Here are a few pages from the book.
The phenomenon “that aphids do not smolder”
Editor's Preface
Dear reader! Here is an amazing book by our compatriot, published for the first time in Russia through the efforts and funds of small group enthusiastic ascetics thirsting for the revival of the greatness and power of our Motherland. What is it about?
In historical “science”, when deciphering written monuments of ancient times, all the languages of the world were used, including “dead” ones, but the Russian language, one of the greatest languages, was NEVER used. Russian "historians" - Russophobes - are criminally guilty of this, declaring to the whole world that the Russian people had neither their own written language nor culture before the adoption of Christianity (988). “Naturally,” none of them even thought of being indignant when the famous Egyptologist-decipherer J.F. Champollion also neglected the Russian language.
We can consider Pyotr Petrovich Oreshkin a follower of the Slavic scholar of the 18th century, the Pole Fadey Volansky, the author of the book “Monuments of the Writing of the Slavs before the Nativity of Christ.” For this book, F. Volansky was sentenced to death by the Catholic Inquisition as an “extremely eretic” work. Its circulation was thrown into the fire, where the author was also burned. But one copy somehow miraculously fell into the hands of Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Fine Sciences, State Councilor, member of the Coronation Commission of Nicholas I, a tireless figure in the field of public education, Yegor Ivanovich Klassen, a contemporary of A.S. Pushkin. E.I. Klassen was an irreconcilable fighter against the Vatican agents in Russian historical “science” Bayer, Miller, Schlözer, Gebrardi, Parrott, Galling, Georgi and others, who composed Russian “history” that humiliated the national dignity of the Russians.
F. Volansky’s “fault” was that he was the first to read the ancient written monuments of Western Europe in Russian. E.I. Klassen: “We will explain these monuments, even the first thought on the way to explain them we owe to F. Volansky, who took the first and significant step towards that...”. E.I. Klassen, a passionate follower of M.V. Lomonosov's views on ancient Russian history, irrefutably proved the fact of the existence of a primary proto-Russian civilization, which became the foundation of the culture of both Western Europe and the countries of the East. Nevertheless, our schoolchildren and students are still forced to cram the version of Russian “history” planted on us by science businessmen.
P.P. Oreshkin, using his own approaches, also brilliantly read the most ancient written monuments in Russian. The reader will see for himself: otherwise they cannot be read. There have never been any “Amonhoteps”, “Ramses” or other historical characters with hard-to-pronounce names. Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, “Greek” Byzantium, the Etruscan state are the outskirts of the Great proto-civilization of Ancient Rus', which follows not only from the works of F. Volansky and E.I. Klassen, but also other predecessors of P. Oreshkin: Mavro Orbini, A.I. Lyzlova, M.V. Lomonosova, N.A. Morozova. The “Babylonian Phenomenon” is another convincing evidence of the absolute correctness of these scientists - patriots of the Russian Land.
Living in the West, Pyotr Petrovich apparently counted on the help of Russian emigrants in publishing and popularizing his book. The reader will become familiar with A. Solzhenitsyn’s note, which correctly characterizes the situation surrounding Oreshkin’s work. But couldn’t the “world-famous classic” allocate a couple of thousand “bucks” from his gigantic fees for the publication of “The Babylonian Phenomenon”? I could have, but I didn’t single it out.
From an article by our wonderful compatriot Tatyana Andreevna Panshina " I see the hidden essence..", who sent Oreshkin's work to the editorial office of the newspaper "For Russian Business" in 1994, the reader learns that the editors of Russian foreign magazines are E. A. Vagin ("Veche") and M. I. Turyanitsa ("Free Word of Rus'") hosted Pyotr Petrovich, but for some reason they did not publish his book in their publications.
This is strange, to say the least... The book, fortunately, was nevertheless printed in a scanty edition at the University of Rome in Russian. Probably (and why not assume this?), Pyotr Petrovich descended from the descendants of the uncompromising scientist-historian Italian Mavro Orbini, who in 1601 wrote a study entitled “The Book of Historiography initiating the name, glory and expansion of the Slavic people and their Kings and Rulers under many names and with many Kingdoms, Kingdoms and Provinces. Collected from many historical books, through Mr. Mavrourbin Archimandrite of Raguzh."
This book was among those banned by the Vatican, but was published in Russia on the direct orders of Peter I in 1722. In Russia, Orbini’s work was carefully studied and commented on by A.T. only 260 years later. Fomenko and his followers in "Empire" (M., "Factorial", 1996).
"DIFFERENT SIGNS – LANGUAGE – ONE"– this is what Pyotr Petrovich Oreshkina wrote after finishing his work on deciphering ancient written monuments. He offers “specialists” in world and Russian history: “ THE DOOR IS OPEN, COME IN!". But: " Light is destructive for them!"
The only thing we disagree with Oreshkin on is his indication of the existence in Siberia of a “mighty Turkic empire”, which, it is believed, ceased to be such somewhere at the beginning of the 13th century. AD She is a myth invented by “historians” in order to support them with the Tatar-Mongol “yoke” in Rus', invented by the same Miller, Schlözer, Bayer and others.
Pyotr Petrovich, according to T. Panshina, “died unexpectedly at the 55th year of his life, in 1987.” Apparently, he, too, was sentenced by the “powers of this world,” vigilantly observing, as in the time of F. Volansky, to ensure that the huge role of the World Proto-Empire Ancient Rus' in the formation of all the most ancient, ancient and modern civilizations humanity.
According to Klassen, F. Volansky’s research is one of those “...that aphids cannot smolder.” We have the right to note the same about the book by P.P. Oreshkin "Babylonian Phenrman".
We apologize for the quality of the illustrative series, because... The book is reproduced from a photocopy.
Oleg GUSEV
From a letter 10/17/1980
Dear Pyotr Petrovich!
I can imagine your despair at offers of your work to Western “Slavic” specialists. Regardless of the truth, the very direction of your interpretation is disgusting and is one of the most condemning that can be thought of in the modern world.
But, in any case, it is very daring and undoubtedly talented.
I wish you not to become discouraged, but to succeed!
Alexander Solzhenitsyn
"In the beginning was the word." It was Slavic
Oreshkin Pyotr Petrovich. Born in 1932, in Moscow. Graduated from the Gorky Literary Institute in 1962. He worked as a journalist, published in popular science magazines in Moscow.
While still at the institute, he began deciphering the “Phaistos Disc”, providing strong evidence of the presence of a letter-syllabic alphabet.
AND IT TURNS OUT RIGHT.
This was the first link in a long chain. Where does it lead? This is what my book is about.
Details - in the American newspaper "THE JERSEY JOURNAL", November 6, 1982
“WE WERE GIVEN A “BIG WORD.”
