in the discipline "Culturology"
"Cultural Monuments of Ancient India"
Introduction
1. Harappan Civilization
2. Buddhist art in India
Conclusion
List of used literature
The culture of the Ancient East attracts modern tourists with its exoticism. Abandoned cities and monumental temples speak volumes about bygone civilizations. But the heritage of the Ancient East is not only temples and monuments. Buddhism, the oldest of the three world religions (along with Christianity and Islam), originated in India 2.5 thousand years ago. The bulk of her followers live in the countries of South, Southeast and East Asia: India, China, Japan, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Sri Lanka, Nepal. In our country, Buddhism is traditionally practiced by the residents of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva. It is difficult to determine the total number of Buddhists in the world, but it is very roughly accepted that there are about 400 million lay people and 1 million monks.
Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine created on the basis of the ancient teachings of India, the cornerstone of which is the belief in reincarnation. The basis of Buddhist doctrine is a person’s inner desire for spiritual insight, or nirvana, which can be achieved through meditation, wisdom and the highest moral values. The main goal of Buddhism is human self-improvement, liberation from the chain of rebirths that bring suffering, which is based on selfish desires. The relevance of this topic does not need any justification other than the words: “The Mysterious East”!
Purpose This work is a study of cultural monuments of Ancient India.
In connection with this goal, the following research objectives can be formulated:
- talk about the dead civilization of Harappa, represented only by archaeological finds;
- consider Buddhist art as one of the sources of cultural wealth of ancient and modern India.
The abstract consists of 5 sections. The first formulates the purpose and objectives of the study, the second describes the civilization of ancient Harappa, the third provides an overview of Buddhist art and its main monuments in India, the fourth draws the main conclusions on the content of the work, and the fifth indicates primary sources on the topic of the work.
Back in the twenties of the last century, archaeologists discovered ancient mounds in this region of Pakistan with the remains of the largest Bronze Age cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By the way, according to some publications, the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro contain traces of the incinerating flame that once destroyed this great city. They even said that the terrible flame was generated almost by a nuclear explosion.
Now the site of the disaster is occupied by the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. By now, there is a huge territory here that could accommodate two states such as Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt, the remains of one and a half thousand ancient settlements have been uncovered!
In 1985, Professor George F. Dales of the University of California at Berkeley founded the Harappan Archaeological Research Project, which has already passed its first exploratory stages. The earliest settlement at the site of Harappa dates back to 3300 BC. - the time when the ancient Sumerians were just beginning to build their first ziggurats (giant pyramids made of unfired clay with a cut off top for temples). The ancient inhabitants of the Indus Valley were then engaged in agriculture, in particular cattle breeding, and also grew barley, legumes and other crops. Archaeologists have discovered small villages in the north and south of Harappa along the banks of the Ravi River (the left tributary of the Chenab River). Terracotta trinkets and painted shells were found here. It is interesting that materials for decorations were brought 300-800 km away. The discovered remains of cotton and wool fabrics testified to the development of textile production.
Urbanization of Harappa began around 2600 and continued until 1900 BC. For seven centuries, Harappa was one of the largest and most powerful economic and political centers in the Indus Valley. During the spring and summer trading seasons, the city was flooded with hundreds of merchants and thousands of residents of the surrounding Villages. The number of permanent residents of Kharalpa ranged from forty to eighty thousand people. Archaeologists have found here beautiful pottery with images of religious scenes on them, as well as seals of sorts with carved images of unicorns and cubic stone objects that were probably used as cinders for weighing. Traders brought goods here from Afghanistan and Central Asia. Among the imported items were items made of lapis lazuli, tin, silver, gold and textiles. Back to their homeland, visiting traders took grain, livestock, beautiful samples of textiles and, perhaps, even silk. At that time, the city occupied an area of 150 hectares—more than five kilometers in circumference.
The current Harappa occupies only a third of the former territory, and the population does not exceed twenty thousand people. In ancient times, local masons built multi-story (!) houses from baked bricks, located in a straight line from north to south and from east to west.
The main streets were 8 m wide, and in the central part of the city their width ensured two-way traffic for carts and carts. In and around the city, builders built wells, houses were equipped with swimming pools, toilets and a kind of sewage system. Wastewater through special channels were diverted to agricultural lands to fertilize the soil. Perhaps nowhere in the ancient world was there such an intricate sewer system. Even in the Roman Empire it appeared only two thousand years later!
During the heyday of Harappa, writing actively developed in the city. It consisted of four hundred symbols, although they had not yet been solved. But it can be assumed that several languages were used in them, and they were used for correspondence among traders, landowners and religious figures. This writing became widespread in all urban centers of the Indus Valley. Seals with images of animals and ritual subjects were widely used. More than 65% of known seals had images of unicorns, others featured elephants, Indian, humpbacked bulls, buffaloes, bison, tigers and rhinoceroses.
The inscriptions on the seals indicated the names of local clans, the names of landowners, and the legal affiliations of individuals. Similar markings are also found on pottery. Examples of inscriptions on bronze and gold objects referred to the names of the owners or indicated the price of these products. Faience and clay objects were sometimes broken into two parts for the participants in a pair transaction. Copper discs may have been the beginnings of a coin system. Archaeological finds in 2001 indicate new chronology development of Indian writing. Previously, scientists believed that the appearance of seals and "coins" was simultaneous, but it has now become clear that different types of these artifacts appeared and changed over the years.
Between 2300 and 1900 BC The population of the cities of the Indus Valley grew rapidly. At the same time, the variety and perfection of cultural products increased. During this period, they show a combination of inscriptions with images of mythological scenes. Surely the spiritual leaders of those times used such objects to invoke the gods. Although archaeologists have not yet been able to find out the names of these gods, they have noticed a recurring motif on various items - men sitting in a yogic lotus position, with a headdress topped with a horn. One of the scenes shows a sacrificial buffalo in front of a seated god. On other objects, the god is surrounded by wild animals. Some seals show goddesses wearing horned headdresses fighting tigers. The clay tiles depict goddesses strangling two tigers or perched on the heads of elephants. Similar scenes were found in Mesopotamia (from the epic “Gilgamesh”), where the images show the hero fighting with two lions. The similarity of these motifs suggests cultural ties between the mentioned civilizations.
Previously, scientists believed that the ancient cities of the Indus Valley were suddenly abandoned by the inhabitants around 1750 BC. And in fact, by this time Harappa, if not completely deserted, then the urban economy had clearly fallen into decay. The weakening of power and loss of control over the life of the city was characteristic not only of Harappa, but also of other cities in the region. Similar degradation occurred in Mohenjo-Daro. The impending crisis of the state led to the gradual disappearance of signs of elite culture in the area.
Traditional square seals with unicorns and other animals disappeared. Stone weighing cubes began to fall out of use, and international trade faded away.
The flow of goods such as decorated shells and lapis lazuli products from Harappa ceased. There was probably more than one reason for the city's decline. The switching of trade routes and the emergence of settlements in the Ganges Valley (in the area of what is now the Indian state of Gujarat) undermined the political and economic life of Harappa. Around 1900 BC one of largest rivers The Indus Ghaggar Valley (north of present-day Delhi) began to change its course and completely dried up, leaving many cities without water.
The relocation of residents to other fertile areas caused overstress in their new habitats. The authorities' lack of a regular army deprived them of the opportunity to establish at least some order in the territories under their control.
The pace of such change varied in different regions. Most of the abandoned settlements were plundered, and the later inhabitants of these places buried the archaeological evidence of the past that still remained.
However, although many objects from the Indus Valley culture have disappeared, some relevant artifacts have survived. These included pottery, faience, and copper and bronze items. By the period around 1700 BC. refers to the appearance of the first examples of glass jewelry in the Indus Valley (two hundred years before the development of this material in Egypt). In subsequent centuries (from 1200 to 800 BC), glass bottles and glass beads appeared in northern India and Pakistan. Iron production also arose in the north of the Indus Valley and along the banks of the Ganges.
The excavations also revealed jewelry in the form of stone beads made during the earliest stages of settlement of the Indus Valley. The first samples of stone beads had small holes with a diameter of 1.5-3 mm. Some of the early examples were made from soapstone (a soft talc known as soapstone). Craftsmen knew how to drill holes in them with copper drills for hanging, about half a millimeter in diameter. After this, the beads were given the desired shape using grinding wheels. Finally, the craftsmen fired the beads in special kilns at a temperature of 850 "C. Harappan craftsmen used agate and jasper as materials for beads. Around 2600 BC, the Indus Valley craftsmen learned to make harder drills, the secret of which remained unsolved.
One of the most complex technologies was used to produce earthenware beads. The quality of the Indus Valley pottery was higher than that of Egypt or Mesopotamia, since it was made from crushed quartz. The elite classes of the Indus Valley used faience not only for decoration but also for ritual purposes. Faience items with images of various subjects were also used in special ceremonies, during which they were given as gifts to people bringing gifts or performing sacrifices.
Harappa is a great monument of Indian culture, arousing interest among researchers and tourists of all nationalities. The material culture of Harappa has been studied quite well, however, the death of Harappa still remains a mystery.
Buddhism, spreading over the centuries to vast neighboring territories, did not conflict with the primordial religions and culture that already existed there. There were many similarities with local deities, customs and rituals. Buddhism assimilated with them, absorbing many aspects of local cults, modified under the pressure of other religions, but fundamentally remained unchanged.
Architecture, sculpture, and painting contributed to the spread of the ideas of Buddhism. Initially, the art of Buddhism was a set of “reinforcements” or “reminders” that helped the believer in perceiving a doctrine that was often too complex for him. As religion spread, it was filled with new meanings and cast into completely new forms.
The contemplative Buddhist “art of living” required the fusion of artistic forms with natural ones. Therefore, Buddhist architecture differs from European architecture: it is not a shelter from nature, but a dissolution in it. Main idea Buddhist buildings - the creation of a visible resemblance of artificial and natural forms, harmony with nature, conditions for finding peace of mind. The architecture is based on a classic sense of organic, free-growing volume from the earth. Tibetan temples and Chinese pagodas seem to be natural formations; they echo the shapes of mountains, hills or weathered rocks, blooming on their slopes like strange flowers.
Two main types of Buddhist buildings can be distinguished. The first type is services designed to support the life of the monastery: temples, sometimes reaching enormous sizes, rooms for monks - vihara, a hall for believers - chaitya, libraries, towers for gongs and bells. The second type are structures that themselves are an object of worship: a stupa or pagoda. They are usually the center of the monastery in accordance with their role as guardian of sacred relics.
Stupas are not buildings, but solid monolithic monuments with small chambers - reliquaries and niches for sculptures. According to legend, the first stupas were erected after the burning of the Buddha's body according to Indian custom - to store his ashes, divided into eight parts according to the number of regions of India that claimed their rights to his relics. Stupas are hemispherical, tower-shaped or bell-shaped. In the system of Buddhist symbolism, the stupa is considered as a vertical model of the Universe. It symbolizes " creativity Universe", "impulse of life", nirvana. The architectural features of stupas in each country are determined by local traditions, but in plan they must be round or square.
The entire group of buildings of the monastery complex is organized according to a single plan. In East Asia, the monastery is surrounded by a wall and is usually oriented along a central axis with the main gate to the south, behind which stood a pagoda, followed by a temple. This line was completed by a preaching hall and a back gate. The location of the buildings could change due to the terrain, especially in the mountains, but Buddhist culture always involves a ritual walk around clockwise. In temples carved out of rocks, a special path was used for this. Over time, the temple displaced the pagoda from its central place, so it became less sacred and more decorative look, and often a second one was attached to one pagoda - for symmetry.
