peasants abandoned their fields and fled their villages.
The growth of social contradictions and economic decline made the intensification of the class struggle inevitable. Anti-feudal protests by the masses became one of the decisive factors in the weakening and collapse of the Mughal power. They were closely intertwined with religious movements and national ones. the new struggle of individual peoples of India against the oppression of the Mughal Empire.
From 1526 to 1707 On the territory of India there was the Mughal Empire, which began with Babur, a poet and historian. He is the author of the famous poem "Baburname", which describes the economy and culture of the countries he conquered. He gave the Hindus a low rating, describing them as “infidels.”
Economic transformation
Babur and Sher Shah, who ruled after him, did a lot to strengthen central government. Under Sher Shah, several main roads were built in India, connecting Delhi with Bengal, Indus, etc. Under him, important economic transformations were carried out: the compilation of a general land cadastre began, the average amount of rent-tax was set at 1/3, and the nature of land ownership of military leaders - jagirdars - was streamlined.
In the Mughal Empire there were two forms of state ownership of land: khalisa-state fund, which included all conquered lands, and jagirs - granted lands, in exchange for which those who received were obliged to supply a certain number of soldiers to the ruler’s army. Usually, after the death of the owner, the jagir went to the treasury and was not inherited. In the Mughal Empire there was also private land ownership: the property of zaminadars, local princes and tribal leaders, which they passed on by inheritance.
About 3% of all lands were owned by the Muslim clergy and Hindu temples. Such lands were not subject to taxation, indicating religious tolerance in the empire. For example, ruler Akbar tried at the beginning of the 17th century. even create some kind of synthetic religion, designed to put an end to religious strife among the subjects, which was causing enormous harm to the country’s economy and distracting state power from failure to perform, for example, such a function as maintaining the irrigation system.
Trade. Cities. Transport
Significant place in the Indian economy in the 16th-17th centuries. foreign trade occupied. From India there were sea routes to Africa, Arabia, Europe, and China. Internal trade also developed, conducted by both large merchants and hawkers. The developing usury, together with the development of the internal market, contributed to the unification of the country, which consisted of many tribes, castes, nationalities, and religions. The state introduces uniform measures and monetary units.
With the growth of trade and crafts, cities grow, and with the growth of cities, trade and crafts develop. Thus, the emergence of a city at a place of pilgrimage contributed to the production of religious objects and the development of trade in essential items for the pilgrims who flocked there. The development of cities was associated not only with the development of crafts, but also with the improvement artisan specializations. Thus, construction workers were concentrated in Agra, shipbuilders in Bengal, and inlay craftsmen in Gujarat. The products of Indian artisans were distinguished by high craftsmanship and careful finishing. In addition, the list of craftsmen's occupations kept growing: they made paper, jewelry, gear, squeezed vegetable oil, mined iron, non-ferrous metals, salt, saltpeter, and building stone.
Gradually formed pan-Indian market, Economic ties between cities and regions of the country were strengthened. The main water transport artery of the country was river Ganges, along which active transportation of goods was carried out. So, wheat, rice, sugar, expensive silk and cotton fabrics were brought up the river from Bengal, and back to Bengal - salt from Rajputana, products of Lahore artisans, primarily chain mail, as well as horses and the famous Kashmiri shawls. The state of affairs on the market was largely determined by the grain harvest, which was the main equivalent in commodity relations. The harvest was directly related to irrigation. The irrigation function has always been the most important for Indian rulers, who actively fought feudal strife, which caused great harm to it.
Reasons for the decline of the empire
The religious tolerance of the rulers, their development of the irrigation function, and the encouragement of trade, crafts and urban planning contributed to the economic development of the empire. However, this development did not last long and under Aurangzeb the empire actually ceased to exist due to his internal policies. The Sunni fanatic Aurangzeb persecuted and destroyed everything non-Sunni: he destroyed temples and introduced the jizya (poll tax for non-Muslims) abolished by Akbar, persecuted Hindus and Shiites.
Religious persecution caused discontent and protest among the population, resulting in all sorts of unrest and popular movements, which undermined and then destroyed the economy, and after it the empire itself. The British took advantage of this. An era has begun colonization of India(XVIII-mid-XX centuries).
Review questions
1. How did the Varna-caste system affect the development of the economy?
2. Explain the specifics of the economy of each of the three stages of medieval India.
3. Describe the role peasant community and states in the economy of medieval India.
4. Tell us about the sectoral structure of the Indian economy during the Middle Ages.
Asian countries in the 16th – 18th centuries
Formation of the Baburid Empire. In the 16th century, India was a politically fragmented country. She was weakened internecine wars. The Afghan ruler Zakhiriddin Muhammad Babur, who closely monitored the internal political situation of the neighboring country, took advantage of the situation and decided to launch a military campaign in India in order to seize it.
During this period, the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India was ruled by the Lodian dynasty.