IT WAS BROKEN, AND WE ARE SCURRING IN THE WRECKAGE –
"GUINEA PIGS" OF A GLOBAL, TRAGICOMIC EXPERIMENT,
BUT – OUR LANGUAGE REMAIN UNITED, IF IT IS NOT INTENTIONAL
Fragmented - IN OUR PLACE TODAY THE EXPERIMENTERS COULD BE THE EXPERIMENTERS THEMSELVES.”
Peter Oreshkin
EAT TRAVELERS SUITISY – I LOOK AT YOUR BULLSHIT
Explaining the content of my work to Western “Slavic” specialists is carrying a Lamp before the blind. "The professors of Slavic languages to whom I sent my work answered me in French, German, and English, being unable to write a simple letter in Russian.
My book is addressed to those who SPEAK AND THINK IN SLAVIC, to those who have the courage to look directly into the eyes of history and understand that our past is distorted, our roots are cut, and we ourselves are driven into a dead end, from where we must get out before it’s too late, while our language is still alive and connected in time can be restored before we suffocate in the sticky web of dead words.
Trying to read the "BEFORE BABYLON" inscriptions using the grammatical structure of the languages of the "POST-BABYLON ERA" is to adjust the "English key" to ancient castle, pulling a single chain of linguistic heritage where its links are broken is pointless!
The oldest documents were written using different alphabetic systems, but IN ONE LANGUAGE and here lies the key to deciphering them:
SIGNS ARE DIFFERENT, LANGUAGE IS ONE.
The SLAVS preserved in their entirety grammatical structure and the correct vocabulary of the ancient LANGUAGE, but they forgot who they were, where they came from - they forgot about their GLORIOUS past, perhaps because they were too gullible people.
You just have to be blind or REALLY NOT WANT TO SEE that I was perfectly successful in deciphering it, and the ancient documents spoke for the FIRST TIME in our native language. He has returned to life in his original appearance, he is colorful, he is magnificent! And no “specialists” can ruin it. Light is destructive for them! THE DOOR IS OPEN, COME IN!
GENESIS 11:1.5–7:
"1. The whole earth had one language and one dialect.
And the Lord came down to see the city and the tower,
which the sons of men built.
And the Lord said: Behold, there is one people, and one for all
language; and this is what they began to do, and they will not stop
they are from what they plan to do.
Let us go down and confuse their language there, so that
one did not understand the other’s speech.”
When I gave the title to my work, I, of course, had these biblical lines in mind. But the very name of the country where the “Tower of Babel” was built indicates to people speaking SLAVIC about some strange event that happened in these places:
MESOPOTAMIA, almost unchanged "MESO OF POTOMIA" - "The country where the offspring were mixed."
Scientists passed by, not noticing that here, at some point in the INTENTIONAL CATASTROPHE, the ONE LANGUAGE was broken and fragmented into pieces, that the “BIG WORD” turned out to be, as it were, “torn into pieces,” which were then distributed to the “builders,” for some reason suddenly forgot what the ORIGINAL looked like, and it is possible to restore it - in our darkened consciousness - only by placing in the ORIGINAL ORDER the "BRICKS" of the destroyed "Tower of Babel", where, probably, the most valuable information was stored, the possession of which has BECOME THREATENING.
Blind “apprentices” who have lost the drawings are chasing a ghost, following in the footsteps of Champollion, who did not understand a WORD of the language of Ancient Egypt. They pile up an outlandish SOMETHING, with manic persistence driving “brick by brick into other people’s nests”, and cannot realize that the “order of the masonry” has been DISRUPTED FROM THE VERY BEGINNING, that their ridiculous, fake “Renaissance temple” is tied from top to bottom with “hoops”, which alone hold the skewed structure, and ONE IMPACT is enough to sweep away all this pompous junk, revealing the pristine foundation, where - under a pile of rotten decorations - the “BIG WORD” is hidden.
Etruscans
The very name of the ETRUSSIANS gives reason to say that they were an ancient Slavic tribe of RUSSIANS - “THIS IS THE RUSSIANS.”
But, looking at the drawings in the tombs, it is easy to see that Etruscan women had blond, “flaxen” hair, representing a distinct type of “northern beauties,” and their husbands were dark, curly and black-haired, as if they belonged to another tribe.
Then it is quite likely that the ETRUSIANS are only slightly modified ITA-RUSSIANS, related in structure to our UGRO-FINNS. ITA were the ancestors of modern Italians. Their wives, RUSSIANS, were directly related to us.
This is also confirmed by ancient Greek sources, which call the Etruscans “turzheniya”, which is quite definite: “those urges” - “those married with a bang” (I will return to “hurray” at the end of the work).
The custom of taking wives from another tribe was widely practiced in the ancient world. "ITA" were no exception here. But together they were ONE people, who spoke and wrote in Old Slavic until his departure from the stage somewhere at the beginning of the Renaissance.
The texts I deciphered do not leave the slightest doubt that we are dealing with ANCIENT SLAVIC language, ANCIENT SLAVIC culture! THIS IS AN OBVIOUS FACT, although “experts” strive to “link” Etruscan, it seems, with everyone Indo-European languages EXCEPT for Old Slavic.
To understand the hidden “mechanics” of Etruscan writing and to understand the complexity of its decipherment, it is necessary to especially emphasize that the ancient scribes did not at all strive (as is commonly believed) to simplify the alphabet, to make it easier and more accessible to use, although they could easily do this .
Just the opposite! They tried with all their might to COMPLETE it, resorting to very ingenious tricks with one single goal: to hide from outsiders THE PRINCIPLE OF WRITING ITSELF and thus preserve all the privileges of the closed caste that owns its secret.
There is a strange contrast. On the one hand, there are the amazing achievements of the Etruscans in construction, architecture, and painting, where clarity, perfection and completeness of forms are visible everywhere. Along with this is Etruscan writing with its clumsy, careless “childish handwriting”, skewed letters, jumping lines. But this discrepancy is easily explained if we consider that the inscriptions were INTENTIONALLY distorted. If any of the outsiders knew WHAT was written here, they certainly did not know HOW it was done. Only a FEW people knew writing - the rest were ILLITERATE!
To hide the “mechanism” of writing, there were several proven techniques:
1. The direction of writing was constantly changing. The text could be read from left to right and right to left.
2. All together or separately, the letters were turned in the direction opposite to the direction of writing or placed “upside down”.
3. Individual letters were INTENTIONALLY distorted in the letter. For example, the letters “E”, “O”, “L” could be written “E”, “D”, “V”, becoming (purely externally) the letters “T”, “D”, “V” of the Etruscan alphabet, but retaining at the same time its original meaning.
5. Individual vowels in the letter were omitted, which was generally very typical in the writing of the ancient Slavs.
6. The letters could be hidden in the details of the ornament or appear in the drawing in the form of an “olive branch”, “spear”, etc. This made it possible to make the text ambiguous.