In Buddhist temples, on a raised platform - a kind of altar in the back of the hall - there are statues of Buddhas or bodhisattvas (saints who decided to leave the circle of reincarnations and achieve Buddhahood). The altar consists of several steps: the square step is a symbol of the earth, the round one is a symbol of the sky. In the wall niches there are statues of deities, on the walls there are paintings reminiscent of the previous deeds of the Buddha, pictures of paradise, figures of bodhisattvas, countless decorative motifs.
The heyday of Buddhist sculpture dates back to the 4th - 5th centuries. During these years, a huge number of images of Buddha and bodhisats were made from gold, bronze, painted wood, ivory, stone, from small (2-3 cm) to huge figures 54 m high.
Often Buddhist buildings turn into giant pyramids of sculptures that completely cover the main volume. Reliefs and sculptures of temple and monastery buildings also include images not related to the philosophy of Buddhism, reflecting more ancient cults and beliefs, and sometimes simply the artist’s imagination.
Buddhism did not declare bans on images of living beings, encouraged independent thinking, and declared the most important principle of great complexity and continuous variability of the world. The Buddha taught that the road to salvation lies through getting rid of illusions, so Buddhist characters have a clear and enlightened expression, they are beyond moral weaknesses and selfish passions.
Picturesque images of Buddha, bodhisats, Buddhist symbols (vase, scepter, begging bowl, bow and arrows, rosary, wheel of Samsara or wheel of the Law, etc.) can be seen in almost every Buddhist temple.
This is how he describes it interior decoration one of the Buddhist monasteries in Tibet, a European traveler who studied Buddhism in the East for many years, A. David-Neel in the book “Mystics and Magicians of Tibet” (M., 1991): “A mass of banners suspended from the ceiling in the galleries and attached to high supporting pillars, a great many images of Buddha and gods are displayed to the audience, and on the frescoes covering the walls, among cohorts of other heroes, saints and demons flaunt in threatening or benevolent poses. In the depths of the huge room, behind several rows of altar lamps, statues of great, long-departed lamas and jeweled arks of silver and gold, containing their mummies or cremation ashes, flicker softly. Having fixed their demanding or commanding gazes on people, overwhelming them with their numbers, all these creatures... seem to mingle with a crowd of monks. A mystical atmosphere envelops people and objects, obscures trivial details with a haze, and idealizes faces and poses. ")
In Tibetan Buddhist art significant place Tanka is occupied by images of Buddha, church hierarchs, characters of the Buddhist pantheon, hagiographic cycles, etc. They are made with paints on silk or printed on cotton fabric and are intended for meditation, religious processions, in temple interiors, and home altars.
Characteristic of Buddhist art is the desire for a contrasting combination of bright, colorful materials: gold and silver, red and black lacquer, inlay with colored glass, porcelain, foil, mother-of-pearl, precious stones. Buddhism became a school for several generations of masters in India, Persia, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia. Many classical works of art from China and Japan and other countries are associated with Buddhism.
Buddhism flourished in India in the 5th-7th centuries. Mahayana promoted a return to hierarchical ideas, and Tantrism promoted the rehabilitation of the sensory world. From the 4th century flourishes under the Gupta dynasty secular culture. Along with temples in the treatise on architecture of the V-VI centuries. public buildings and palaces are described. The invasion of the Huns also contributed to the transition to a hierarchical organization of society. As in Europe, the collapse of the Hunnic state led to the formation of principalities and relations, which in Europe were called feudal. In the V-VII centuries. There were about 50 states on Indian territory.
The Gupta kings patronized various religions, but called themselves devotees of Vishnu. In the inscriptions of this time, Hindu names appear five times more often than Buddhist and Jain names. KV c. collections of Hindu myths and traditions are compiled. These codes were not intended for a select few, but for the entire population, to whom they were close and understandable. The basic idea of Hinduism was fully consistent with the spirit of a hierarchical society - the idea of personal service to God and boundless devotion to him. The most popular gods were Vishnu and Shiva.
Urban artisans of the main specialties were subordinated to corporations. The city, as the center of culture, was already sharply opposed to the village. There may also have been royal workshops: it is difficult to imagine that single artisans created the pillar of Chandragupta II in Delhi from stainless iron or the huge bronze statue of Buddha in Sultanganj. Craft guilds, like trade guilds, accepted cash deposits and carried out banking activities. There was also a separate corporation of bankers-money changers. However, little copper money was found; shells were used instead even in the capital.
The country was united not only by new religious ideas, but also by Sanskrit as a universal language.
- Culturology. Course of lectures ed. A.A. Radugina Publishing house “Center” Moscow 1998
- Culturology /Ed. A.N. Markova M., 1998
- Levinas E. Philosophical definition of the idea of culture. // Global problems and universal human values. - M.: Progress, 1990. - P.86-97
- Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M.: “Gardariki”, 1997.-344 p.
- Illustrated history of religions. T.1,2 - M.: Publishing house of the Valaam Monastery, 1992.
- Kagan M.S. Philosophy of culture. - St. Petersburg, 1996.
- Ponomareva G.M. and others. Fundamentals of cultural studies. - M., 1998.
7. Medicine and pharmacy in Ancient India. Written medical monuments of Ancient India. Advances in surgery and hygiene.
The source for studying the history of medicine and pharmacy of Ancient India is the Vedas (monuments of Indian culture), as well as the collection of laws of Manu. From them we learn that in the 2nd century BC. In India, there was medical education: universities in Taxila and Benares, as well as medical schools at provincial monasteries. The Ayur-Veda (Book of Life) said that disease occurs after an imbalance of air (ether), mucus and bile, which ensure health. The doctor had to restore the balance that existed before the disease with the help of drugs (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics and oils), surgery or physical methods. In 2Ayur-Veda, a kind of Indian pharmacopoeia, a list of 760 drugs is given. In empirical medicine of Ancient India, cereals, wood, bark, roots, flowers, and fruits were used. Wine, vinegar, milk, oil, fats, blood, glands and other organs of many animals, fish and birds were also consumed. Minerals: arsenic, iron, copper. The composition of ointments often included lead, sulfur, antimony, zinc, and ammonium salts. Especially MERCURY! The most powerful strengthening agent is gold. Silver, copper, iron, and tin were also used. Surgical methods of treating diseases, hygienic measures were used, vaccinations against smallpox were carried out, and patients were isolated during the treatment of leprosy. Indian doctors performed amputations of limbs, removal of cataracts, and performed plastic surgery.
15. Asclepiad, his system for preventing and treating diseases.
Asclepiades was a prominent Roman physician from Bithynia (128-56 BC). Health, according to Asclepiades, is preserved with the normal movement of body particles and the normal state of empty spaces between particles - pores and channels. When they are clogged and clogged, when the movement of particles stagnates or is disrupted, diseases occur. Special attention Asklepiades gave “invisible breath” to the skin. Health must be maintained first of all by general cleanliness, frequent ablutions, and then by stronger stimulants such as rubbing, sweating, and physical exercise. If the patient could not move independently, he advised carrying him and rocking him. Along with physiotherapy and balneotherapy, climate therapy occupied a large place in the Asclepiad system. He treated medications with caution and in some cases, under the guise of drugs, he gave clean water. The “pleasant” treatment according to the Asclepiadian system, opposed to the rude methods of the “bloodthirsty torturers,” made it extremely popular in Rome. Asclepiades treated with a diet that had been excellently developed for a long time. He introduced only one new principle into dietetics: food should be tasty.
26. The emergence of medical schools and universities in Western Europe. Methods of teaching in them.
The centers of Medieval medicine were universities. In the universities of Western Europe, scholasticism dominated, which involved the construction of hypotheses, theories and the conduct of various disputes only within the strict limits of the dogmas established by the Christian Church.
The medical school in Salerno played a major role in the history of medicine and pharmacy. In 1140, Rector Nicholas compiled the Antidotarium of Nicholas. At first it contained 60 prescriptions, later 150. The highest level of prosperity of the medical school in Salerno was reached towards the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. Salerno creates his own literature, the school was already close to teaching experimental medicine. For this purpose, autopsies of the corpses of criminals and animals were periodically carried out. The training there lasted 5 years. The Salerno school was given the right to confer the title of doctor and issue licenses.
The University of Padua, which differed from most medieval universities in the possessions of Venice, began to play a role later, towards the end of the Middle Ages, during the Renaissance. It was founded in the 13th century by scientists who fled from the papal regions and from Spain from the persecution of the Catholic Church reaction. In the 16th century it became a center of advanced medicine.
The University of Bologna is one of the oldest continuously operating degree-granting universities in the world, and the second largest university in Italy. It was the first university founded in the Western world (in 1088 AD). The University of Bologna is historically known for its ecclesiastical and civil law courses.
The Sorbonne is historically the University of Paris. It first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was reorganized in 1970 into 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I-XIII).
University of Vienna, a public university located in Vienna, Austria. Opened in 1365, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe.
Universities had 3 faculties: theological, medical, and law. There were also preparatory faculties. Levels of knowledge: 1) from the Bible + works of the church fathers; 2) from the works of other scientists reviewed by the church. Students are rich people with high position in society, age did not matter. They learned from books by memorizing. The book was fastened with a chain. Universities were separated from the state (their own police, courts). The lecture was given by the professor sitting in the form of debates (throwing around quotes).
27. The spread of infectious diseases in the Middle Ages and measures to combat them.
Infectious diseases became especially widespread in the Middle Ages, when frequent wars of conquest and crusades were fought, and the growth of cities contributed to overcrowding of the population and deterioration of sanitary and hygienic living conditions.
Such diseases often took on the character of epidemics - a massive outbreak of a disease in a certain territory, and sometimes pandemics, when the disease covered entire continents. The most terrible infectious disease in ancient times and the Middle Ages was the plague. It covered vast territories of Europe and Asia. There are known plague pandemics in the 6th and 14th centuries. She mowed down entire cities and provinces. In the XIV century. An even more dangerous variety appeared - bubonic plague. In addition to the plague, other contagious diseases are also known, which often acquired the character of epidemics: typhus, cholera, smallpox, anthrax, etc. Even in ancient times, medicine knew anti-epidemic measures: removing sick people from cities, burning the property of the sick or dead, attracting people who had been ill with this disease. illness, caring for the sick. One of the most ancient diseases that humanity encountered at the dawn of its existence was smallpox. In the XIV century. In Europe, quarantine began to be introduced - a system of measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases from the source of the epidemic with the subsequent elimination of the source of infection itself. In 1423, one of the first quarantine stations (“lazaretto”) was established on the island in Venice. In Europe, smallpox appeared only with the invention of the sail in the 5th-6th centuries. n. e. During smallpox epidemics in some countries, up to half the population died. Back in ancient China and India, doctors developed a method of protecting people from smallpox through so-called variolation. To do this, they collected smallpox crusts from the patient, dried them and ground them into a fine powder. This powder was rubbed into the skin with a special spatula or needle, which was used to cut the surface of the skin, and sometimes blown into the nose of a healthy person. The purpose of these procedures was to induce a mild form of the disease in him. Variolation did protect many people. But, since the smallpox virus was used to carry it out, variolation often caused severe illness and even death. The patient could subsequently infect people who came into contact with him and even cause a new epidemic. At the beginning of the 18th century, when smallpox spread widely throughout Europe, the search began to protect the population from this infection. Members of the Royal Society of Medicine of London decided to discuss the pros and cons of the variolation method, which was reported by many travelers. British reports on travel to Asian countries were collected. Despite the danger of the method, they decided to recommend it for use, since the damage caused to society by epidemics was much heavier. At this time, Lady Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador in Constantinople, watched as elderly Turkish women inoculated healthy local residents with material taken from a smallpox patient. In Turkey, she performed variolation on her own son, and upon returning to England, she began to promote the Turkish method of variolation. At first, variolation was met with hostility. The clergy saw in her something contrary to the will of Divine Providence. It took the support of King George I to conduct experiments that proved the enormous effectiveness of the variolation method. Inmates of Newgate Prison, who were promised amnesty, were chosen for testing. Six people - three men and three women - gave their consent to variolation. They all remained healthy. After this, variolation began to be widely used in Great Britain itself, as well as in its American colonies.