Babur Mirzo's military campaign in India began at the end of 1525. On April 21, 1526, the Battle of Panipat took place, where Babur's 12,000-strong army defeated the 100,000-strong army of Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. On April 27, a khutbah was read in Delhi - a sermon in honor of Babur Mirzo, the new ruler of Delhi. Thus, the Baburid Empire was founded, which went down in history under the name of the Great Mogul Empire, which lasted 332 years. Babur endowed the warriors who remained with him in India with jagirs - allotments. Local Hindus, who knew local traditions well, were entrusted with conducting economic affairs on these lands.
Babur ruled the empire for three years; he died in 1530. Before his death, he divided the vast territory of the empire between his sons. The imperial throne, and with it India, went to his eldest son Humayun. Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar and other territories were divided among the other three sons, who were ordered to obey their elder brother Humayun.
Political situation in the empire. Humayun tried to expand the borders of the empire. His main enemy in this struggle was Sherkhan Sur, the leader of the Afghan tribes located in Bihor and Bengal. In battles with Sherkhan Sur, Humayun lost and was forced to retreat to Iran. Sherkhan took the Indian throne and declared himself Shah. He and his sons ruled the country from 1540 to 1554.
This period is characterized by acute internecine struggle, which led India to a difficult political state. Humayun skillfully took advantage of the current situation. Deprived of the throne, he nevertheless formed a strong army of Turks, Persians, Turkmens and Uzbeks. In 1555, Humayun defeated Skandarshah Sur, who was in power, and regained the Indian throne. But he didn't occupy him for long. A year later he dies in an accident.
Empire during the period of Akbarshah. In 1556, Humayun's place was taken by his minor son Akbar (1542 - 1605), who later became famous as the “Great Akbar.” He is one of the most prominent representatives of the Baburid dynasty.
Akbarshah always followed a far-sighted policy. He carried out a number of reforms aimed at strengthening the central government apparatus. Developed new laws relating to land taxes and public administration. Abolished a number of local taxes, including jizyu - tax levied on Hindu pilgrims.
Akbarshah streamlined trade relations within the country and established international trade through maritime trade routes. He built caravanserais and wells along the overland trade routes. These measures contributed to improving the financial situation of the country; they also played an important role in the unification and centralization of the state. Akbarshah's foreign policy activities culminated in some expansion of the borders of his possessions due to victories over the Afghan tribes located in India. In 1559, he finally defeated his main enemies - representatives of the Sur dynasty.
Akbarshah was not only a skilled commander and a wise statesman, but also a widely educated man. Deep knowledge of philosophy, history, literature, theology (religion) helped to delve even deeper into the needs of the common people, to unite representatives different nationalities and different religions.
All this contributed to the growth of his popularity both among the people and among the upper Indian classes, which, in turn, led to the strengthening and worldwide fame Mughal Empire.
The further state of the empire. Starting from the second half of the 17th century, a struggle for the throne unfolded in the empire. It intensified during the reign (1627 - 1658) of Shah Jahan (grandson of Akbarshah). In this struggle for the crown, Aurangzeb, one of his sons, won. In 1658 he occupied Delhi and declared himself Shah. During the reign (1658 - 1707) of Aurangzeb, the borders of the empire expanded incredibly, and the Mughal power reached the peak of its glory. At the same time, conditions for a period of crisis were brewing during Aurangzeb's reign. In addition to economic reasons and internal discontent of representatives of the aristocracy and conquered territories, this was also facilitated by the personal qualities of Aurangzeb himself. He was extremely distrustful of those around him and suspicious. In addition, he was a guardian of one religion - Islam. He believed that the throne was given to him from above in order to spread Islam, so he followed the path of inducing representatives of other religions to this faith. This policy did not give rise to submission, but to enmity of that part of the population that were not Muslims.
Since 1679, Hindu pilgrims again began to pay “jizya.” Muslim merchants were exempt from tax, and Hindu merchants paid a tax of 5% of the value of the goods. Hindus who held high positions in tax institutions were gradually relieved of their positions. Such politics brought the Baburid empire to a deep crisis after the death of Aurangzeb. internal struggle for the throne, and the colonial expansion of European countries began.
England and India. During this difficult period for the empire, the arrival of Europeans to India intensified. European powers had long been aiming to take possession of India's untold riches and its fertile land. And now the hour of conquest has come. In 1757, the British army occupied Bengal. This rich territory later became a stronghold for further colonization of the country. So, gradually, England began to conquer India.
Jagir - in the Baburid Empire, land allocated for military service.
Khalis are government lands.
At the beginning of the 16th century. The territory of India was divided into the possessions of numerous Muslim and Hindu dynasties. Some of them covered vast lands and played the role of regional leaders (Delhi Sultanate, Gujarat, Golconda, Bijapur, Vijayanagar), while others were located in the peripheral regions of the subcontinent and had little influence on “big politics” (Assam, Khandesh, Malwa, Bengal, Orissa , Sindh and others).