I have listed here only the main ones. The entire set of these ingenious techniques can be called “CAVERZ SYSTEM”, and, I believe, this term will eventually enter the scientific lexicon. In any case, I found a very accurate definition of the nature of ancient writing (not only Etruscan).
Only a small part of the reproductions of Etruscan mirrors is given here; there are many more of them. The Etruscans had a custom of placing them with their owners during burial. On many mirrors you can clearly see the inscription "DATE". The Etruscans believed in a DATE beyond the grave.
Main character other world Etruscans - "MENEOCA - AKOENEM", a many-faced creature, a werewolf, like his very name, which can be read from left to right "CHANGEABLE" and from right to left "CURSED". This creature stands at the border of two worlds, guarding the entrance to the “Through the Looking Glass”.
The payment for a short meeting with the dead is some kind of balls of unknown origin; they are definitely of interest to MENEOKA.
These same balls are also attached to bracelets: they are given to those for whom the time has come to go to ZVIDAN. The Etruscans are brought to “ZVIDAN” (SVIDAN) by SINIVTSA, the same “Blue Bird” that M. Maeterlinck told us about, many centuries later.
But the SLAVS are familiar with it. The tit is a frequent guest of Slavic proverbs, sayings, and fairy tales.
We are connected with the Etruscans by the strong roots of the SLAVIC language, SLAVIC culture, roots going back thousands of years, which all sorts of “specialists” seek to cut down, whose “bright temple” is clearly “leaning” towards Asia Minor, where, of course, the smartest, most enlightened people lived, while everyone else sadly hung on tails in anticipation of the arrival of the "kulturtregers".
But ask any of these “experts”, where do our concepts of “PAGANITY”, “PAGAN religion” come from?
In the third edition of the TSB we find: “PAGANITY – from Church Slavonic “pagans” - peoples, foreigners. Designation of non-Christian, in a broad sense - polytheistic religions. In the literature Christian peoples pagan gods personified the elements of nature."
"Soviet Historical Encyclopedia" 1976: "Paganism is a term adopted in Christian theology and partially in historical literature, denoting pre-Christian and non-Christian religions. The term Paganism comes from the New Testament - the second, Christian part of the Bible, in which paganism meant peoples or "pagans" (hence Paganism)."
That, in essence, is all that “specialists” can say about pagan religion, for whom “pagans” and “peoples” are one and the same!
However, I can quite clearly and clearly answer the question of where our concepts of “Paganism” and “Pagan” come from.
There are mirrors where “MENEOKA-AKOENEM” is depicted in its true form – a teasing mask with its TONGUE sticking out.
THE CONCEPTS OF “PAGANITY”, “PAGAN RELIGION” WE TOOK FROM THE ETRUSCANS!
THE ETRUSCANS (and only the Etruscans) had a “pagan” religion – PAGAN – in the literal sense of the word!
A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten, literary tradition has not been interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.
The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.
The largest in volume and richest in content are the poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magical spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).
Besides the mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.
Peculiar written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.
For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.
The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.
Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.
The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The true encyclopedias of Indian life are the two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.
In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.
Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.
The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.
The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.
The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development philosophical thought.
The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.
Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.
Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, secret knowledge") - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented a dialogue between a sage-teacher and his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the first cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that posit the spiritual principle as the first cause and fundamental principle of being - Brahman, or Atman and Atman are usually used as synonyms. although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Beginning with the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world. food, breath, material primary elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.
A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .
The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and inner world, consisting of four or even five real elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.
Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level one can only know surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.
One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, the dependence of these states on external elements and primary elements of the external world.
In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of mind, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that long time"nourished" philosophical thought in India.
Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).
In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form individual statements and provisions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus .
The main significance among these concepts in the epic is the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads. True, these teachings are presented differently in different parts of the Mahabharata, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and independent of it and the pure spirit unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).
Greatest interest with philosophical point view is represented by one of the books - Bhagavad Gita ( divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.
The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are black, red and white colors that determine people's lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.
Periodization of the history of Ancient India. Indian civilization, its culture. Types and source of Indian worldview. Fundamentals of Brahmanism and Hinduism. Buddhism and its influence on the formation of the spiritual culture of the Indian people. Religion and Law, "Laws of Manu" and "Arthashastra". Yoga, its essence and varieties. Science and art. The connection between art and religion.
India gave the world one of the most developed ancient civilizations, and its richest literary sources, originally transmitted orally, provide insight into the consciousness of people who lived at least more than 4,000 years ago. Having been formed in ancient times, the spiritual culture of this country has not had any fundamental changes throughout its historical development; it has always been considered the most spiritual culture of the East. And today the mystery of her spirituality is not revealed to everyone; it seems especially incomprehensible to the technical consciousness of Western man.
Archaeological and literary sources indicate that the culture of India dates back about 5 thousand years. Chronologically, it highlights:
Harappan civilization (2500-1700 BC);
Vedic period (1700-600 BC);
Pre-Maurian period (600-320 BC);
Mauryan era (320-185 BC);
Kushana era (78-200 BC);
Gupta Empire (320-510 BC).
Medieval Muslim period of development (Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire).
Back in the 3rd millennium BC. e. On the territory of India, a highly developed Indus civilization developed, the decline of which came under still unclear circumstances in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Its centers were the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. They were distinguished by the purposeful planning of urban buildings compared to the haphazard construction of Mesopotamian settlements. The buildings consisted of three floors. In addition, the Indian population used bricks that were fired in a special way for construction, and not bricks dried in the sun, as in Babylon. City residents built complex sewers and, in addition to residential buildings, built public buildings and granaries. During the excavations, a public bath was discovered - an unusual hydraulic structure, possibly for ritual ablutions, a meeting hall, and a school.
Based on this, we can say that Indian architecture reached high level development. Items found during excavations indicate that weaving, spinning, weaponry, sculpture, jewelry and decorative arts were developed to perfection. Threads were spun from wool and cotton tree fibers. Thin multi-colored fabrics were woven from them. Tools and weapons were made of copper and bronze. The statues were created from stone and sandstone, and they reflected the high skill of conveying the movements of the human body. “Miniature reliefs of lions, bulls, and mountain goats are distinguished by their clarity of silhouette and perfect surface treatment.” *
* History of the arts from antiquity to the Middle Ages / Ch. ed. and compiled by S. Ismailova. M., 1996. P.109.
Harappan culture in the Indus Valley. Archaeological complex. III-II millennium BC e.
Harappan settlement. Plan.