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Sensational results of deciphering written monuments of ancient Egypt, ancient India and Western Europe
Babylonian phenomenon (Oreshkin Peter). This book, first published in Russia, outlines a method for deciphering written monuments of Ancient Egypt, Ancient India and Western Europe using ancient Russian alphabet. Sensational decryption results.
Here are a few pages from the book.
The phenomenon “that aphids do not smolder”
Editor's Preface
Dear reader! Before you is an amazing book by our compatriot, published for the first time in Russia through the efforts and funds of a small group of enthusiastic ascetics, eager for the revival of the greatness and power of our Motherland. What is it about?
In historical “science”, when deciphering written monuments of ancient times, all the languages of the world were used, including “dead” ones, but the Russian language was NEVER used - one of greatest languages. Russian "historians" - Russophobes - are criminally guilty of this, declaring to the whole world that the Russian people had neither their own written language nor culture before the adoption of Christianity (988). “Naturally,” none of them even thought of being indignant when the famous Egyptologist-decipherer J.F. Champollion also neglected the Russian language.
We can consider Pyotr Petrovich Oreshkin a follower of the Slavic scholar of the 18th century, the Pole Fadey Volansky, the author of the book “Monuments of the Writing of the Slavs before the Nativity of Christ.” For this book, F. Volansky was sentenced to death by the Catholic Inquisition as an “extremely eretic” work. Its circulation was thrown into the fire, where the author was also burned. But one copy somehow miraculously fell into the hands of Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Fine Sciences, State Councilor, member of the Coronation Commission of Nicholas I, a tireless figure in the field of public education, Yegor Ivanovich Klassen, a contemporary of A.S. Pushkin. E.I. Klassen was an irreconcilable fighter against the Vatican agents in Russian historical “science” Bayer, Miller, Schlözer, Gebrardi, Parrott, Galling, Georgi and others, who composed Russian “history” that humiliated the national dignity of the Russians.
F. Volansky’s “fault” was that he was the first to read the ancient written monuments of Western Europe in Russian. E.I. Klassen: “We will explain these monuments, even the first thought on the way to explain them we owe to F. Volansky, who took the first and significant step towards that...”. E.I. Klassen, a passionate follower of M.V. Lomonosov's views on ancient Russian history, irrefutably proved the fact of the existence of a primary proto-Russian civilization, which became the foundation of the culture of both Western Europe and the countries of the East. Nevertheless, our schoolchildren and students are still forced to cram the version of Russian “history” planted on us by science businessmen.
P.P. Oreshkin, using his own approaches, also brilliantly read the most ancient written monuments in Russian. The reader will see for himself: otherwise they cannot be read. There have never been any “Amonhoteps”, “Ramses” or other historical characters with hard-to-pronounce names. Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, “Greek” Byzantium, the Etruscan state are the outskirts of the Great proto-civilization of Ancient Rus', which follows not only from the works of F. Volansky and E.I. Klassen, but also other predecessors of P. Oreshkin: Mavro Orbini, A.I. Lyzlova, M.V. Lomonosova, N.A. Morozova. The “Babylonian Phenomenon” is another convincing evidence of the absolute correctness of these scientists - patriots of the Russian Land.
Living in the West, Pyotr Petrovich apparently counted on the help of Russian emigrants in publishing and popularizing his book. The reader will become familiar with A. Solzhenitsyn’s note, which correctly characterizes the situation surrounding Oreshkin’s work. But couldn’t the “world-famous classic” allocate a couple of thousand “bucks” from his gigantic fees for the publication of “The Babylonian Phenomenon”? I could have, but I didn’t single it out.
From the article by our wonderful compatriot Tatyana Andreevna Panshina “I see the hidden essence...”, who sent Oreshkin’s work to the editorial office of the newspaper “For Russian Business” in 1994, the reader learns that the editors of Russian foreign magazines E.A. Vagin (“Veche”) and M.I. Turyanitsa (“Free Word of Rus'”) hosted Pyotr Petrovich. However, for some reason they did not publish his book in their publications.
This is strange, to say the least... The book, fortunately, was nevertheless printed in a scanty edition at the University of Rome in Russian. Probably (and why not assume this?), Pyotr Petrovich came from the descendants of the uncompromising scientist-historian Italian Mavro Orbini, who in 1601 wrote a study entitled “The Book of Historiography inaugurating the name, glory and expansion of the Slavic people and their Kings and Rulers under with many names and with many Kingdoms, Kingdoms and Provinces, collected from many historical books, through Mr. Mavrurbin Archimandrite of Raguzh.”
This book was among those banned by the Vatican, but was published in Russia on the direct orders of Peter I in 1722. In Russia, Orbini’s work was carefully studied and commented on by A.T. only 260 years later. Fomenko and his followers in "Empire" (M., "Factorial", 1996).
“DIFFERENT SIGNS – LANGUAGE – ONE” – this is what Pyotr Petrovich Oreshkina wrote after finishing his work on deciphering ancient written monuments. He invites “specialists” in world and Russian history: “THE DOOR IS OPEN, COME IN!” But: “Light is destructive for them!”
The only thing we disagree with Oreshkin on is his indication of the existence in Siberia of a “mighty Turkic empire”, which, it is believed, ceased to be such somewhere at the beginning of the 13th century. AD She is a myth invented by “historians” in order to support them with the Tatar-Mongol “yoke” in Rus', invented by the same Miller, Schlozer, Bayer and others.
Pyotr Petrovich, according to T. Panshina, “died unexpectedly at the 55th year of his life, in 1987.” Apparently, he, too, was sentenced by the “powers of this world,” vigilantly observing, as in the time of F. Volansky, to ensure that the huge role of the World Proto-Empire Ancient Rus' in the formation of all the most ancient, ancient and modern civilizations humanity.
According to Klassen, F. Volansky’s research is one of those “...that aphids cannot smolder.” We have the right to note the same about the book by P.P. Oreshkin "Babylonian Phenrman".
We apologize for the quality of the illustrative series, because... The book is reproduced from a photocopy.
Oleg GUSEV
From a letter 10/17/1980
Dear Pyotr Petrovich!
I can imagine your despair at offers of your work to Western “Slavic” specialists. Regardless of the truth, the very direction of your interpretation is disgusting and is one of the most condemning that you can come up with in modern world.
But, in any case, it is very daring and undoubtedly talented.
I wish you not to become discouraged, but to succeed!
Alexander Solzhenitsyn
"In the beginning was the word." It was Slavic
Oreshkin Pyotr Petrovich. Born in 1932, in Moscow. Graduated from the Gorky Literary Institute in 1962. He worked as a journalist, published in popular science magazines in Moscow.
While still at the institute, he began deciphering the “Phaistos Disc”, providing strong evidence of the presence of a letter-syllabic alphabet.
AND IT TURNS OUT RIGHT.
This was the first link in a long chain. Where does it lead? This is what my book is about.
Details - in the American newspaper "THE JERSEY JOURNAL", November 6, 1982
“WE WERE GIVEN A “BIG WORD.”
IT WAS BROKEN, AND WE ARE SCURRING IN THE WRITTEN –
"GUINE PIGS" OF A GLOBAL, TRAGICOMIC EXPERIMENT,
BUT – OUR LANGUAGE REMAIN UNITED, IF IT IS NOT INTENTIONAL
Fragmented - IN OUR PLACE TODAY THE EXPERIMENTERS COULD BE THE EXPERIMENTERS THEMSELVES.”
Peter Oreshkin
EAT TRAVELERS SUITISY – I LOOK AT YOUR BULLSHIT
Explaining the content of my work to Western “Slavic” specialists is carrying a Lamp before the blind. The “professors of Slavic languages” to whom I sent my work answered me in French, German, and English, being unable to write a simple letter in Russian.
My book is addressed to those who SPEAK AND THINK IN SLAVIC, to those who have the courage to look straight into the eyes of history and understand that our past is distorted, our roots are cut off, and we ourselves are driven into a dead end, from where we must get out until It’s not too late, while our language is still alive and the connection in time can be restored, while we have not yet suffocated in the sticky web of dead words.
Trying to read the "BEFORE BABYLON" inscriptions using the grammatical structure of the languages of the "POST-BABYLON ERA" is to adjust the "English key" to ancient castle, pulling a single chain of linguistic heritage where its links are broken is pointless!
The oldest documents were written using different alphabetic systems, but IN ONE LANGUAGE and here lies the key to deciphering them:
SIGNS ARE DIFFERENT, LANGUAGE IS ONE.
The SLAVS preserved their grammatical structure and vocabulary in their entirety. the most ancient LANGUAGE, but they forgot who they were, where they came from - they forgot about their GLORIOUS past, perhaps because they were too gullible people.
You just have to be blind or REALLY NOT WANT TO SEE that I was perfectly successful in deciphering it, and the ancient documents spoke for the FIRST TIME in our native language. He has returned to life in his original appearance, he is colorful, he is magnificent! And no “specialists” can ruin it. Light is destructive for them! THE DOOR IS OPEN, COME IN!
GENESIS 11:1.5–7:
"1. The whole earth had one language and one dialect.
And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower,
which the sons of men built.
And the Lord said: Behold, there is one people, and one for all
language; and this is what they began to do, and they will not stop
they are from what they plan to do.
Let us go down and confuse their language there, so that
one did not understand the other’s speech.”
When I gave the title to my work, I, of course, had these biblical lines in mind. But the very name of the country where the “Tower of Babel” was built indicates to people speaking SLAVIC about some strange event that took place in these places:
MESOPOTAMIA, almost unchanged "MESO OF POTOMIA" - "The country where the offspring were mixed."
Scientists passed by, not noticing that here, at some point in the INTENTIONAL CATASTROPHE, the ONE LANGUAGE was broken and fragmented into pieces, that the “BIG WORD” turned out to be, as it were, “torn into pieces,” which were then distributed to the “builders,” for some reason suddenly forgot what the ORIGINAL looked like, and it is possible to restore it - in our darkened consciousness - only by placing in the ORIGINAL ORDER the "BRICKS" of the destroyed "Tower of Babel", where, probably, the most valuable information was stored, the possession of which has BECOME THREATENING.