DELHI AND GUJARAT SULTANATES
The once mighty Delhi Sultanate, after its defeat by Timur in 1398, covered only the middle part of the Ganges and Jamna basin. The Afghan Lodi dynasty had been in power there since 1451. Sikandar Shah (1489–1517) somewhat expanded the boundaries of the state and tried to rein in the Afghan freemen, who considered the Sultan “first among equals.” Checks that had already been forgotten by that time began tax reporting, executions for embezzlement and theft. But Sikandar also showed himself to be a zealous, fanatical Muslim. During his reign, Hindu temples began to be destroyed again. Hindus were prohibited from performing religious ablutions in the Jumna, and barbers were prohibited from shaving Hindu pilgrims. They say that a certain Brahmin was killed simply because he declared in the presence of Muslims that his religion was no worse than Islam. Sikandar's son Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526) tried to continue his father's policies of consolidating power, but his cruelty sparked a series of revolts. The ruler of the Rajput principality of Mewar, Rana Sanga (1509–1528, Sesodia clan), thanks to successful actions against Ibrahim Lodi, significantly expanded his possessions at the expense of the lands of the Delhi Sultanate. Tough domestic politics and the military failures of the Sultan led to the fact that part of the Afghan nobility invited the ruler of Kabul, Zahir ad-din Babur, to invade India. In 1526, the Delhi Sultanate was destroyed, and the Mughal Empire arose in North India.
Located to the southwest, the Gujarat Sultanate reached its greatest power under Abu-l Fath Mahmud, better known by the nickname (the exact meaning of which is unknown) Mahmud Begara (1458–1511). He carried out fairly successful reforms, tried to streamline management, sought to develop agriculture and crafts, and encouraged trade in every possible way. Under him, Gujarat turned into a prosperous region, the “workshop of India” and one of the main centers of foreign trade. However, this is precisely what attracted Europeans here, who began to establish trading posts on the coast of Gujarat. The Sultans of Gujarat were constantly at enmity with their eastern neighbors - the Khandesh (between the Narbada and Tapti rivers) and Malwa sultanates. Gujarat's success in the confrontation with Malwa was facilitated by the internal political struggle in the principality, in which Hindus played a large role, occupying a number of key positions in government. This caused rivalry with the Muslim nobility, who did not want to lose political influence. The apparent victory of the Hindu group, which monopolized government under the Muslim sultan, led to the outflow of Muslims from Malwa, its weakening and capture by Gujarat in 1531. However, during the 16th century. the Gujarat Sultanate itself gradually weakened. This allowed the Portuguese to gain a foothold in many of Gujarat's ports and then made it easier for the Mughals to conquer it and incorporate it into their empire in 1573.
SULTANATES OF THE DEAN
In the central part of India, it replaced the one that collapsed at the end of the 15th century. A number of sultanates came to the Bahmanid state (Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar and Berar), which actively fought with each other, Orissa and the Vijayanagar empire located to the south. The most powerful of them were Bijapur in the Western Deccan and Golconda in the Eastern Deccan. The Adil Shahi dynasties of Bijapur and the Qutb Shahis of Golconda were Shia dynasties. This increased the alienation between them and the North Indian states, in which the bulk of Muslims belonged to Sunnis. The Deccan states, especially Bijapur, had close relations with Shia Iran. From there came new military personnel, as well as horses, which were an important strategic commodity at that time. The bulk of the population of the Deccan Sultanates continued to be representatives of various Hindu ethnic groups. In the 16th century On the territory of Golconda there was a process of cultural formation of the Andhra (Telugu) people, on the territory of Bijapur - the Marathas.
The founder of Bijapur was married to a Maratha woman and she became the mother of his heir. Hindus were appointed to high positions in the administration. The language of official documentation was Marathi. The involvement of Maratha territorial leaders with their troops in the Sultan's army made it possible to significantly increase its power. True, this same circumstance later turned out to be disastrous for the state. Having strengthened, the Maratha leaders fought for independence and weakened the sultanate in the face of the Mughal onslaught.
In Golconda, Hindus also played an important role in the state. Ibrahim Qutb Shah (1550–1580) was married to a Telugu woman. He supported Telugu culture: he patronized brahmins and temples, encouraged the development of the Telugu language, and poets who became the founders of Telugu literature wrote at his court. Religious holidays of both faiths were held jointly. The architectural style of buildings in the cities of that time bears clear traces of Hindu influence. Nevertheless, information remains about the destruction of temples and forced conversion to Islam.
"DIAMONDS OF GOLCONDA"
For centuries, India has been famous for its precious stones, especially diamonds. Attracted by stories about the fabulous riches of India, many merchants went there to buy jewelry. Before the era of the Greats geographical discoveries Diamonds reached Europe along the part of the Silk Road that passed through Persia. But after the Portuguese settled in Goa, precious stones began to be exported by sea to Lisbon, and from there to Antwerp, where the main diamond exchange was located at that time. One of the diamond deposits was located on the territory of Golconda and for several centuries brought significant income to the rulers of this state. Rich merchants took over diamond-bearing areas and developed them with the help of hired diggers, giving the governors part of the found stones. The French traveler Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689), who himself was a jeweler and traveled to India several times to purchase precious stones there, paid special attention in his notes on his trips (1676) to the story of diamond mines, in various ways stone processing and the system of trading in precious stones, leaving a number of interesting sketches.