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Jewelry made from gold, silver, all kinds of precious and semi-precious stones - rings, bracelets, necklaces, beaded belts, seal-amulets - were worn by both men and women. In addition, men decorated themselves with feathers, cut their hair, tied it in a bun, and combed it back. “Everyone had the same costume. But some wore jewelry made of gold and silver, ivory and precious stones, others - copper and tin, shells and simple bone. Some are woven belts of beads, which were made from expensive stones with gilded ends, others are belts with beads made of baked clay.” *
* Ancient East/ Under. Ed. Academician V.V. Struve. M., 1951. S. S. 206.
Decorative and applied art is reflected in the perfection of unique tableware. Clay objects were painted with patterns and ornaments of various colors. “But perhaps the most beautiful vessels with a pour-over glaze are opaline-cream in color with a dark purple pattern. Nowhere in the world in the 4th millennium BC. e. “We haven’t yet been able to make such dishes.” *
* Ibid. P. 206.
However, the worldview and ideas of the people of this era remain a mystery to us due to the mystery of their writing. Only from the next stage of Indian history, the beginning of which almost coincides with the death Harappan culture, the richest religious and philosophical heritage has reached us through hundreds of generations, allowing us to judge the culture of the country. This stage is associated with the arrival of the Aryans in India and received the name Vedic - from the Vedas, the oldest written monuments.
Citadel of Mohenjo-Daro. Plan III-II millennium BC e.
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The first sources of emerging philosophical thought in India, as in other countries, were sacred texts. They laid the foundations of religion and ethics. The sources of this period were called “shruti” in India, that is, heard through divine revelation. In contrast to shruti, later literature, which is of a narrower and more specialized nature (treatises on individual sets of issues, in particular legal ones), is called “smiriti,” that is, what is remembered, attributed to specific individuals. In the first case we are talking about “sacred knowledge” sent down by the gods, in the second - about the judgments of wise people.
Bust of a priest. From Harappan excavations.
Letters of the early Brahmi alphabet (Indian syllabary).
Modern Indian script (Devanagari).
The entire cultural history of Ancient India is characterized by the unclear chronology of Vedic sources, most of which were passed down for a long time from generation to generation orally. The Vedas are collections of religious and ritual texts (samhitas) various contents and purposes. They reveal the Indian worldview, attitude to life, views on the essence of man. During the Vedic period, the principles that determined the development of the spiritual culture of Ancient India were formed. Their starting point is the deification of the world order and ideas about it. The idea of the divine creation of a social order becomes the basis of views on spiritual and secular power. At the same time, these ideas themselves are also declared to be divine revelation. Social division is predetermined and is a law from above for the Hindu.
In ancient times, the first philosophical schools appeared in India: “Lokayata” - the doctrine of sensory knowledge of the world, “Vaisheshika” - the atomistic doctrine, the school of Nagarajuna with the theory
“universal relativity”, “yoga” - psychological school, founded by Patanjali. Two major religions have influenced the culture and art of India: Hinduism and Buddhism. The basis of Hinduism is the Vedas and Upanishads. Veda (Skt.“knowledge”) are a collection of texts reflecting the ancient religious and mythological beliefs of the population of the Ganges Valley. The Vedas consist of four collections: Rigved, Yajurved, Samaved and Atharvaved.
Rigveda* (Skt."book of hymns") is the most ancient part of the Vedas. It was passed down orally from generation to generation. The hymns of the Rig Veda sing praises to many gods. The most ancient basis of the Vedic religion was the cult of nature and its phenomena. Samaveda is a collection of chants. Yajurveda (Saxophone - “book of prayers”) a collection of prayers under which sacrifices were made at musical accompaniment. At-harvaveda (Skt."book of spells") contained a collection of spells and magical formulas. The Vedas served as the basis for the creation of two grandiose literary epics of India: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. **
* Rigveda/Ans. ed. P. Grinzer. M., 1974.
** Mahabharata. Ramayana. M., 1974.
Upanishads* (Skt.“sitting below at the feet of the teacher”) is a secret philosophical and religious teaching that arose on the basis of the Vedas, expanding the Vedic teaching. Its central concept is Trimurti - the trinity of the Upanishads. It consisted of three main gods: Brahma (Atman), Vishnu and Shiva.
* Upanishads. In 3 books. M., 1992.
Brahma is the creator of the Universe and the world. Vishnu is the guardian of cosmic order and peace. He incarnated nine times into other beings in order to restore cosmic order and save the Earth in their guise. Shiva, who has 1008 names, is the bearer of cosmic energy, creative and destructive at the same time. He embodies the good and evil principles, he is omnipotent, and can exist in visible and invisible guises.
The basis of the teachings of the Upanishads are the teachings of atman, maya, karma, samsara and moksha. Atman (Sanskrit “I”) is the universal mental principle of the Universe, the soul of the world, as well as the individual principle of man. This is both the human soul and the world soul. Atman-Brahma is the embodiment of the one and the many, the individual and the universal, God and man. According to the Vedas, initially the Atman, having created itself through its own will, took the form of the gigantic primordial man Purusha (Sanskrit “person”). It served as material for the social structure of society, division into varnas: from the mouth of Purusha came brahmins- priests (the highest caste of India), from the hands - kshatriyas- warriors, from the hips - vaishyas- artisans and farmers, from the feet - Shudras- slaves and prisoners of war (untouchables). The transition from varna to varna was impossible; belonging to a varna was passed on from generation to generation.
Vishnu, Brahma. Lakshmi on the snake Shesha. Medieval drawing.
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The king is naked.
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Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha.
An important concept in Vedic literature is "maya". Mayan (Skt. the root “matr” - to measure, to form, to build) is the doctrine of human errors. Man’s desire to explain reality is Maya, that is, delusion, obscurity. Maya leads to distortion of the Self, and distortion of the Self leads to suffering. Therefore, the cause of human suffering is Maya.
Karma (Skt.“action and its result”) is generated by maya, i.e. behavior, delusion. Actions can be beneficial, neutral or harmful. Accumulated deeds form a person’s bad or good karma, which determines a person’s existence in the past, present and future, and influences his future births.
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Samsara (Skt.“wandering, cycle”) - the so-called continuous cycle of lives and deaths - is determined by a person’s karma. Samsara is beginningless, but as a result of right actions it can have a completion, which is called moksha.
Vayu, god of the wind.
Moksha (Skt."liberation"), or atma-jana(“self-awareness”), atma-bodha ("self-awakening") is achieved as a result of liberation from maya, i.e. delusion.
Hinduism has become official religion India after the fall of the Gupta Empire and the weakening of the position of Buddhism in the 7th-8th centuries. By this time, Hinduism had developed the main directions: Shaivism with the cult of Shiva and his wife Parvati; Vaishnavism, Shaktism with the cult of the mother goddess Shakti - the embodiment of omnipotent feminine energy; Krishnaism, which emerged a little later, but quickly gained great recognition.