Blind “apprentices” who have lost the drawings are chasing a ghost, following in the footsteps of Champollion, who did not understand a WORD of the language of Ancient Egypt. They pile up an outlandish SOMETHING, with manic persistence driving “brick by brick into other people’s nests”, and cannot realize that the “order of the masonry” has been DISRUPTED FROM THE VERY BEGINNING, that their ridiculous, fake “Renaissance temple” is tied from top to bottom with “hoops”, which alone hold the skewed structure, and ONE IMPACT is enough to sweep away all this pompous junk, exposing the pristine foundation, where - under a pile of rotten decorations - the “BIG WORD” is hidden.
The very name of the ETRUSSIANS gives reason to say that they were an ancient Slavic tribe of RUSSIANS - “THIS IS THE RUSSIANS.”
But, looking at the drawings in the tombs, it is easy to see that Etruscan women had light, “flaxen” hair, representing a distinct type of “northern beauties,” and their husbands were dark, curly and black-haired, as if they belonged to another tribe.
Then it is quite likely that the ETRUSIANS are only slightly modified ITA-RUSSIANS, related in structure to our UGRO-FINNS. ITA were the ancestors of modern Italians. Their wives, RUSSIANS, were directly related to us.
This is also confirmed by ancient Greek sources, which call the Etruscans “turzheniya”, which is quite definite: “those urges” - “those married with a bang” (I will return to “hurray” at the end of the work).
The custom of taking wives from another tribe was widely practiced in ancient world. "ITA" were no exception here. But together they constituted ONE people, who spoke and wrote in Old Slavic until their departure from the scene somewhere at the beginning of the “Renaissance.”
The texts I deciphered do not leave the slightest doubt that we are dealing with ANCIENT SLAVIC language, ANCIENT SLAVIC culture! THIS IS AN OBVIOUS FACT, although “experts” strive to “link” Etruscan, it seems, with all Indo-European languages EXCEPT ancient Slavic.
To understand the hidden “mechanics” of Etruscan writing and to understand the complexity of its decipherment, it is necessary to especially emphasize that the ancient scribes did not at all strive (as is commonly believed) to simplify the alphabet, to make it easier and more accessible to use, although they could easily do this .
Just the opposite! They tried with all their might to COMPLETE it, resorting to very ingenious tricks with one single goal: to hide from outsiders THE PRINCIPLE OF WRITING ITSELF and thus preserve all the privileges of the closed caste that owns its secret.
There is a strange contrast. On the one hand, there are the amazing achievements of the Etruscans in construction, architecture, and painting, where clarity, perfection and completeness of forms are visible everywhere. Along with this is Etruscan writing with its clumsy, careless “childish handwriting”, skewed letters, jumping lines. But this discrepancy is easily explained if we consider that the inscriptions were INTENTIONALLY distorted. If any of the outsiders knew WHAT was written here, they certainly did not know HOW it was done. Only a FEW people knew writing - the rest were ILLITERATE!
To hide the “mechanism” of writing, there were several proven techniques:
1. The direction of writing was constantly changing. The text could be read from left to right and right to left.
2. All together or separately, the letters were turned in the direction opposite to the direction of writing or placed “upside down”.
3. Individual letters were INTENTIONALLY distorted in the letter. For example, the letters “E”, “O”, “L” could be written “E”, “D”, “V”, becoming (purely externally) the letters “T”, “D”, “V” of the Etruscan alphabet, but retaining at the same time its original meaning.
5. Individual vowels in the letter were omitted, which was generally very typical in the writing of the ancient Slavs.
6. The letters could be hidden in the details of the ornament or appear in the drawing in the form of an “olive branch”, “spear”, etc. This made it possible to make the text ambiguous.
I have listed here only the main ones. The entire set of these ingenious techniques can be called “CAVERZ SYSTEM”, and, I believe, this term will eventually enter the scientific lexicon. In any case, I found a very accurate definition of the nature of ancient writing (not only Etruscan).
Only a small part of the reproductions of Etruscan mirrors is given here; there are many more of them. The Etruscans had a custom of placing them with their owners during burial. On many mirrors you can clearly see the inscription "DATE". The Etruscans believed in a DATE beyond the grave.
Main character other world Etruscans - "MENEOCA - AKOENEM", a many-faced creature, a werewolf, like his very name, which can be read from left to right "CHANGEABLE" and from right to left "CURSED". This creature stands at the border of two worlds, guarding the entrance to the “Through the Looking Glass”.
The payment for a short meeting with the dead is some kind of balls of unknown origin; they are definitely of interest to MENEOKA.
These same balls are also attached to bracelets: they are given to those for whom the time has come to go to ZVIDAN. The Etruscans are brought to "ZVIDAN" (SVIDAN) by SINIVTSA, the same "Blue Bird" about which M. Maeterlinck told us, many centuries later.
But the SLAVS are familiar with it. Tit – frequent guest Slavic proverbs, sayings, fairy tales.
We are connected with the Etruscans by the strong roots of the SLAVIC language, SLAVIC culture, roots that go back thousands of years, which all kinds of “specialists” seek to cut down, whose “bright temple” is clearly “leaning” towards Asia Minor, where, of course, the smartest lived , the most enlightened people, while everyone else sadly hung on their tails awaiting the arrival of the “kulturtregers”.
But ask any of these “experts” where our concepts of “PAGANITY” and “PAGAN religion” come from?
In the third edition of the TSB we find: “PAGANITY – from the Church Slavonic “pagans” - peoples, foreigners. Designation of non-Christian, in in a broad sense– polytheistic religions. In the literature of Christian peoples, pagan gods personified the elements of nature."
"Soviet Historical Encyclopedia" 1976: "Paganism - accepted in Christian theology and partially in historical literature– a term denoting pre-Christian and non-Christian religions. The term PAGANIC comes from the New Testament - the second, Christian part of the Bible, in which paganism meant peoples or "pagans" (hence PAGANIC)."
That, in essence, is all that “specialists” can say about pagan religion, for whom “pagans” and “peoples” are one and the same!
However, I can quite clearly and clearly answer the question of where our concepts of “Paganism” and “Pagan” come from.
There are mirrors where "MENEOKA-AKOENEM" is depicted in its true form - a teasing mask with its TONGUE sticking out.
THE CONCEPTS OF “PAGANITY”, “PAGAN RELIGION” WE TOOK FROM THE ETRUSCANS!
THE ETRUSCANS (and only the Etruscans) had a “pagan” religion – PAGAN – in the literal sense of the word!
Source:
hystory.mediasole.ru
Coursework - Cultural Monuments of Ancient India
in the discipline "Culturology"
"Cultural Monuments of Ancient India"
Introduction
1. Harappan Civilization
Conclusion
Introduction
The culture of the Ancient East attracts modern tourists with its exoticism. Abandoned cities and monumental temples speak volumes about bygone civilizations. But the heritage of the Ancient East is not only temples and monuments. Buddhism is the oldest of the three world religions (along with Christianity and Islam) that arose in India 2.5 thousand years ago. The bulk of her followers live in the countries of South, Southeast and East Asia: India, China, Japan, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Sri Lanka, Nepal. In our country, Buddhism is traditionally practiced by the residents of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva. It is difficult to determine the total number of Buddhists in the world, but it is very roughly accepted that there are about 400 million lay people and 1 million monks.
Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine created on the basis of the ancient teachings of India, the cornerstone of which is the belief in reincarnation. The basis of Buddhist doctrine is a person’s inner desire for spiritual insight, or nirvana, which can be achieved through meditation, wisdom and the highest moral values. The main goal of Buddhism is human self-improvement, liberation from the chain of rebirths that bring suffering, which is based on selfish desires. The relevance of this topic does not need any justification other than the words: “The Mysterious East”!
The purpose of this work is to study the cultural monuments of Ancient India.
In connection with this goal, the following research objectives can be formulated:
Talk about the dead civilization of Harappa, represented only by archaeological finds;
Consider Buddhist art as one of the sources of cultural wealth of ancient and modern India.
The abstract consists of 5 sections. The first formulates the purpose and objectives of the study, the second describes the civilization of ancient Harappa, the third provides an overview of Buddhist art and its main monuments in India, the fourth draws the main conclusions on the content of the work, and the fifth indicates primary sources on the topic of the work.
1. Harappan Civilization
Back in the twenties of the last century, archaeologists discovered ancient mounds in this region of Pakistan with the remains of the largest Bronze Age cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By the way, according to some publications, the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro contain traces of the incinerating flame that once destroyed this great city. They even said that the terrible flame was generated almost by a nuclear explosion.
Now the site of the disaster is occupied by the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. To date, here on a vast territory that could accommodate two states such as Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt, the remains of one and a half thousand ancient settlements have been uncovered!
In 1985, Professor George F. Dales of the University of California at Berkeley founded the Harappan Archaeological Research Project, which has already passed its first exploratory stages. The earliest settlement at the site of Harappa dates back to 3300 BC. - the time when the ancient Sumerians were just beginning to build their first ziggurats (giant pyramids made of unfired clay with a cut off top for temples). The ancient inhabitants of the Indus Valley were then engaged in agriculture, in particular cattle breeding, and also grew barley, legumes and other crops. Archaeologists have discovered small villages in the north and south of Harappa along the banks of the Ravi River (the left tributary of the Chenab River). Terracotta trinkets and painted shells were found here. It is interesting that materials for decorations were brought 300-800 km away. The discovered remains of cotton and wool fabrics testified to the development of textile production.
Urbanization of Harappa began around 2600 and continued until 1900 BC. For seven centuries, Harappa was one of the largest and most powerful economic and political centers in the Indus Valley. During the spring and summer trading seasons, the city was flooded with hundreds of merchants and thousands of residents of the surrounding Villages. The number of permanent residents of Kharalpa ranged from forty to eighty thousand people. Archaeologists have found here beautiful pottery with images of religious scenes on them, as well as seals of sorts with carved images of unicorns and cubic stone objects that were probably used as cinders for weighing. Traders brought goods here from Afghanistan and Central Asia. Among the imported items were items made of lapis lazuli, tin, silver, gold and textiles. Back to their homeland, visiting traders took grain, livestock, beautiful samples of textiles and, perhaps, even silk. At that time, the city occupied an area of 150 hectares, more than five kilometers in circumference.
The current Harappa occupies only a third of the former territory, and the population does not exceed twenty thousand people. In ancient times, local masons built multi-story (!) houses from baked bricks, located in a straight line from north to south and from east to west.
The main streets were 8 m wide, and in the central part of the city their width ensured two-way traffic for carts and carts. In and around the city, builders built wells, houses were equipped with swimming pools, toilets and a kind of sewage system. Wastewater was discharged through special channels to agricultural land to fertilize the soil. Perhaps nowhere in the ancient world was there such an intricate sewer system. Even in the Roman Empire it appeared only two thousand years later!
During the heyday of Harappa, writing actively developed in the city. It consisted of four hundred symbols, although they had not yet been solved. But it can be assumed that several languages were used in them, and they were used for correspondence among traders, landowners and religious figures. This writing became widespread in all urban centers of the Indus Valley. Seals with images of animals and ritual subjects were widely used. More than 65% of known seals had images of unicorns, others featured elephants, Indian, humpbacked bulls, buffaloes, bison, tigers and rhinoceroses.
The inscriptions on the seals indicated the names of local clans, the names of landowners, and the legal affiliations of individuals. Similar markings are also found on pottery. Examples of inscriptions on bronze and gold objects referred to the names of the owners or indicated the price of these products. Faience and clay objects were sometimes broken into two parts for the participants in a pair transaction. Copper discs may have been the beginnings of a coin system. Archaeological finds in 2001 indicate a new chronology for the development of Indian writing. Previously, scientists believed that the appearance of seals and "coins" was simultaneous, but it has now become clear that different types of these artifacts appeared and changed over the years.