Thanks to their coastal position, Golconda and Bijapur conducted active foreign trade. Trade duties constituted an important part of government revenue. In 1510, the Portuguese captured the port of Goa and surrounding areas. In 1570, Ali Adil Shah tried to oust the Portuguese from Goa, but was defeated. However, by the end of the 16th century. Bijapur's relations with the Portuguese stabilized. After the loss of Goa, Bijapur retained several important ports, including Chaul and Dabhol, which allowed the sultanate to retain income from foreign trade.
VIJAYANAGAR
South of the Deccan Sultanates at the beginning of the 16th century. The Vijayanagar Empire continued to flourish. In 1505, the reign of a new dynasty began, the second ruler of which, Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529), again turned Vijayanagar into a powerful state. He subjugated the willful vassals with fire and sword, pushed the boundaries of the empire as far as possible (in the north - up to the Krishna River), and actively intervened in the feuds of the Deccan sultans. His courtyard became a center of science and art. Many monumental and beautiful buildings remain from his time, primarily in the capital of the empire - the city of Vijayanagar (modern Hampi). Vijayanagara's alliance with the Portuguese provided Krishnadevaraya with significant trade and political benefits. The Portuguese sold horses for cavalry to him rather than to Bijapur and Golconda.
Statue of Lakshmi Narasimha. Vijayanagar city. India
But Vijayanagar did not turn into a centralized state with an extensive administrative apparatus. A constant threat of collapse hung over the empire. The ruler had to maintain his prestige by personally reminding his vassals of their dependence. In the poem "Rayavachakam", supposedly reflecting the realities of Krishnadevaraya's time, the first minister advises the sovereign: “Nothing can be known by staying in one place. It is necessary... that the people... know that Your Majesty maintains his glory by traveling around the kingdom in all directions, accompanied by an army... in order to strike fear into the hearts of enemies and subject rulers.
The empire consisted of 10 provinces, headed by military leaders (dandanayaks). The lands were distributed to the Nayaks for lobster (“feeding”). It was a conditional but fairly permanent possession. Having no formal right of inheritance, the Nayaks often passed the Amaras on to their sons. The nayak was obliged to take care of the development of agriculture, crafts and trade within the estate, maintain order, maintain a military contingent, and give approximately 1/3 of tax revenues to the treasury. The Nayak seized real power locally, subjugating and apparently dissolving the district community assemblies. Over time, the Nayaks became more independent.
The Vijayanagar Empire played a major role in the development of the culture of the Dravidian peoples of South India, especially Kannada and Telugu. Indirectly, the existence of the empire and the associated economic growth of the entire region contributed to the flowering of culture in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
The rulers of Vijayanagara were known for their religious tolerance. Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese traveler of the early 16th century, found it necessary to specifically note this feature of life in Vijayanagara: “The king allows such freedom that everyone can live according to his faith without any trouble and without questions about whether he is a Christian, or a Jew, or Muslim or pagan. Equality and justice are respected by all." An indicator of tolerance is, in particular, the fact that the armies of the opposing Deccan Sultanates and Vijayanagara were not religiously homogeneous. There were many Muslims serving in Vijayanagara. And the Muslim rulers were helped by the Hindu princes who ruled in Orissa and Andhra. For the first time, the war against Vijayanagara was declared religious (jihad) only in 1502, i.e., a century and a half after the start of these wars.
After the death of Krishnadevaraya, the title of emperor passed to his brother Acyutaraya, and actual power to Ramaraja of the Aravidu clan. Ramaraja seemed an even more powerful ruler than all the previous ones. He placed the Shahs of Bidar on the throne and intervened for his own benefit in disputes between the Deccan Sultanates. But this policy led to an unexpected result: Bijapur, Bidar, Berar and Golconda united their troops and on January 23, 1565, at the Battle of Talikota (also called the Battle of Krishna) inflicted a crushing defeat on Vijayanagara. Ramaraja fell in battle. His brother Tirumala fled to Vijayanagar, took the treasury collected by generations of Vijayanagar rulers (which required 550 elephants to transport) and retreated to Penugonda. He became the founder of the last Vijayanagara dynasty - the Aravidu. During the offensive, the Muslims plundered and destroyed a large part of the city of Vijayanagara, but then abandoned it. Tirumala reoccupied the city, but did not rebuild it. The capital was moved to Penugonda, then further south to Chandragiri. However, Vijayanagar still retained an important position in the southern part of India. Under Venkata II (1586–1614), the empire covered almost the same territory as in its heyday, but then civil strife began, as a result of which the rulers of the once brilliant state became puppets in the political game of the principalities that arose from its ruins. The last emperors of Vijayanagara practically did not have their own possessions and lived, moving from one formal vassal to another.