The well-known four Vedas also go back to the provisions rooted in Indian thought and practice about the divine establishment of the class-caste system.
India Vedic period, as it appears in the hymns of the Rig Veda, was a society with a desire for the possession of cattle, grain and other wealth, with acute social and lithical conflicts. The explanation of the structure of society was the theory of the divine creation of four classes of "varnas", first expressed in the hymn about Purusha in the last book of the Rig Veda, reproduced in the Atharva Veda and in many subsequent sources and received full development in the Yajur Veda and the Brahmanas. The Vedas declared the formation of the estate-caste system to be the original institution established by God. As already mentioned, numerous closed castes (jatis) with clearly defined occupations (professionally different groups) were distributed among four classes (varnas). The dominant position was occupied by the varnas of brahmanas and kshatriyas, who divided among themselves, respectively, spiritual and temporal power. The religious and philosophical system of the Vedic period was created by the Varna priests and was called “Brahmanism”.
Soma.
Brahmins substantiated moral standards and were responsible for educating all people in the spirit of the Vedas.
Indian philosophy explained human birth in various social layers, with different abilities and different appearances using the doctrine of transmigration of souls (the theory of incarnation). According to this teaching, there is a universal spirit working throughout the world, it condenses cosmic matter, manifests itself in it with varying strength and with increasing energy, which then manifests itself as spiritual.
The famous iron pillar in Delhi. IV-VI centuries
As consciousness is ignited in matter, the soul becomes more and more independent of the body, more and more capable of leading a free existence. The unpolarized soul of minerals and plants is associated with the earth elements. She, strongly attracted by the earthly fire, remains in it for some time, and then returns to the surface of the globe to again be embodied in her form, never leaving the lower layers of space. Only one human soul comes from heaven and returns there after death. But at what epoch of its long cosmic existence did the elementary soul become human? What ethereal fire did she go through for this? Transformation was possible, according to the Vedas, only with the help of already fully formed human souls, who developed its spiritual principle in the elementary soul and imposed on it their divine prototype. However, how many incarnations, how many cycles must go through for the soul to become the person we know him to be? There is no clear answer to this question. However, every person goes through many rebirths, and the next one depends on his karma, and karma depends on his consciousness and actions.
Brahmins protected the Vedic spiritual traditions and restrained the manifestation of free-thinking. However, despite the efforts of the Brahmins, distinctive feature pre-Mauri stage was a violation of the unity that marked the thought of the Vedic period. Free-thinking religious teachers challenged Brahmanism regarding the varna system and tribalism, and in the 6th century. In an environment conducive to the emergence of heretical teachings, two powerful movements were formed that had many followers and seriously shook the monopoly of Brahmanism on public consciousness. These were Buddhism and Jainism. However, in essence they differed little from Brahmanism and did not prevent the development of spiritual traditions.
IN world culture India entered with its philosophy, religion, and mythology.
In ancient Indian mythology, deities were divided into three groups, corresponding to the three spheres of the universe. The most important of them was considered not the highest (sky), but the intermediate one (airspace), symbolizing the connection between the earthly and heavenly worlds. Some Rigvedic hymns mention the names of only three gods, but sometimes 3339 deities - a number that goes back to the same original threefold structure. Subsequently, the “model of the Universe” was transformed. The concept of three realms is firmly established in Indian religious thought: three lokas (three worlds) are listed in various Hindu texts, even later ones.
On the basis of the Vedas, Hinduism develops a complex, detailed cosmological system. The principle of order in the world is the trench. This concept is revealed as the fundamental principle of the world and the laws operating in it. Thanks to Rita, the Sun moves along the ecliptic, the seasons change, and dawn dispels the darkness of the night. It is sometimes drawn in the form of a chariot driven by the gods. The most common definition of it is “The Path of the Sun.”
In the Vedic concept of the Universe, the movement of the luminaries is the most important regulating principle of the world order. The sun - the first among them - is especially revered and is mentioned extremely often in hymns. In some texts he is called “the face of Rita, pure and beautiful.”
Rita embodies not only light, but also the creative power of nature, which in Northern India was associated with the beneficial monsoon rains that replaced the all-drying sun and heat.
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The Vedic worldview was permeated by the idea of an inextricable connection between processes in nature and the cycle of sacrificial actions. The cult practice of the priests, creators and performers of the hymns of the Rigveda, is considered an organic part of the world process. It ensured the victory of Rita as a universal organizing principle, order over the chaos threatening all living things. Rita means universal law and morality. It turns into principles that equally regulate the movement of luminaries and the events and states of human life - birth and death, happiness and unhappiness. This naturally led to the identity moral idea with the absolute and most universal laws of development and existence of the world.
Tree of life and knowledge.
In the middle of the trunk is a wheel, the source and keeper of everything new.
Bronze. XIV-XVI centuries
Although in the Rig Veda rita remains an impersonal principle, its bearer and protector is one of the leading deities of the pantheon - Varuna. He is endowed with colossal power, unlimited power, the Vedic Indians saw him as the personification of strength, ruling the world, creator and preserver of nature.
Varuna is depicted as the overseer of cosmic order. Varuna's cosmogonic role is intertwined with his role as a moral judge. Appeals to him are imbued with a spirit of repentance and a thirst for forgiveness.
Characteristic of the Vedic worldview is the combination of the idea of a cosmic world order with ritual practice priests were forced to associate adherence to moral commandments with regular sacrifice. Later Rita began to be identified with satya- truth, honesty, which also includes principles of behavior.
The power of Rita also extends to the gods; fulfilling its norms is mandatory for them. Varuna and his constant companion Mitra protect all living things with the help of law (dharma), which is associated with rita.
The equal subordination of people to a single universal impersonal force is the cardinal idea of the Rigvedic worldview. It passes into the later Indian religious systems - Hinduism and Buddhism. The place of rita is taken here by the “law of karma,” which asserts the dependence of every being (both man and god) on previously committed actions.
Rita and karma can be compared with the fate of the ancient Greeks, but the latter was not correlated with cult practice. The “world order” of Vedism is supported by sacrifice and is associated with it. The idea of fate in ancient society is colored by the spirit of pessimism, because nothing can be done with it, it dictates what must happen. This theme was central to Greek drama; Rita, on the contrary, is the source of the triumph of the principle of righteous behavior, a symbol of universal order and harmony. Both rita and karma leave room for a person to improve his destiny. To do this, you need to work on yourself, your consciousness. Subsequently formed yoga as a system of principles of working on oneself, on the body and consciousness.
The Vedas cover in detail the topic of the creation of the world. “Deities create elements, elements and things. From the union of the masculine and feminine principles the world is born. Then an idea is formed of a certain “abstract deity” who creates all things. He is called differently (Vishvakarman, Prajalati, Dhatar), he is endowed with supreme power and stands above the gods.” *
* Bongard-Levin G.M. Ancient Indian civilization. Philosophy, science, religion. M., 1980. P. 41.