Between 2300 and 1900 BC The population of the cities of the Indus Valley grew rapidly. At the same time, the variety and perfection of cultural products increased. During this period, they show a combination of inscriptions with images of mythological scenes. Surely the spiritual leaders of those times used such objects to invoke the gods. Although archaeologists have not yet been able to find out the names of these gods, they have noticed a recurring motif on various items - men sitting in a yogic lotus position, with a headdress topped with a horn. One of the scenes shows a sacrificial buffalo in front of a seated god. On other objects, the god is surrounded by wild animals. Some seals show goddesses wearing horned headdresses fighting tigers. The clay tiles depict goddesses strangling two tigers or perched on the heads of elephants. Similar scenes were found in Mesopotamia (from the epic “Gilgamesh”), where the images show the hero fighting with two lions. The similarity of these motifs suggests cultural ties between the mentioned civilizations.
Previously, scientists believed that the ancient cities of the Indus Valley were suddenly abandoned by the inhabitants around 1750 BC. And in fact, by this time Harappa, if not completely deserted, then the urban economy had clearly fallen into decay. The weakening of power and loss of control over the life of the city was characteristic not only of Harappa, but also of other cities in the region. Similar degradation occurred in Mohenjo-Daro. The impending crisis of the state led to the gradual disappearance of signs of elite culture in the area.
Traditional square seals with unicorns and other animals disappeared. Stone weighing cubes began to fall out of use, and international trade faded away.
The flow of goods such as decorated shells and lapis lazuli products from Harappa ceased. There was probably more than one reason for the city's decline. The switching of trade routes and the emergence of settlements in the Ganges Valley (in the area of what is now the Indian state of Gujarat) undermined the political and economic life of Harappa. Around 1900 BC one of the largest rivers of the Indus Valley, Ghaggar (north of present-day Delhi), began to change its course and completely dried up, leaving many cities without water.
The relocation of residents to other fertile areas caused overstress in their new habitats. The authorities' lack of a regular army deprived them of the opportunity to establish at least some order in the territories under their control.
The pace of such change varied in different regions. Most of the abandoned settlements were plundered, and the later inhabitants of these places buried the archaeological evidence of the past that still remained.
However, although many objects from the Indus Valley culture have disappeared, some relevant artifacts have survived. These included pottery, faience, and copper and bronze items. By the period around 1700 BC. refers to the appearance of the first examples of glass jewelry in the Indus Valley (two hundred years before the development of this material in Egypt). In subsequent centuries (from 1200 to 800 BC), glass bottles and glass beads appeared in northern India and Pakistan. Iron production also arose in the north of the Indus Valley and along the banks of the Ganges.
The excavations also revealed jewelry in the form of stone beads made during the earliest stages of settlement of the Indus Valley. The first samples of stone beads had small holes with a diameter of 1.5-3 mm. Some of the early examples were made from soapstone (a soft talc known as soapstone). Craftsmen knew how to drill holes in them with copper drills for hanging, about half a millimeter in diameter. After this, the beads were given the desired shape using grinding wheels. Finally, the craftsmen fired the beads in special kilns at a temperature of 850 °C. Harappan craftsmen used agate and jasper as materials for beads. Around 2600 BC The craftsmen of the Indus Valley learned to make harder drills, the secret of which remained unsolved.
One of the most complex technologies was used to produce earthenware beads. The quality of the Indus Valley pottery was higher than that of Egypt or Mesopotamia, since it was made from crushed quartz. The elite classes of the Indus Valley used faience not only for decoration but also for ritual purposes. Faience items with images of various subjects were also used in special ceremonies, during which they were given as gifts to people bringing gifts or performing sacrifices.
Harappa is a great monument of Indian culture, arousing interest among researchers and tourists of all nationalities. The material culture of Harappa has been studied quite well, however, the death of Harappa still remains a mystery.
2. Buddhist art in India
Buddhism, spreading over the centuries to vast neighboring territories, did not conflict with the primordial religions and culture that already existed there. There were many similarities with local deities, customs and rituals. Buddhism assimilated with them, absorbing many aspects of local cults, modified under the pressure of other religions, but fundamentally remained unchanged.
Architecture, sculpture, and painting contributed to the spread of the ideas of Buddhism. Initially, the art of Buddhism was a set of “reinforcements” or “reminders” that helped the believer in perceiving a doctrine that was often too complex for him. As religion spread, it was filled with new meanings and cast into completely new forms.
The contemplative Buddhist “art of living” required the fusion of artistic forms with natural ones. Therefore, Buddhist architecture differs from European architecture: it is not a shelter from nature, but a dissolution in it. The main idea of Buddhist buildings is the creation of a visible resemblance of artificial and natural forms, harmony with nature, conditions for finding peace of mind. The architecture is based on a classic sense of organic, free-growing volume from the earth. Tibetan temples and Chinese pagodas seem to be natural formations; they echo the shapes of mountains, hills or weathered rocks, blooming on their slopes like strange flowers.
Two main types of Buddhist buildings can be distinguished. The first type is services designed to support the life of the monastery: temples, sometimes reaching enormous sizes, rooms for monks - vihara, a hall for believers - chaitya, libraries, towers for gongs and bells. The second type is a structure that is itself an object of worship: a stupa or pagoda. They are usually the center of the monastery in accordance with their role as guardian of sacred relics.
Stupas are not buildings, but solid monolithic monuments with small chambers - reliquaries and niches for sculptures. According to legend, the first stupas were erected after the burning of the Buddha's body according to Indian custom - to store his ashes, divided into eight parts according to the number of regions of India that claimed their rights to his relics. Stupas are hemispherical, tower-shaped or bell-shaped. In the system of Buddhist symbolism, the stupa is considered as a vertical model of the Universe. It symbolizes the “creative beginning of the Universe”, the “impulse of life”, nirvana. The architectural features of stupas in each country are determined by local traditions, but in plan they must be round or square.
The entire group of buildings of the monastery complex is organized according to a single plan. In East Asia, the monastery is surrounded by a wall and is usually oriented along a central axis with the main gate to the south, behind which stood a pagoda, followed by a temple. This line was completed by a preaching hall and a back gate. The location of the buildings could change due to the terrain, especially in the mountains, but Buddhist culture always involves a ritual walk around clockwise. In temples carved out of rocks, a special path was used for this. Over time, the temple displaced the pagoda from its central place, so it acquired a less sacred and more decorative appearance, and often a second one was added to one pagoda for symmetry.
In Buddhist temples, on a raised platform - a kind of altar in the back of the hall - there are statues of Buddhas or bodhisattvas (saints who decided to leave the circle of reincarnations and achieve Buddhahood). The altar consists of several steps: the square step is a symbol of the earth, the round one is a symbol of the sky. In the wall niches there are statues of deities, on the walls there are paintings reminiscent of the previous deeds of the Buddha, pictures of paradise, figures of bodhisattvas, and countless decorative motifs.
The heyday of Buddhist sculpture dates back to the 4th – 5th centuries. During these years, a huge number of images of Buddha and bodhisats were made from gold, bronze, painted wood, ivory, stone, from small (2-3 cm) to huge figures 54 m high.
Often Buddhist buildings turn into giant pyramids of sculptures that completely cover the main volume. Reliefs and sculptures of temple and monastery buildings also include images not related to the philosophy of Buddhism, reflecting more ancient cults and beliefs, and sometimes simply the artist’s imagination.
Buddhism did not declare bans on images of living beings, encouraged independent thinking, and declared the most important principle of great complexity and continuous variability of the world. The Buddha taught that the road to salvation lies through getting rid of illusions, so Buddhist characters have a clear and enlightened expression, they are beyond moral weaknesses and selfish passions.
Picturesque images of Buddha, bodhisats, Buddhist symbols (vase, scepter, begging bowl, bow and arrows, rosary, wheel of Samsara or wheel of the Law, etc.) can be seen in almost every Buddhist temple.
This is how A. David-Neel, a European traveler who studied Buddhism in the East for many years, describes the interior decoration of one of the Buddhist monasteries in Tibet in the book “Mystics and Magicians of Tibet” (M., 1991): “A mass of banners suspended from the ceiling in galleries and attached to high supporting pillars, show the audience a great many images of Buddha and gods, and on the frescoes covering the walls, among cohorts of other heroes, saints and demons flaunt in threatening or benevolent poses. In the depths of the huge room, behind several rows of altar lamps, statues of great, long-departed lamas and jeweled arks of silver and gold, containing their mummies or cremation ashes, flicker softly. Having fixed their demanding or commanding gazes on people, overwhelming them with their numbers, all these creatures... seem to mingle with a crowd of monks. A mystical atmosphere envelops people and objects, obscures trivial details with a haze, and idealizes faces and poses. ")
In Tibetan Buddhist art, tanka - images of Buddha, church hierarchs, characters of the Buddhist pantheon, hagiographic cycles, etc. - occupy a significant place. They are made with paints on silk or printed on cotton fabric and are intended for meditation, religious processions, in temple interiors, and home altars.
Characteristic of Buddhist art is the desire for a contrasting combination of bright, colorful materials: gold and silver, red and black lacquer, inlay with colored glass, porcelain, foil, mother-of-pearl, and precious stones. Buddhism became a school for several generations of masters in India, Persia, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia. Many classical works of art from China and Japan and other countries are associated with Buddhism.
Conclusion
Buddhism flourished in India in the 5th-7th centuries. Mahayana promoted a return to hierarchical ideas, and Tantrism promoted the rehabilitation of the sensory world. From the 4th century Secular culture flourished under the Gupta dynasty. Along with temples in the treatise on architecture of the V-VI centuries. public buildings and palaces are described. The invasion of the Huns also contributed to the transition to a hierarchical organization of society. As in Europe, the collapse of the Hunnic state led to the formation of principalities and relations, which in Europe were called feudal. In the V-VII centuries. There were about 50 states on Indian territory.
The Gupta kings patronized various religions, but called themselves devotees of Vishnu. In the inscriptions of this time, Hindu names appear five times more often than Buddhist and Jain names. KV c. collections of Hindu myths and traditions are compiled. These codes were not intended for a select few, but for the entire population, to whom they were close and understandable. The basic idea of Hinduism was fully consistent with the spirit of a hierarchical society - the idea of personal service to God and boundless devotion to him. The most popular gods were Vishnu and Shiva.
Urban artisans of the main specialties were subordinated to corporations. The city, as the center of culture, was already sharply opposed to the village. There may also have been royal workshops: it is difficult to imagine that single artisans created the pillar of Chandragupta II in Delhi from stainless iron or the huge bronze statue of Buddha in Sultanganj. Craft guilds, like trade guilds, accepted cash deposits and carried out banking activities. There was also a separate corporation of bankers-money changers. However, little copper money was found; shells were used instead even in the capital.
The country was united not only by new religious ideas, but also by Sanskrit as a universal language.
List of used literature
1. Cultural studies. Course of lectures ed. A.A. Radugina Publishing house “Center” Moscow 1998
2. Culturology /Ed. A.N. Markova M., 1998
3. Levinas E. Philosophical definition of the idea of culture. // Global problems and universal human values. – M.: Progress, 1990. - P.86-97
4. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M.: “Gardariki”, 1997.-344 p.