ZAHIR-AD-DIN MUHAMMAD BABUR AND HIS CONQUERS
Babur (1483–1530) belonged to the Timurid dynasty, and his mother came from the family of Genghis Khan. Having inherited the throne in Bukhara at the age of 11, he soon entered the fight for Samarkand, which was considered the capital of the Timurids. At the age of 15, he managed to capture the capital, but could not hold it. IN Central Asia At this time, a tribe of Uzbeks led by Shaybani Khan invaded and, after many years of wars, destroyed the remnants of the Timurid Empire. Babur retreated to Afghanistan and settled in Kabul (1504). He managed to rally the Afghan (Pashtun) tribes around himself. When the fight for Central Asia was finally lost, he began to plan a campaign in India. This was facilitated by the appeal to Babur for help from the vassals of Ibrahim Lodi, who antagonized the Afghan nobility. Babur prepared well for the campaign, created a mobile army from Pashtuns and Turks, equipped with significant artillery, and in the spring of 1526 he invaded Panjab (Punjab), and then marched on Delhi. On April 21, 1526, on a plain near the city of Panipat, a decisive battle took place between the armies of Babur and Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.
The Sultan's army was completely defeated, and Babur occupied the capital. But other Indian states also rushed to take advantage of the weakening of the Delhi Sultanate. Babur managed to defeat the most powerful of the then Hindu rulers in the North, Rana Sangu, who ruled in Mewar. After this, Babur was able to be crowned Shahinshah of India in Delhi. He became the founder of a dynasty, which in European literature was called the Great Mughals. In 1529, Babur defeated the combined forces of the Afghans and the Sultan of Bengal and became the undisputed master of Northern India. But in 1530 he died before completing his conquests and creating own system management. Babur's son Humayun initially coped with the difficulties associated with establishing the power of the new dynasty: he suppressed several uprisings and defeated the Sultan of Gujarat. He might have been able to keep the situation under control if an ambitious enemy had not appeared in the person of Farid, a vassal (jagirdar) in Bihar.
REIGN OF SHER SHAH
Farid belonged to the Pathan (Pashtun) family of Sur. In 1533, he took the title Shere Khan and began to expand his possessions at the expense of other jagirdars and the Sultan of Bengal. Then Shere Khan moved against Humayun. As a result of a long war, in 1549 he managed to defeat the padishah. Humayun fled to Persia. Shere Khan was crowned under the name of Sher Shah.
Sher Shah spent his short reign on campaigns. He conquered all of North India, even subjugating the Rajputana principalities. For the first time, the Muslim ruler of Delhi was recognized as the overlord of the Rajasthan princely states. However, Sher Shah did not annex them to his possessions, limiting himself to placing garrisons in Ajmer, Jodhpur, Abu and Chitor. In 1545, Sher Shah accidentally died during the siege of the fortress from the explosion of his own cannon. His son became Shah, then his grandson. The latter was killed by his uncle, the second son of Sher Shah. Infighting within the Sur family weakened their power, and this allowed Humayun to return. In 1555 he entered Delhi and restored Mughal rule. However, he died a year later. The future of the empire remained in doubt.
Sher Shah remained in the memory of his descendants not only thanks to his dizzying career and brilliant victories. He managed to carry out a number of reforms and for the first time introduced regular administrative divisions in Northern India. Its basis was a pargana - a small district, essentially the territory of a large community. At the head of the pargana were three officials - the amin, the shikdar and the treasurer, as well as two scribes, one of whom kept documentation in Hindi and the other in Persian. (Persian was at that time the official court and literary language, the language of culture throughout the Middle East. It became so in India after its Muslim conquest, despite the fact that the native language of the majority of Muslim newcomers was Turkic.) Parganas were united into larger districts (sarkars) headed by a military administrator (shikdar-i-shikdaran) and a civil official (munsif-i-munsifan). Sarkars united into provinces (suba).
Sher Shah reduced the issuance of jagirs (land holdings to military leaders) and waqfs (donations to clergy). He sought to concentrate the collection of taxes in the hands of the government and streamline their collection. A land cadastre was carried out - each plot had to be measured and its productivity determined. The government was entitled to a third of the harvest, which was to be paid at the taxpayer's option either in kind or in cash. The taxpayer had to sign a document (kabuliyat) specifying all his tax obligations, and in turn obtain a title deed (patta) from the official. It is difficult to say to what extent these reforms were actually implemented, but they continued later, during the reign of Akbar.
The monetary system was streamlined. Sher Shah's silver rupee became the main coin of India for several centuries. Much attention was paid to the development of communication and trade routes. Some duties have been eliminated. The main economic centers were connected by roads. 1,700 caravanserais were built along them. Armed posts (dak-chauks) on the roads were supposed to protect travelers from attack by robbers. The “Shah's Road”, which connected Bengal with Punjab, was especially important.
Sher Shah became the forerunner of Akbar in another respect: he began to pursue a policy of religious tolerance and widely recruit Hindus into service. We can say that it was Sher Shah who laid the foundations of a centralized power, which then lasted for a century and a half.