Vishwakarman is called the “father of the eye,” vision, knowledge. The Sun is associated with it; in Vedic cosmology it was considered one of the foundations of all things. Vishwakarman is the bearer and source of wisdom.
Many ideas are associated in Samhita with the concept of the “first embryo” - the golden egg (brahmaida), which arises in the primordial ocean, and in it are contained the gods and prototypes of all creatures. The image of the “primordial” egg residing in the waters is found in the cosmogonic myths of various peoples.
In general, Vedic cosmology is not unified and offers a variety of answers to the cardinal question: how was the world created? The All-Creator appears alongside an abstract deity - a personified image of the process of creation itself, the first embryo resting in the waters and the sacrificed primal being - as well as the “cosmic heat” (tapas).
The basis of being is declared to be something impersonal, there is no division into what exists and what does not exist (later the Upanishads transform this principle into the concept of the origin of being from non-existence, asserting at the same time that above both principles there was something third, not reducible to either of them), there is no atmosphere, no firmament. Water, like the abyss, precedes the other elements.
Not only death, but also immortality is impossible in that indescribable state that preceded creation. There was “One Something”, which had a single attribute - integrity, indivisibility. The globe was seen as a kingdom of differences arising from the division of the original whole into two parts (being-non-existent, death-immortality, day-night).
Tapas (cosmic heat) is the embodiment of the original impersonal energy that stimulates all life processes. From tapas comes desire (Kama), called the seed of thought (buddhi).
The peculiar pantheistic tendency of the Vedas was preserved and developed later in Hinduism (sacrifice, in comparison with sacred actions of another nature, is given a special place, it is directly associated with the process of peacemaking); cosmological ideas and ritual, although they have undergone significant changes, largely go back to initial stage orthodox tradition.
The religious and philosophical idea of the Upanishads in to a greater extent, than other parts of the common Vedic heritage, was reflected in Buddhism, but it also adopted a number of early Vedic concepts (the trinity of the world, many mythological images). The creators of the new religious system They especially resolutely opposed the complex of religious views, ritual rules and social regulations that had developed towards the end of the Vedic era, called “Brahmanism”.
The Upanishads are actually the result of a long-term understanding of the central principles and provisions of the religious system of Brahmanism, which later passed into the system of Hinduism.
Major places associated with the emergence and history of Buddhism in India.
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Buddhism arose in India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and is the first world religion at the time of its emergence.
The emergence of Buddhism is associated with the life and preaching activities of Siddhartha Gautama. His father protected him from suffering; the boy did not know grief, did not see illness or death. But one day, during one day, Gautama, quite by chance, met a beggar, a leper, and saw a corpse. He decided to leave his father’s house in order to independently answer the question about the meaning of human life, about the causes of human suffering. For 7 long years Gautama remained a rishi (forest man) and a saman (ascetic). One day, while sitting under a bo tree, he saw a morning star flash in the sky, which evoked in him an instant understanding of the causes of human suffering and the way to overcome them. So Siddhartha Gautama became Buddha (Sanskrit “enlightened one”).
Buddha decided to announce his discovery to people. For 40 years he walked along the Ganges valley, preaching his teachings and performing miracles. Very soon Buddhism became so popular that King Ashoka (268-232 BC), the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, recognized this teaching as the official religion of India. The popularity of Buddhism lay in its teachings of liberation. According to the new teachings of the Buddha, all living beings suffer, have karma, rotate in samsara, regardless of caste or nationality, and any person can achieve liberation and become a Buddha during his lifetime, that is, the liberation of any person depends only on himself. The basis of the teachings of Buddhism are the “Four Noble Truths”: duhkha, trishna, nirvana, sadhana.
The first noble truth, duhkha (Sanskrit for “suffering”), states that the life a person leads is suffering. A person sees suffering around him and suffers himself, and naturally asks himself questions: why is this, what is the cause of suffering?
The second noble truth is Trishna(Sanskrit “grasping”, “clinging”) is the doctrine of the causes of suffering. Trishna is the desire to possess reality. A person becomes attached to various circumstances, thereby connecting with the Mayan world. Ignorance or false knowledge of a person about the world and himself gives rise to trishna, i.e. grasping or clinging to real world as something unchanging and eternal. Trishna, in turn, gives rise to human actions, both harmful and beneficial; actions form karma and samsara - the cycle of birth and death. True peace in a person's consciousness, purification of consciousness can become a human joy, which gives a state nirvana. Therefore, the third noble truth of the Buddha is the doctrine of nirvana. The goal of nirvana coincides with the goal of yoga - stopping the “rotation” of the mind, liberation from false knowledge, that is, from thoughts with the help of which the human mind tries to grasp the world and itself as something eternal and unchanging. Nirvana is that state of a person when his consciousness is freed from the chaos of thoughts, immersed in a state of peace, this is the union of “I” and “nothing”. To do this, a person must pacify all existing feelings and thoughts and focus on a static picture. This is necessary in order to further establish control over your own consciousness, guide it, or make a conscious choice between positive and negative thoughts.
The Fourth Noble Truth of the Buddha is sadhana- the eightfold noble path of liberation from suffering and achievement of nirvana. This path is open to everyone and contains the main features of Buddhist morality: do not kill living things, do not eat meat food, condoning the killing of living things, do not cause suffering to others, fulfill the requirements of castes, work on your positive consciousness, improving your karma. The effect of the law of karma is explained by the following circumstances. The spiritual center of a person from the point of view of Indian culture is in the “I”. It has as an integral basis consciousness, which produces thoughts. “I” controls them, thus guiding my consciousness. But thoughts are also generated by someone else’s consciousness, transmitted through space by sound, word, vibration. Therefore, they can be one’s own and others’, positive and negative, and determine a person’s actions. “I” chooses thoughts, thoughts determine actions. In some cases, the “I” may act unconsciously and not control its consciousness. To determine your actions, you need to control your thoughts and make conscious choices. Since “I” chooses, a person is responsible for all his actions, he chooses his karma himself, determines it.
It seems to us that all thoughts belong to us or they exist only in consciousness, that consciousness itself is thinking, although in spoken language there are phrases that reflect something else. We say: “A terrible thought came to me” or “A brilliant thought came to me”, “An idea came to my mind”, “This thought is already in the air.” All these phrases mean that it goes without saying that thoughts “walk” in space, they come and go. It is also assumed that there are thoughts that belong to me, my “I”. These are those that are developed, assimilated by my consciousness, those that I consciously choose or produce myself. We say: “I lost my thought,” “The thought is gone,” thereby believing that this is my thought, which means I created it, it belongs to me. Thus, there are my own thoughts, which are produced by my consciousness, and there are strangers, those that were once produced by another consciousness. Thoughts exist in space in various forms: through written speech- in books, through thought forms - in space, through vibrations - in the air, through sound - in speech. A person chooses, he makes a choice when he controls his consciousness, makes a conscious choice; if he doesn’t own it, he’s unconscious. In the first case, it controls the choice. In the second we say: “I didn’t do it consciously,” “I didn’t think.” The task of sadhana is to learn to control and produce positive consciousness.