5. Illustrated history of religions. T.1,2 - M.: Publishing house of the Valaam Monastery, 1992.
6. Kagan M.S. Philosophy of culture. - St. Petersburg, 1996.
7. Ponomareva G.M. and others. Fundamentals of cultural studies. – M., 1998.
www.ronl.ru
Abstract on the topic Cultural Monuments of Ancient India
ABSTRACT on the discipline "Cultural Studies" Topic: "Cultural Monuments of Ancient India" Contents Introduction 1. Harappan Civilization 2. Buddhist art in India Conclusion List of used literatureIntroduction The culture of the Ancient East attracts modern tourists with its exoticism. Abandoned cities and monumental temples speak volumes about bygone civilizations. But the heritage of the Ancient East is not only temples and monuments. Buddhism is the oldest of the three world religions (along with Christianity and Islam) that arose in India 2.5 thousand years ago. The bulk of her followers live in the countries of South, Southeast and East Asia: India, China, Japan, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Sri Lanka, Nepal. In our country, Buddhism is traditionally practiced by the residents of Buryatia, Kalmykia, and Tuva. It is difficult to determine the total number of Buddhists in the world, but it is very roughly accepted that there are about 400 million lay people and 1 million monks. Buddhism is a religious and philosophical doctrine created on the basis of the ancient teachings of India, the cornerstone of which is the belief in reincarnation. The basis of Buddhist doctrine is a person’s inner desire for spiritual insight, or nirvana, which can be achieved through meditation, wisdom and the highest moral values. The main goal of Buddhism is human self-improvement, liberation from the chain of rebirths that bring suffering, which is based on selfish desires. The relevance of this topic does not need any justification other than the words: “The Mysterious East”! The purpose of this work is to study the cultural monuments of Ancient India. In connection with this goal, the following research objectives can be formulated: Ø talk about the dead civilization of Harappa, represented only by archaeological finds; Ø consider Buddhist art as one of the sources of cultural wealth of ancient and modern India. The abstract consists of 5 sections. The first formulates the purpose and objectives of the study, the second describes the civilization of ancient Harappa, the third provides an overview of Buddhist art and its main monuments in India, the fourth draws the main conclusions on the content of the work, and the fifth indicates primary sources on the topic of the work. 1. Harappan civilization Back in the twenties of the last century, archaeologists discovered the most ancient mounds in this region of Pakistan with the remains of the largest Bronze Age cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. By the way, according to some publications, the ruins of Mohenjo-Daro contain traces of the incinerating flame that once destroyed this great city. They even said that the terrible flame was generated almost by a nuclear explosion. Now the site of the disaster is occupied by the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh. To date, here on a vast territory that could accommodate two states such as Mesopotamia or Ancient Egypt, the remains of one and a half thousand ancient settlements have been uncovered! In 1985, Professor George F. Dales of the University of California at Berkeley founded the Harappan Archaeological Research Project, which has already passed its first exploratory stages. The earliest settlement at the site of Harappa dates back to 3300 BC. - the time when the ancient Sumerians were just beginning to build their first ziggurats (giant pyramids made of unfired clay with a cut off top for temples). The ancient inhabitants of the Indus Valley were then engaged in agriculture, in particular cattle breeding, and also grew barley, legumes and other crops. Archaeologists have discovered small villages in the north and south of Harappa along the banks of the Ravi River (the left tributary of the Chenab River). Terracotta trinkets and painted shells were found here. It is interesting that materials for decorations were brought 300-800 km away. The discovered remains of cotton and wool fabrics testified to the development of textile production. Urbanization of Harappa began around 2600 and continued until 1900 BC. For seven centuries, Harappa was one of the largest and most powerful economic and political centers in the Indus Valley. During the spring and summer trading seasons, the city was flooded with hundreds of merchants and thousands of residents of the surrounding Villages. The number of permanent residents of Kharalpa ranged from forty to eighty thousand people. Archaeologists have found here beautiful pottery with images of religious scenes on them, as well as seals of sorts with carved images of unicorns and cubic stone objects that were probably used as cinders for weighing. Traders brought goods here from Afghanistan and Central Asia. Among the imported items were items made of lapis lazuli, tin, silver, gold and textiles. Back to their homeland, visiting traders took grain, livestock, beautiful samples of textiles and, perhaps, even silk. At that time, the city occupied an area of 150 hectares, more than five kilometers in circumference. The current Harappa occupies only a third of the former territory, and the population does not exceed twenty thousand people. In ancient times, local masons built multi-story (!) houses from baked bricks, located in a straight line from north to south and from east to west. The main streets were 8 m wide, and in the central part of the city their width ensured two-way traffic for carts and carts. In and around the city, builders built wells, houses were equipped with swimming pools, toilets and a kind of sewage system. Wastewater was discharged through special channels to agricultural land to fertilize the soil. Perhaps nowhere in the ancient world was there such an intricate sewer system. Even in the Roman Empire it appeared only two thousand years later! During the heyday of Harappa, writing actively developed in the city. It consisted of four hundred symbols, although they had not yet been solved. But it can be assumed that several languages were used in them, and they were used for correspondence among traders, landowners and religious figures. This writing became widespread in all urban centers of the Indus Valley. Seals with images of animals and ritual subjects were widely used. More than 65% of known seals had images of unicorns, others featured elephants, Indian, humpbacked bulls, buffaloes, bison, tigers and rhinoceroses. The inscriptions on the seals indicated the names of local clans, the names of landowners, and the legal affiliations of individuals. Similar markings are also found on pottery. Examples of inscriptions on bronze and gold objects referred to the names of the owners or indicated the price of these products. Faience and clay objects were sometimes broken into two parts for the participants in a pair transaction. Copper discs may have been the beginnings of a coin system. Archaeological finds in 2001 indicate a new chronology for the development of Indian writing. Previously, scientists believed that the appearance of seals and "coins" was simultaneous, but it has now become clear that different types of these artifacts appeared and changed over the years. Between 2300 and 1900 BC The population of the cities of the Indus Valley grew rapidly. At the same time, the variety and perfection of cultural products increased. During this period, they show a combination of inscriptions with images of mythological scenes. Surely the spiritual leaders of those times used such objects to invoke the gods. Although archaeologists have not yet been able to find out the names of these gods, they have noticed a recurring motif on various items - men sitting in a yogic lotus position, with a headdress topped with a horn. One of the scenes shows a sacrificial buffalo in front of a seated god. On other objects, the god is surrounded by wild animals. Some seals show goddesses wearing horned headdresses fighting tigers. The clay tiles depict goddesses strangling two tigers or perched on the heads of elephants. Similar scenes were found in Mesopotamia (from the epic “Gilgamesh”), where the images show the hero fighting with two lions. The similarity of these motifs suggests cultural ties between the mentioned civilizations. Previously, scientists believed that the ancient cities of the Indus Valley were suddenly abandoned by the inhabitants around 1750 BC. And in fact, by this time Harappa, if not completely deserted, then the urban economy had clearly fallen into decay. The weakening of power and loss of control over the life of the city was characteristic not only of Harappa, but also of other cities in the region. Similar degradation occurred in Mohenjo-Daro. The impending crisis of the state led to the gradual disappearance of signs of elite culture in the area. Traditional square seals with unicorns and other animals disappeared. Stone weighing cubes began to fall out of use, and international trade faded away. The flow of goods such as decorated shells and lapis lazuli products from Harappa ceased. There was probably more than one reason for the city's decline. The switching of trade routes and the emergence of settlements in the Ganges Valley (in the area of what is now the Indian state of Gujarat) undermined the political and economic life of Harappa. Around 1900 BC one of the largest rivers of the Indus Valley, Ghaggar (north of present-day Delhi), began to change its course and completely dried up, leaving many cities without water. The relocation of residents to other fertile areas caused overstress in their new habitats. The authorities' lack of a regular army deprived them of the opportunity to establish at least some order in the territories under their control. The pace of such change varied in different regions. Most of the abandoned settlements were plundered, and the later inhabitants of these places buried the archaeological evidence of the past that still remained. However, although many objects from the Indus Valley culture have disappeared, some relevant artifacts have survived. These included pottery, faience, and copper and bronze items. By the period around 1700 BC. refers to the appearance of the first examples of glass jewelry in the Indus Valley (two hundred years before the development of this material in Egypt). In subsequent centuries (from 1200 to 800 BC), glass bottles and glass beads appeared in northern India and Pakistan. Iron production also arose in the north of the Indus Valley and along the banks of the Ganges. The excavations also revealed jewelry in the form of stone beads made during the earliest stages of settlement of the Indus Valley. The first samples of stone beads had small holes with a diameter of 1.5-3 mm. Some of the early examples were made from soapstone (a soft talc known as soapstone). Craftsmen knew how to drill holes in them with copper drills for hanging, about half a millimeter in diameter. After this, the beads were given the desired shape using grinding wheels. Finally, the craftsmen fired the beads in special kilns at a temperature of 850 "C. Harappan craftsmen used agate and jasper as materials for beads. Around 2600 BC, the Indus Valley craftsmen learned to make harder drills, the secret of which remained unsolved. One one of the most complex technologies was used to produce faience beads.The quality of the Indus Valley faience was higher than that of Egypt or Mesopotamia, since it was made from crushed quartz. The elite classes of the Indus Valley used faience not only for decoration, but also for ritual purposes. Faience products with images of various subjects were also used in special ceremonies, during which they were given as gifts to people who brought gifts or made sacrifices. Harappa is a great monument of Indian culture, arousing interest among researchers and tourists of all nationalities. The material culture of Harappa has been sufficiently studied. well, nevertheless, the death of Harappa still remains a mystery. 