AKBAR'S RULE
When Humayun died, his son Jalaluddin Akbar was 14 years old and acting as governor of Punjab. Until the age of 20, Akbar did not rule independently: significant influence he was influenced by Bairam Khan, an energetic and intelligent military leader and administrator who helped Akbar maintain power, and then by his mother and wives.
Akbar managed to significantly expand the territory of the empire. In 1560–1561 Malwa was annexed. Since 1562, the principality of Jaipur has become one of the most loyal allies of the Mughals in Rajputana. But the principality of Mewar (Udaipur) offered stubborn resistance to Akbar. In 1567–1569 he besieged and took the two most important fortresses of this principality - Chitor (Chitorgarh) and Ranthambhor. After this bloody war, Akbar managed to establish normal, friendly relations with most of the Rajput princes, who became the loyal support of his regime. This was facilitated by Akbar’s religious policy, aimed at the consolidation of all faiths. However, Mewar was never conquered. Rana (prince) of Mewar Pratap Singh (1572–1597) continued guerrilla warfare until his death. Only his son Amar Singh submitted to the next padishah Jahangir in 1614.
In 1572–1573 Gujarat was annexed to the empire, and Bengal in 1574–1576. In 1581–1585 there was a war with Akbar's half-brother Muhammad Hakim, who separated in Kabul. Afghanistan was annexed, although its northern part (Badakhshan) was ceded to the Uzbek ruler Abdullah Khan. In the 80-90s of the 16th century. Akbar annexed Kashmir, Sindh, Khandesh (which, however, had to be conquered again in 1599–1601), Orissa, Balochistan and Kandahar. There was a long struggle with the Ahmednagar Sultanate; in 1600, its capital was taken by storm. However, the southern part of the sultanate remained independent for several more decades.
Akbar waged wars throughout his life, uniting Northern India, most of Afghanistan and parts of the Deccan. However, his main achievements were the establishment of a strong system of governance and taxation, and the creation of an atmosphere of state unity, based on all segments of the wealthy population. Akbar was a tireless worker on the throne. Akbar’s close friend and minister Abul Fazl, expressing the thoughts of his patron, wrote: “The success of governing departments and the satisfaction of the desires of subjects, high and low, depend on how the padishah spends his time.” Every day Akbar convened three meetings of his closest associates or organized large receptions. One day a week was devoted to court cases. He made all financial decisions personally, and made all appointments himself.
India in the 16th–17th centuries.
The second person in the state was the vakil, who was subordinate to four “ministers”: the divan, who was in charge of finances and taxes, the world of bakhshi, who led the armies, the world of saman, who was in charge of workshops and warehouses, and sadr-us-sudur, who was in charge of matters of religion and court. The state consisted of 15 provinces (subas), divided into sarkaras. At the head of the province were the subadar (also known as sipahsalar or nazim), as well as the provincial diwan, bakhshi and treasury, or shdr, i.e., officials of the relevant central departments. Through them, direct control of the central government over provincial affairs was exercised. The rulers tried to adhere to the principle of “separation of powers”: military, tax and religious-judicial.
Akbar introduced the mansabdari system, the “table of ranks.” 33 ranks, or ranks (zat), were established, named after the number of horsemen, which each employee of the empire was symbolically obliged to support. Thus, the entire administrative system looked like an exclusively army one. Even the wives of the padishah in the harem had military ranks, which made it possible to determine the amount of their maintenance. In accordance with the rank, the employee (mansabdar) had the right to a certain salary, which could be issued from the treasury, or in the form of a grant of the right to collect tax from the corresponding territory (jagir). Akbar tried not to distribute many jagirs, keep most of the land under the jurisdiction of the revenue department and transfer the mansabdars to cash allowance. Akbar's army during its greatest expansion numbered 250 thousand people.
Akbar's tax reform was fundamental to the continued preservation of the empire. Initially, Akbar used a rather primitive system of farming. In 1572, he divided the empire into 182 tax districts, each of which was supposed to produce a crore (10 million) dams (coins). Farmers (cururii) contributed this amount to the treasury and received the right to collect taxes from the district for three years. During this time they were obliged to increase agricultural production. This system failed because the cururii uncontrollably collected everything they could without thinking about restoring the farms. But at the same time, data on the yield of various crops was collected for 10 years in all provinces and regions where this was possible. The average yield over these years was determined. Prices at bazaars were fixed, and the average price per unit of product was determined. A third of the average harvest was then expressed in money at the average price, and this amount was applied to each plot. More primitive systems remained on the outskirts of the empire. In Lower Sindh, the Afghan regions and Kashmir, the tax remained in kind and was paid as a share of the harvest. In Bengal, rates were determined by eye, using the so-called “assessment”.
Akbar’s comrade Abul Fazl compiled a large work, “Ayin-i Akbari,” in which he collected statistical data on all provinces of the empire, which allows one to get an idea of social order country and its economic system. Approximately 100 million people lived in the empire. Of these, approximately 1 million were the upper layer - military leaders and rajas with their troops. They lived mainly in cities, occupying a dominant position there. The urban population as a whole, including artisans, merchants, servants and marginal classes, was 15%. The urban economy was fueled by funds coming from the village in the form of taxes.