Thus, Buddhism’s main goal is the idea of human self-improvement. Achieving nirvana is impossible without morality; virtue and wisdom are inseparable in Buddhism. Therefore, many researchers consider Buddhism not a religion, but a system of moral and philosophical views.
Around the 2nd century. BC e. refers to the most famous work of ancient Indian legal literature - “Manusmriti”, or “Manavadharmashastra”, the name of which is usually translated as “Laws of Manu”. * But it would be more accurate to talk about “Instructions of Manu in Dharma”. The collection is attributed to the mythical progenitor of people Manu, who conveyed to the sages the injunction of the Self-Existent. For almost two millennia, the “Laws of Manu” existed as a valid set of rules. The collection belongs to the genre of dharmashastra, which arose on the basis of the drachma sutras and differs from the latter in a clearer systematization of the material. By design, this is a comprehensive code of the world and social life of Ancient India. It regulates all aspects of the life of a devout Hindu and contains all the information he needs. In the literature of Ancient India, philosophy, religion, mythology, and law are often combined.
* Laws of Manu. M., 1992.
The Laws of Manu tell briefly about the origin of the world and society, the creation of varnas, the sources of dharma, the Holy Scriptures and the study of the Vedas, the stages of life, the first ashram - discipleship and marriage in the life of a twice-born as the head of a family and the owner of a house, the causes of death, rules cleansing and eating, the dharma of women, the third stage of life - hermitage, the dharma of kings. This subject was specially treated in the Arthashastra. * It outlined the basics of politics and management in war and peace, the goals of royal power, the qualities that a ruler should have, his daily routine, etc.
*Arthashastra, or the science of politics. M., 1993.
The religious and ethical principles that permeate the instructions of Manu are of great importance for understanding the worldview of the ancient Hindus. The era of the revival of Brahmanism, in which the “Laws of Manu” was mainly formed, was reflected in the content of this document. Manu not only notes the superiority of the Brahmins, but also emphasizes their power, their involvement in supernatural forces and, symbolically, constantly keeps in view the provision of their existence, privileges and material interests. The Laws of Manu expresses an extremely contemptuous attitude towards the Shudras and attempts to preserve the institution of slavery in classical purity. For a slave there is no right except the extreme cruelty of punishment.
The Laws of Manu repeat the traditional provisions on royal power. At the same time, the idea of the divine nature of the king’s functions was developed with special care. The entire body of teachings is imbued with the idea of the perfection of the order originally created by the self-existent Brahma. Threatening with earthly and heavenly punishments, Manu calls for keeping him intact
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Ruler in a ceremonial chair. From an ancient relief.
resolutely suppresses any attempts to change the eternal dharma.
“The Laws of Manu” is one of the six main and oldest ethical and philosophical collections that have come down to us, traced back by tradition to the ancient sages (smriti).
In Buddhism and Hinduism, in parallel with the study of the “external world”, external environment Initially, the study was carried out of the “inner world”, the internal environment - the human body, given to him in internal perception and traditionally called the “subtle body” (in contrast to the “gross” physical body, accessible to the five “external” sense organs).
The results of the study of various worlds boiled down to the following: in the “body diagram”, in a place corresponding to the spinal cord, there are a number of “centers” or chakras (also called “lotuses”), concentrations of forces that rule both the body and the world. There are seven chakras in total: muladhara, svadhisthana, manipura, anahata, vishuddha, arjna, sahashara. Muladhara chakra is located at the lower point of the body. Svadhisthana is located in the lower abdomen. Manipura corresponds to the solar plexus. Anahata - approximately in the center of the chest. Vishuddha - under the Adam's apple. Arjna - between the eyebrows. Sahashara corresponds to the parietal part of the head. In the lower of the centers sleeps the Coiled-Ring-Force that created the world, Kundalini Shakti, which in the process of “manifestation of the Universe” consistently “singled out” these centers of forces. It is believed that Kundalini "creates and maintains both the world and the body" and that it "liberates the yogis and binds the ignorant." Awakened through special yogic techniques, Kundalini ascends from center to center, “dissolving” them in itself. Thus, a person is “freed from the chains of the manifest world” and finds his true nature.
Tantras- common name a wide range of works of religious, philosophical, yogic and magical content. There are Hindu and Buddhist tantras. The term “tantra” is “secret text” (tan + tra). Tantric texts reflect only the concrete result of centuries-old analysis of such a phenomenon as the chakra system. Yoga is not a theoretical discipline, it consists of experienced practical knowledge. This is a system of models of certain practical techniques. Methods for raising Kundalini are outlined in detail in tantric texts.
The theory of chakras received its rebirth within the framework of the theosophical tradition, which introduced into its sphere the entire baggage of ideas about man accumulated by the end of the 19th century. European science.
Currently, there are many varieties of yoga taking place in India: hatha yoga, sahaja yoga, raja yoga, bhakti yoga, jani yoga, kundalini yoga etc. Their methods are aimed at making a person realize what power and strength are hidden in his spiritual essence. Awareness of oneself as a spiritual being leads to the understanding that the state of lower forms of existence, material and physical, depend on human will, consciousness, and soul. Yoga convinces us that highest form- spiritual - controls the lower - material and physical, controls them, if it is not in the power of illusion - Maya. Human consciousness must free itself from the opposite influence, from the materialistic attitude towards the life of all beings and master the techniques of awakening the strength of spirit, self-awareness, and power over oneself. Indian yoga techniques show how to detect the influence of not your own, but other people's ideas over yourself. They are the ones who force you to do unconscious things. Yoga teaches how to become the master of thoughts and actions, learn to control them and constantly be in the realm of spirituality.
In Indian philosophy, it has been known since ancient times that human consciousness needs to free itself from chaotic thinking as the “lower mind.” Yoga through meditation brings the mind to complete silence, emptiness, peace. In the process of freeing itself from chaotic thoughts, the mind learns to control them. Free space a calm mind may take higher mind, able to control his thinking and work only with the necessary thoughts, systematize and see the connection within the mental material. Such intelligence is Manas (wisdom), which corresponds to our self-awareness and forms abstract thinking.