2. Buddhist art in India Buddhism, spreading over the centuries to vast neighboring territories, did not conflict with the primordial religions and culture that already existed there. There were many similarities with local deities, customs and rituals. Buddhism assimilated with them, absorbing many aspects of local cults, modified under the pressure of other religions, but fundamentally remained unchanged. Architecture, sculpture, and painting contributed to the spread of the ideas of Buddhism. Initially, the art of Buddhism was a set of “reinforcements” or “reminders” that helped the believer in perceiving a doctrine that was often too complex for him. As religion spread, it was filled with new meanings and cast into completely new forms. The contemplative Buddhist “art of living” required the fusion of artistic forms with natural ones. Therefore, Buddhist architecture differs from European architecture: it is not a shelter from nature, but a dissolution in it. The main idea of Buddhist buildings is the creation of a visible resemblance of artificial and natural forms, harmony with nature, conditions for finding peace of mind. The architecture is based on a classic sense of organic, free-growing volume from the earth. Tibetan temples and Chinese pagodas seem to be natural formations; they echo the shapes of mountains, hills or weathered rocks, blooming on their slopes like strange flowers. Two main types of Buddhist buildings can be distinguished. The first type is services designed to support the life of the monastery: temples, sometimes reaching enormous sizes, rooms for monks - vihara, a hall for believers - chaitya, libraries, towers for gongs and bells. The second type is a structure that is itself an object of worship: a stupa or pagoda. They are usually the center of the monastery in accordance with their role as guardian of sacred relics. Stupas are not buildings, but solid monolithic monuments with small chambers - reliquaries and niches for sculptures. According to legend, the first stupas were erected after the burning of the Buddha's body according to Indian custom - to store his ashes, divided into eight parts according to the number of regions of India that claimed their rights to his relics. Stupas are hemispherical, tower-shaped or bell-shaped. In the system of Buddhist symbolism, the stupa is considered as a vertical model of the Universe. It symbolizes the “creative beginning of the Universe”, the “impulse of life”, nirvana. The architectural features of stupas in each country are determined by local traditions, but in plan they must be round or square. The entire group of buildings of the monastery complex is organized according to a single plan. In East Asia, the monastery is surrounded by a wall and is usually oriented along a central axis with the main gate to the south, behind which stood a pagoda, followed by a temple. This line was completed by a preaching hall and a back gate. The location of the buildings could change due to the terrain, especially in the mountains, but Buddhist culture always involves a ritual walk around clockwise. In temples carved out of rocks, a special path was used for this. Over time, the temple displaced the pagoda from its central place, so it acquired a less sacred and more decorative appearance, and often a second one was added to one pagoda for symmetry. In Buddhist temples, on a raised platform - a kind of altar in the back of the hall - there are statues of Buddhas or bodhisattvas (saints who decided to leave the circle of reincarnations and achieve Buddhahood). The altar consists of several steps: the square step is a symbol of the earth, the round one is a symbol of the sky. In the wall niches there are statues of deities, on the walls there are paintings reminiscent of the previous deeds of the Buddha, pictures of paradise, figures of bodhisattvas, and countless decorative motifs. The heyday of Buddhist sculpture dates back to the 4th – 5th centuries. During these years, a huge number of images of Buddha and bodhisats were made from gold, bronze, painted wood, ivory, stone, from small (2-3 cm) to huge figures 54 m high. Often Buddhist buildings turn into giant pyramids of sculptures that completely cover the main volume. Reliefs and sculptures of temple and monastery buildings also include images not related to the philosophy of Buddhism, reflecting more ancient cults and beliefs, and sometimes simply the artist’s imagination. Buddhism did not declare bans on images of living beings, encouraged independent thinking, and declared the most important principle of great complexity and continuous variability of the world. The Buddha taught that the road to salvation lies through getting rid of illusions, so Buddhist characters have a clear and enlightened expression, they are beyond moral weaknesses and selfish passions. Picturesque images of Buddha, bodhisats, Buddhist symbols (vase, scepter, begging bowl, bow and arrows, rosary, wheel of Samsara or wheel of the Law, etc.) can be seen in almost every Buddhist temple. This is how A. David-Neel, a European traveler who studied Buddhism in the East for many years, describes the interior decoration of one of the Buddhist monasteries in Tibet in the book “Mystics and Magicians of Tibet” (M., 1991): “A mass of banners suspended from the ceiling in galleries and attached to high supporting pillars, show the audience a great many images of Buddha and gods, and on the frescoes covering the walls, among cohorts of other heroes, saints and demons flaunt in threatening or benevolent poses. In the depths of the huge room, behind several rows of altar lamps, statues of great, long-departed lamas and jeweled arks of silver and gold, containing their mummies or cremation ashes, flicker softly. Having fixed their demanding or commanding gazes on people, overwhelming them with their numbers, all these creatures... seem to mingle with a crowd of monks. A mystical atmosphere envelops people and objects, obscures trivial details with a haze, and idealizes faces and poses. ") In Tibetan Buddhist art, a significant place is occupied by thangka - images of the Buddha, church hierarchs, characters of the Buddhist pantheon, hagiographic cycles, etc. They are made with paints on silk or printed on cotton fabric and are intended for meditation, religious processions, in temple interiors, and home altars. Characteristic of Buddhist art is the desire for a contrasting combination of bright, colorful materials: gold and silver, red and black lacquer, inlay with colored glass, porcelain, foil, mother-of-pearl, and precious stones. Buddhism became a school for several generations of masters in India, Persia, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia. Many classical works of art from China and Japan and other countries are associated with Buddhism. Conclusion Buddhism flourished in India in the 5th-7th centuries. Mahayana promoted a return to hierarchical ideas, and Tantrism promoted the rehabilitation of the sensory world. From the 4th century Secular culture flourished under the Gupta dynasty. Along with temples in the treatise on architecture of the V-VI centuries. public buildings and palaces are described. The invasion of the Huns also contributed to the transition to a hierarchical organization of society. As in Europe, the collapse of the Hunnic state led to the formation of principalities and relations, which in Europe were called feudal. In the V-VII centuries. There were about 50 states on Indian territory. The Gupta kings patronized various religions, but called themselves devotees of Vishnu. In the inscriptions of this time, Hindu names appear five times more often than Buddhist and Jain names. KV c. collections of Hindu myths and traditions are compiled. These codes were not intended for a select few, but for the entire population, to whom they were close and understandable. The basic idea of Hinduism was fully consistent with the spirit of a hierarchical society - the idea of personal service to God and boundless devotion to him. The most popular gods were Vishnu and Shiva. Urban artisans of the main specialties were subordinated to corporations. The city, as the center of culture, was already sharply opposed to the village. There may also have been royal workshops: it is difficult to imagine that single artisans created the pillar of Chandragupta II in Delhi from stainless iron or the huge bronze statue of Buddha in Sultanganj. Craft guilds, like trade guilds, accepted cash deposits and carried out banking activities. There was also a separate corporation of bankers-money changers. However, little copper money was found; shells were used instead even in the capital. The country was united not only by new religious ideas, but also by Sanskrit as a universal language. List of used literature 1. Culturology. Course of lectures ed. A.A. Radugina Publishing house “Center” Moscow 1998 2. Culturology /Ed. A.N. Markova M., 1998 3. Levinas E. Philosophical definition of the idea of culture. // Global problems and universal human values. – M.: Progress, 1990. - P.86-97 4. Polikarpov V.S. Lectures on cultural studies. M.: “Gardariki”, 1997.-344 p. 5. Illustrated history of religions. T.1,2 - M.: Publishing house of the Valaam Monastery, 1992. 6. Kagan M.S. Philosophy of culture. - St. Petersburg, 1996. 7. Ponomareva G.M. and others. Fundamentals of cultural studies. – M., 1998.
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INDIA, Introduction to Indology, State of the source base for archaeological research in the country
Introduction to Indology
State of the source base for archaeological research of the country
the Indologist has to use a poor and extremely unreliable key base through which history. Ancient. India, in comparison with other ancient civilizations, has been studied or no worse. The sources on the basis of which scientists carry out the historical reconstruction of ancient Indian society are divided into four main groups: ancient Indian written monuments, reports of foreigners about. India, the sights of material culture and living traditions of antiquity in the present rural wilderness.
A lot of Indian written monuments have survived, but they do not provide reliable historical information. Among them there are no documents of economic reporting, secular laws, historical chronicles, except for the Ceylon Chronicles of the first centuries of our era and the “Kashmir Chronicle” of the 13th century. Therefore, Indologists must be content almost exclusively with religious, philosophical and literary works and scientific treatises that cannot be accurately dated and, moreover, are silent about the thousand-year history of the country of the Vedic Sutbi.
Among religious and philosophical monuments, Indologists value sacred books most of all. The Vedas, which consist of four main collections:. Rigveda (hymns). Samaveda (chant). Yajurveda (sacrifice) etc. At Tharva Veda (spells and incantations), and the last three collections have reached us in several editions - Samhita. Even in ancient times before. The Vedas were composed of commentaries, which often require no less explanation than the Vedic texts they commented on. This -. Brahmins (books for Brahmin priests). Aranyakas (installations for hermits) etc. Upanishads ("secret teachings" for initiates), each edition. The Vedas (Samhita) has its Brahmanas, Aranyakas, etc. Upanishads are often referred to by historians as the Rig Veda, which recalls the most ancient events of ancient Indian history. Their historical source is also the Vedic language itself. linguistic analysis which helps solve the complex problem of migration in. Northern. India "Aryans".
In Vedic literature adjoin. Su tri (Soups), which are sometimes called "part of the Vedas" -. Vedanga. These are six religious, philosophical and scientific treatises that contain information about the religious and general legal life of the ancient Indians.
They also serve as a valuable historical source. Shastras that arose on the basis. Sutras and partially compiled - for easy memorization - in poetic form. Of these scientific and political treatises, the Indologist is especially singled out. Dharmashastras and. Arthashastra. Dharmashastras are religious and ethical rules that explain dharma - moral and ethical norms, in general the entire way of life of each widespread and authoritative caste. Dharma-shastras were "Laws. Manu" ("Manu-smrggi"), which were compiled, as tradition assures, by "Indian. Noah" -. Manu (he survived the flood and saved the sacred texts of the Vedas). It’s not easy to draw historical information from them, because you can’t say with confidence that what they left as parting words has become the norm of life. Arthashastra is a large socio-economic and political treatise, which contains advice to kings on the destruction of political competitors, waging wars, and generally governing the state. Authorship. Tradition attributes the Arthashastras to a brahmana. Kautilya (Chanakya), although historians believe that her treatise, rather, took shape over several centuries. Use. The Arthashastra has to be extremely careful for historical reconstruction, because it is difficult to find out to what extent its recommendations were embodied in life.
indologist O. O. Vigasin and. D. M. Lelyukhin believe that c. Arthashastra "does not describe a specific state or political situation, but outlines ideas about an abstract, ideal state, although the time developed in it" political theory "was probably associated with practice and, to a certain extent, is a generalization of the political reality of ancient India."
Grandiose epic poems are of great historical and educational value. Mahabharata and. The Ramayana is a real encyclopedia of the life and traditions of the ancient Indians. However, neither the poems themselves, nor those of their plots that can be considered historical, are dated.
The Indologist also consults historical information from Buddhist and Hindu literature, especially from the legends of the Puranas (the tradition includes 18 Puranas)
Ancient Indian epigraphy is extremely poor: the Indians were reluctant to resort to writing, even trade agreements were concluded orally. Nevertheless, a few epigraphic monuments sometimes contain a lot of information. This applies primarily to the edicts (decrees) of the king. Adiokas (they are carved on a stone pillar), inscriptions in caves. Ajanta is thin.
Lots of messages about. Ancient. Foreigners left India. Of the Europeans, the first to describe this “land of a thousand wonders” was the Greek in the 6th century BC. Skilak, however, was truly discovered. Its only participants in Indian style. Alexandra. Macedonian in the 4th century BC. They based their description on the material they collected. India. Plutarch. Curtius. Ruf. Pompey. Troga, other ancient authors. A vivid and relatively truthful description of this country belongs to the Syrian ambassador to the Indian state. Mauryan. Megasthenes (the work of Megasthenes has not survived, but it is often quoted or retold by Strabo, Diodorus, Arrian). Rich information about. India in the works of "Indica" and "Anabasis" Arrian. Ceylon chronicles and travel notes of Chinese pilgrims to Buddhist shrines are also important historical sources. Xuan. Zana,. F. Xianya. I. Jing and others. We still have to admit that in the reports of foreigners about. In India, there are often obvious fabrications, so they should be treated with a critical eye.
Sights of material culture. Ancient. Very little of India has survived because its architecture was mostly wooden, and the Indians practiced cremation of the dead and did not accompany burials with sacrifice.
The basis for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history is also the ancient traditions preserved in remote Indian villages, primarily in the economic life of peasants. However, one has to be careful when using such a specific source of historical information, since no matter how strong the tradition is, it has not remained absolutely unchanged over thousands of years.