Akbar's policy towards non-Muslims was an example of religious tolerance. He set out to overcome the hostility of Hindus and Muslims, create an atmosphere of respect for religious views alien to Muslims, and turn the upper ranks of the Hindu community, Brahmins and Rajputs, into a social support of power. In 1570 Akbar began construction new capital not far from Agra, the city of Fatehpur Sikri, in the architecture of which Hindu and Muslim styles organically merged. One of the buildings was Ibadat Khane (lit. “House of Worship” or “House of Ritual”), which served as a place for theological discussions. In it, Akbar sat on a throne in the middle of the pavilion, and in the circular gallery around, Muslim ulemas of various persuasions, Brahmins, Jains, Parsis and even Jesuit monks, whom Akbar specially invited from Goa, gathered and conducted religious debates.
He officially proclaimed solkh-i-kul - the principle of religious tolerance. Rajputs and Brahmins became an indispensable part of the court. The study of Hindu cults was encouraged, the construction of Hindu temples and the holding of Hindu festivals were allowed. In 1562–1564 The tax on Hindu pilgrims and the jizya, the poll tax on non-Muslims, were abolished. The slaughter of cows was prohibited, thereby the state demonstrated that it respects the religious feelings of Hindus. Since 1580, Akbar began to appear at receptions with a Brahmin sign on his forehead. At the same time, he remained a devout Muslim, although a follower of the Sufis and at the same time a supporter of a rational approach to religion. In September 1579, he declared himself the supreme authority on Islamic matters and then founded the new religion Din-i-illahi ("Divine Faith"). It is unlikely that he wanted to religiously unite Hindus and Muslims by developing a belief system acceptable to everyone. No measures were taken to attract the Hindu population to the new religion.
The desire to understand religious truth beyond the narrow framework of traditional Islam, interest in Hindu culture, and the search for common spiritual values accompanied the entire “Muslim” period of Indian history. There was a process of synthesis of religiously different cultures. It manifested itself especially clearly under Akbar, when a fairly large group of highly educated people formed the emperor’s entourage. Muslim lawyers met all these innovations with sharp protests. In 1580–1584 An uprising broke out in Bengal and Bihar under the slogans of “defense of Islam.” The Qazi (from the Arabic qadi - judge) of Jaunpur issued a fatwa accusing Akbar of apostasy. Another uprising against the “infidel” padishah arose in Kabul. The uprisings were suppressed, the rebellious mullahs suffered severe punishment, but Akbar had to make some concessions. He stopped gathering non-Muslim theologians around him (by the way, Fatehpur Sikri with its Ibadat Khan was abandoned by this time, since it turned out that in its vicinity there were no water reserves sufficient for life big city), began to allocate funds for the construction and repair of mosques.
The period of Akbar's reign was a time of economic prosperity. Moderate taxes contributed to the rise of agriculture and crafts. Domestic and foreign trade grew. Akbar reduced duties to 2.5% and abolished all additional levies on traders and excise taxes. His system of governance, gradually eroding, nevertheless allowed the Mughal state to remain a powerful state for another century. The strengthening of the state and economic prosperity contributed to the development of brilliant culture at the Mughal court and monumental construction.
ARCHITECTURE OF THE MUGHAL ERA
During the reign of Sher Shah, there was a transition from the architecture of the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal period. The remains of the Purana Qila fortress in Delhi and the tomb of Sher Shah in Sasaram (Bihar) have survived from him. In the tomb of Humayun, built on the outskirts of Delhi, experts see a design of Persian origin in an Indian interpretation.
During Akbar's period, the influence of Indian architectural canons and techniques increased significantly. Basically, its construction had a practical direction - fortresses, caravanserais, schools and mosques. The most famous fortresses are in Agra (built in 1565–1573), Lahore and Allahabad. A special place in architectural history India is occupied by Fatehpur Sikri, founded near Agra in 1570. Here the idea of a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim architecture was fully realized. Buildings in a purely Muslim style with arches and domes interspersed with palaces with beamed ceilings characteristic of Hindu buildings.
Fatehpur Sikri. Part of the palace complex of Emperor Akbar. India
During this period, numerous literary works were created in Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and a number of other modern Indian languages. Their authors were both Hindus and Muslims. Hindus composed poems in Persian. Many classical Hindu works have been translated into Persian. There was a whole translation workshop at Akbar's court. Biographies of rulers became a popular literary and historical genre. The creator of the empire, Babur, composed an autobiography in the Chagatai language. It was later translated into Persian and became known as "Baburname". Akbar's friend and ally Abu-l Fazl Allami became the author of the biography of the great emperor - “Akbar-name”. A chronicle of the events of those times was also created by Akbar’s political opponent, Badauni. The development of historical writing and literature was accompanied by the flourishing of brilliant Mughal book miniatures, which absorbed Persian traditions, but then enriched with various Indian influences. Emperor Akbar, who was himself fond of painting, often personally supervised the work of his workshop, which was engaged in the compilation and illumination of manuscripts.
INCLUDING INDIA INTO WORLD TRADE
The beginning of the penetration of European merchants into South Asia dates back to the very end of the 15th century, when Vasco da Gama’s squadron, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, dropped anchor in the port of Kozhikode (Calicut) on the western coast of India on May 17, 1498. Soon the Portuguese founded several trading posts on both coasts of India, as well as on the island. Ceylon. In 1510, Afonso d'Albuquerque captured the island of Goa from Bijapur, which became the administrative center of all Portuguese possessions east of the Cape of Good Hope. D'Albuquerque was appointed viceroy of the so-called "Portuguese India", which consisted of separate enclaves on the eastern coast of Africa, at the mouth of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, on the coasts of India and Ceylon, on the Malay Peninsula and in China. The appearance of the Portuguese on the west coast led to clashes and bloodshed. But on the scale of India these were minor skirmishes that did not have much resonance. The penetration of European merchants into the markets of South Asia did not greatly worry the Indian rulers. They solved their problems in best case scenario given that another force has appeared on Indian territory that can be used. The alliance of Vijayanagara with Portuguese India greatly facilitated the Portuguese trade throughout South India and helped Vijayanagara to resist the onslaught from the north for a long time.
Lesson
Lesson topic: India in the XVI -XVII
Objective of the lesson:- consider the main trends in the development of India in the period from the founding of the Mughal state to its transformation into a colony of England;
Improve students’ ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, work with historical map;
Develop skills in drawing up a detailed outline of the textbook text;
To develop students' historical thinking.
Lesson type: combined.
Equipment: textbook, map, atlases.
Lesson structure:
II. Checking homework.
III. Updating basic knowledge.
IV Studying new material.
State of the Great Mughals.
Work through the text of the textbook and draw up a detailed plan for the topic: “India in the 16th-17th centuries.”
The first part of a detailed plan (sample).
India is the object of attack by foreign conquerors:
a) VIII – the beginning of the Muslim conquests;
b) XI II - formation of the Delhi Sultanate;
c) 1398-1399 – Timur’s campaign against India, the collapse of the sultanate into numerous feudal states.
2.) 1525 – Babur’s invasion of India; formation of a new powerful state.
3) Expansion of the Mughal Empire under Babur’s heirs
4) The reign of Akbar, the grandson of Babur, was the heyday of the Mughal state:
a) the creation of a new center of the country, Fatehpur - Sikra;
b) the formation of a centralized state management system;
c) transfer of land into conditional possession (jagirdars);
d) organization of a communal way of farming;
e) Akbar’s policy towards the local population and feudal nobility.
Additional information.
The first Islamic states, created by Muslims who came to India from the west and north, appeared before the beginning of the 10th century. The most famous of the Muslims who settled in India were the Mughals, descendants of the Mongol conquerors. Babur, the first Mughal emperor (reigned 1526-1530), was a descendant of the great Mongol rulers Tamerlane and Genghis Khan.
Akbar (1542-1605), grandson of Babur, is the most famous Indian emperor from the Mughal dynasty. At the beginning of his reign, a series of uprisings within the state. Then, going on campaigns against his neighbors, he gradually conquered huge possessions that occupied most of Northern India. The wisdom and prudence shown by him during the creation of his state brought Akbar the title of “Defender of the human race.” Akbyr was the patron of artists and invited scientists and philosophers from different parts of the country to his court in order to jointly create a common religion, which was called “Divine Faith.” This religion combined individual provisions of Islam, Hinduism and other eastern faiths. Thus, Akbar wanted to implement the principle of “one sovereign - one religion.” However, artificial religion spread mainly among the masses and did not find support among the nobility. After the death of Shah Akbar, the Divine Faith continued to exist for another half century, practiced by a small sect.
Penetration of Europeans into India, establishment of English rule.
The second part of the detailed plan.
1498 – Vasco da Gama arrives in Calicut.
1510-1515 - creation by the Portuguese of strongholds on the west coast of India.
XVIII - the displacement of the Portuguese from India by the Dutch and British:
A) penetration deep into the continent - the beginning of trade “with a sword in hand”;
B) 1600g. - Founding of the English East India Company.
4) European intervention in feudal feuds.
5) The collapse of the Mughal Empire - the beginning of the colonization of India.
3. Religious and cultural life
The third part of the detailed plan
Dissemination of scientific knowledge:
A) creation of observatories (XVI century)
B) the introduction of a decimal system for writing numbers
B) India is the birthplace of universities
D) the art of Indian doctors.
D) the emergence of the theory of the atomic structure of matter.
2) Contribution of the peoples of India to the development of world literature.
3) Masterpieces of Indian architecture. Taj Mahal.
4. Development of Indian artistic crafts
4. Generalization and systematization of students’ knowledge.
Frontal survey.
What helped Babur conquer North India?
How do you understand the concept of “conditional content”.
Why do you think the Europeans failed to establish trade relations with India, but also to turn this country into a colony?
Homework