Achievements of archaeological research. India is quite small. The first significant ones, even sensational discoveries archaeologists in. India began excavations of robbed ruins. Mohenjo-Daro and. Harappans in the early 20s of the XX century. The ruins of these cities were first discovered by British industrialists, who built a 160-kilometre railway embankment using their bricks. Only later did an English archaeologist. J. Marshall with his Indian colleagues. D. R. Sahni and. R. D. Banerjee was forced to serve science what was left of the most ancient centers of Indian civilization and civilization.
Excavations. Mohenjo-Daro and. Harappa, and later also. Chankhu-Daro. Kalibangan,. Lothal and other ancient urban centers made a stunning impression on historians, because they discovered one of the oldest urban civilizations that arose long before the arrival of the. India of the Aryan tribes, and prompted scientists to reconsider the concept of the creation of ancient Indian culture by strangers "Aryans".
Unfortunately, excavations. Mohenjo-Daro is now being destroyed literally before our eyes, because of the construction. The Sukkur dam and the expansion of the area of irrigated land subsoil water rose almost to the surface, as a result of which saltpeter began to seep into the brick and destroy it - and the city walls began to fall apart. None of the proposed methods of conservation of this monument of ancient Indian civilization gave the desired effect, so excavations. Mohenjo-Daro had to be stopped.
Scope of archaeological research. India grew up after the formation of two sovereign states on its territory in 1947 -. Republic. India and Pakistan. In particular, the “culture of gray painted pottery”, which scientists mainly associate with the “Aryans,” was excavated in the early 50s, several ancient capitals (Rajagriha, Pataliputra, etc.), fortresses (V. Rupal, etc.). Ujjayani, etc.), Buddhist temples and monasteries (in Karla, Ajanta, Andhra Pradesh, etc.) -. Excavations of Harappan settlements are currently ongoing (more than a thousand of them have already been discovered), and a program of archaeological study of those cities and localities mentioned in the ancient Indian epic or associated with the Indian campaign is being implemented. Alexandra. Macedonian.
A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
In addition to mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are true encyclopedias of Indian life. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory reached a high level in Ancient India literary creativity, including poetry. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works, in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level, you can only cognize the surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, the dependence of these states on external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of mind, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that long time"nourished" philosophical thought in India.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle in various books The Mahabharata also contains texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.
The main significance among these concepts in the epic is the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads. True, these teachings are presented differently in different parts of the Mahabharata, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and independent of it and the pure spirit unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
One of the books that is of greatest interest from a philosophical point of view is the Bhagavad Gita (divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are respectively black, red and white, the colors that define people’s lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
Writing existed in ancient India for a very long time. The age of the first tablets with images that were found on the territory of Ancient India is more than 4000 years. Scientists believe that behind the signs on these tablets there is a real language. By the way, this language has not yet been deciphered. And for 130 years now, scientists have been trying to decipher this language. Currently, they are trying to decipher the symbols using computer technology. Through computer calculations, it was possible to find out that numerous squares, rectangles, and jagged patterns are not pictograms with unique meanings, but rather a language system. The signs used in writing are very diverse, and this makes deciphering difficult.
Undeciphered inscriptions
Writing of the most ancient civilization
What did they write in ancient india, and on what? So, the first tablets were made of clay, and they were written on them with a hard wooden stick. Many of the inscriptions found were made on stones, and "wrote" on them using a chisel. They also wrote on uncured clay, then fired the clay. The Vedic texts were written this way. Palm leaves were also used for writing. The sheet was dried, cut into strips, and then sewn together with twine. The result was a stack of narrow strips, somewhat reminiscent of a folded fan. Where it was difficult to obtain dry palm leaves, birch bark was used. The bark was soaked and processed. Cotton was also used. Book covers were made of wood and varnished. Important notes or documents were cut out on copper sheets. Later, paper may have been used that was invented in China.
Lettering on a palm leaf
Veda
In ancient India, charcoal or soot was used to make ink. The ink was applied with a reed pen. In the southern part of ancient India, a different method was used. First, the letters were applied with a stick with a sharp end, and then the sheet with the inscriptions was sprinkled with black soot. Thanks to this method, thinner letters were obtained; the method gave an accurate outline of the letters. It is believed that this method led to the emergence of the Tamil alphabet, which has angular letters.
7. Medicine and pharmacy in Ancient India. Written medical monuments of Ancient India. Advances in surgery and hygiene.
The source for studying the history of medicine and pharmacy of Ancient India is the Vedas (monuments of Indian culture), as well as the collection of laws of Manu. From them we learn that in the 2nd century BC. In India, there was medical education: universities in Taxila and Benares, as well as medical schools at provincial monasteries. The Ayur-Veda (Book of Life) said that disease occurs after an imbalance of air (ether), mucus and bile, which ensure health. The doctor had to restore the balance that existed before the disease with the help of drugs (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics and oils), surgery or physical methods. In 2Ayur-Veda, a kind of Indian pharmacopoeia, a list of 760 drugs is given. In empirical medicine of Ancient India, cereals, wood, bark, roots, flowers, and fruits were used. Wine, vinegar, milk, oil, fats, blood, glands and other organs of many animals, fish and birds were also consumed. Minerals: arsenic, iron, copper. The composition of ointments often included lead, sulfur, antimony, zinc, and ammonium salts. Especially MERCURY! The most powerful strengthening agent is gold. Silver, copper, iron, and tin were also used. Surgical methods of treating diseases, hygienic measures were used, vaccinations against smallpox were carried out, and patients were isolated during the treatment of leprosy. Indian doctors performed amputations of limbs, removal of cataracts, and performed plastic surgery.
15. Asclepiad, his system for preventing and treating diseases.
Asclepiades was a prominent Roman physician from Bithynia (128-56 BC). Health, according to Asclepiades, is preserved with the normal movement of body particles and the normal state of empty spaces between particles - pores and channels. When they are clogged and clogged, when the movement of particles stagnates or is disrupted, diseases occur. Asklepiades paid special attention to the “invisible breath” of the skin. Health must be maintained first of all by general cleanliness, frequent ablutions, and then by stronger stimulants such as rubbing, sweating, and physical exercise. If the patient could not move independently, he advised carrying him and rocking him. Along with physiotherapy and balneotherapy, climate therapy occupied a large place in the Asclepiad system. He treated medicines with caution and in some cases gave clean water under the guise of medicines. The “pleasant” treatment according to the Asclepiadian system, opposed to the rude methods of the “bloodthirsty torturers,” made it extremely popular in Rome. Asclepiades treated with a diet that had been excellently developed for a long time. He introduced only one new principle into dietetics: food should be tasty.
26. The emergence of medical schools and universities in Western Europe. Teaching methods in them.
The centers of Medieval medicine were universities. In the universities of Western Europe, scholasticism dominated, which involved the construction of hypotheses, theories and the conduct of various disputes only within the strict limits of the dogmas established by the Christian Church.
The medical school in Salerno played a major role in the history of medicine and pharmacy. In 1140, Rector Nicholas compiled the Antidotarium of Nicholas. At first it contained 60 prescriptions, later 150. The highest level of prosperity of the medical school in Salerno was reached towards the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. Salerno creates his own literature, the school was already close to teaching experimental medicine. For this purpose, autopsies of the corpses of criminals and animals were periodically carried out. The training there lasted 5 years. The Salerno school was given the right to confer the title of doctor and issue licenses.
The University of Padua, which differed from most medieval universities in the possessions of Venice, began to play a role later, towards the end of the Middle Ages, during the Renaissance. It was founded in the 13th century by scientists who fled from the papal regions and from Spain from the persecution of the Catholic Church reaction. In the 16th century it became a center of advanced medicine.
The University of Bologna is one of the oldest continuously operating degree-granting universities in the world, and the second largest university in Italy. It was the first university founded in the Western world (in 1088 AD). The University of Bologna is historically known for its ecclesiastical and civil law courses.
The Sorbonne is historically the University of Paris. It first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was reorganized in 1970 into 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I-XIII).
University of Vienna, a public university located in Vienna, Austria. Opened in 1365, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe.
Universities had 3 faculties: theological, medical, and law. There were also preparatory faculties. Levels of knowledge: 1) from the Bible + works of the church fathers; 2) from the works of other scientists reviewed by the church. Students are rich people with a high position in society; age did not matter. They learned from books by memorizing. The book was fastened with a chain. Universities were separated from the state (their own police, courts). The lecture was given by the professor sitting in the form of debates (throwing around quotes).
27. The spread of infectious diseases in the Middle Ages and measures to combat them.
Infectious diseases became especially widespread in the Middle Ages, when frequent wars of conquest and crusades were fought, and the growth of cities contributed to overcrowding of the population and deterioration of sanitary and hygienic living conditions.
Such diseases often took on the character of epidemics - a massive outbreak of a disease in a certain territory, and sometimes even pandemics, when the disease covered entire continents. The most terrible infectious disease in ancient times and the Middle Ages was the plague. It covered vast territories of Europe and Asia. Pandemic plagues were known in the 6th and 14th centuries. It wiped out entire cities and provinces. In the 14th century, an even more dangerous variety of it appeared - the bubonic plague. In addition to the plague, other infectious diseases are known that often acquired the character of epidemics: typhoid, cholera, smallpox, anthrax, etc. Even in ancient times, medicine knew anti-epidemic measures: removal sick people from the cities, burning the property of the sick or dead, involving people who had recovered from the disease in caring for the sick. One of the most ancient diseases that humanity encountered at the dawn of its existence was smallpox. In the 14th century. In Europe, quarantine began to be introduced - a system of measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases from the source of the epidemic with the subsequent elimination of the source of infection itself. In 1423, one of the first quarantine stations (“lazaretto”) was established on the island in Venice. In Europe, smallpox appeared only with the invention of the sail in the 5th-6th centuries. n. e. During smallpox epidemics in some countries, up to half the population died. Back in ancient China and India, doctors developed a method of protecting people from smallpox through so-called variolation. To do this, they collected smallpox crusts from the patient, dried them and ground them into a fine powder. This powder was rubbed into the skin with a special spatula or needle, which was used to cut the surface of the skin, and sometimes blown into the nose of a healthy person. The purpose of these procedures was to induce a mild form of the disease in him. Variolation did protect many people. But, since the smallpox virus was used to carry it out, variolation often caused severe illness and even death. The patient could subsequently infect people who came into contact with him and even cause a new epidemic. At the beginning of the 18th century, when smallpox spread widely throughout Europe, the search began to protect the population from this infection. Members of the Royal Society of Medicine of London decided to discuss the pros and cons of the variolation method, which was reported by many travelers. British reports on travel to Asian countries were collected. Despite the dangers of the method, they decided to recommend it for use, since the damage caused to society by epidemics was much heavier. At this time, Lady Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador in Constantinople, observed how elderly Turkish women inoculated healthy local residents with material taken from a smallpox patient . In Turkey, she performed variolation on her own son, and upon returning to England, she began to promote the Turkish method of variolation. At first, variolation was met with hostility. The clergy saw in her something contrary to the will of Divine Providence. It took the support of King George I to conduct experiments that proved the enormous effectiveness of the variolation method. Inmates of Newgate Prison, who were promised amnesty, were chosen for testing. Six people - three men and three women - gave their consent to variolation. They all remained healthy. After this, variolation began to be widely used in Great Britain itself, as well as in its American colonies.