The spiritual tradition convinces that it depends on the person himself whether he is happy or dissatisfied, joyful or pessimistic. If a person’s consciousness belongs to himself, if he controls his consciousness, and not something painful has taken possession of him, then nothing can prevent him from being spiritual, bright and joyful. Awareness of one’s spiritual essence determines a person’s happiness, since it is his inner state. External reasons can only be an incentive; they are secondary in nature. The root cause, according to Indian tradition, is inside a person, therefore true happiness can never be found if you look for it in external things and bodily pleasures. Satisfaction with them can only be temporary, since there is no absolute external limit to them. Thus, happiness does not depend on external choice: from the place of being, from society, from parents, from children, etc. Indian yogis are convinced that it depends only on our self-determination: whether to promote good or evil in ourselves sanskar(habits, character traits), spiritual consciousness dependent on the possession of external things.
Spirituality in Indian culture itself is the highest value and the main tradition of the Indian people, which has never been interrupted, but has been developed and cultivated for almost four thousand years. This is the peculiarity of the country and its people. The Hindu's self-awareness is highly developed; he is always and everywhere aware that, first of all, man is a spiritual being - a soul. Today, Western European civilized people, experiencing a lack of spirituality, oppressed by rationality and spiritual pessimism, go to India in search of high spiritual uplift. Modern Indian yogis are indeed of interest to Westerners depressed by material problems. They know the “method” of achieving nirvana, clairvoyance, telepathy, resurrection; they are subject to the spiritual at the sensory-psychological level.
India's achievements in the development of arts and sciences are great. Here the brilliant guess about the rotation of the Earth around the Sun was first born, and the decimal number system was created here. Mathematicians of ancient India knew the meaning of the number n and decided linear equations. “Root”, “sine”, “digit” - all these terms originated in India.
India is the birthplace of chess. Playing chess symbolizes military action,
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Indian carved chair depicting mythological characters. From an ancient relief.
in which troops participate. The ancient Indian army presented a picture in the center of which is the king - the main military leader, in front are foot soldiers (pawns), next to the king are elephants, behind them are cavalry, and at the edges are palms (rooks).
During the period of development of Brahmanism in Ancient India, flourished wooden architecture, but his works for natural reasons have not survived. Therefore, the achievements of Indian architects can only be judged by literary works. The Mahabharata describes the palaces of the rulers - with pearl nets on the windows, graceful staircases, floors lined with precious stones, hundreds of rooms. *
* History of art from antiquity to the Middle Ages / Ch. ed. and compiled by S. Ismailova. M., 1996. P. 109.
Due to the fact that the worldview of the ancient Indians was permeated with high spirituality, the main element of which was the connection between man and the cosmos, architecture reflected this feature. The plan of the village and the city, the residential building and the temple was based on a magical diagram representing a model of the cosmos. Any settlement had two streets intersecting at right angles, which ended with gates, symbolizing the exit to the Universe in the four cardinal directions.
Since ancient times, the temple was designed by architects-priests, based on sacred knowledge about the laws of harmony of the world. Its geometry includes relationships in the “golden ratio” mode. “The image of the completion of the world is symbolized by the rectangular shape of the temple, in contrast to the round shape of the world, governed by cosmic movements. While the sphericity of the sky is indefinite and inaccessible to any measurement, the rectangular or cubic form of the sacred building expresses a definite and unchangeable law. That is why all sacred architecture, no matter what tradition it belongs to, can be considered as a development of the main theme of turning a circle into a square. In the emergence of the Hindu temple, the development of this theme with all the richness of its metaphysical and spiritual content can be seen especially clearly.” *
* Burkhardt T Sacred art of East and West. M., 1999. pp. 19-20 .
From the descriptions of the Greek Megasthenes, the wooden multi-story palace of King Ashoka is known for its splendor. The interior of the palace was decorated with granite columns, sculpture and carvings. Under Ashoka, Buddhism became state religion, but the king continued to prohibit the construction of buildings made of stone. Civil buildings, like temples, were built of wood, and they have not survived. Their main types were mortar(memorial structure containing the remains of Buddha), stambha(a column placed at the site of the Buddha's virtuous deeds) and chaitya(rock temple - a symbol of the hermit life of Buddha).
The stupa reflected the model of the universe; it was characterized by majestic simplicity and perfection of forms. The most famous and beautiful is the stupa in Sanchi. Folded
Stupa in Sanchi. III century BC e.
Gate of an Indian temple.
The top crossbar of the gate shows the worship of elephants to the sacred fig tree, under which Buddha delivered his first sermon, the second crossbar represents the worship of Buddhist
Buddha from Sarnath.
symbols. The third is Gautama’s meeting with the hermit, who opened his eyes to human sorrows and suffering.
The gate also depicts fertility spirits - Yakshini girls, in whose image
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Minaret near Delhi. XIII century
ideal of female beauty: a young woman with thin waist, high lush breasts, arms decorated with bracelets, strong legs, massive hips.
The construction of stone buildings resumed in the 4th century. BC e. during the formation of a unified Indian kingdom. In the 3rd century. BC e. A huge temple was built, emphasizing the power of the king of the Indian state. This temple had columns on both sides, carved from huge blocks of stone. On one of them stood four stone lions, looking at the four cardinal directions and as if protecting the borders of the state (the lion is a symbol of Buddha). Some temples of ancient India were carved into rocks. They also had stone columns polished to a mirror effect along the walls. Windows were cut down only in the front wall of the temple. The side walls were decorated with sculptures of people and animals.
During the Mauryan period they built viharas- monasteries in which sciences and arts developed. In monasteries, many images of bodhisattvas were created - eternally young beings who had reached the highest level of holiness, devoting their lives to people trying to find the path to salvation.
The sculptures in the temples depicted Buddha in the guise of an ideally beautiful man. The pinnacle of mastery was the reflection of a state of deep peace. It was achieved with the help of complex, strictly established visual techniques. Main features Buddhist art Gandhara formed.
Gandhara images of Buddha are filled with deep spiritual content; they draw a person’s attention to his own inner world. Originating during the Kushan period, this skill was perfected during the Gupta period. At this time, Buddhist temples turn into museums in which monumental painting reaches its true peak.
The art of the Gupta era created classical ideals of beauty, which were adhered to by the masters of subsequent generations.
Related information.
India's past has been an amalgamation of various spiritual religions, rulers and empires that have left their historical mark on its various cultures and traditions. Many historical places in India are listed as sites World Heritage because of their cultural importance.
The exquisite beauty of architecture and its heritage in India is reflected through large number monuments known for their splendor, paintings, sculptures and historical background.
Here are some quick looks at some of the forts, palaces, tombs and temples.
Taj Mahal
This famous white marble mausoleum was built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife Mamtaz Mahal in Agra. The huge convex dome is approximately 17 meters in diameter and 64 meters in height. The magnificent monument is renowned for the beauty of its exquisite architecture and is one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The Taj Mahal, which is the embodiment of love, was built in 17 years (in 1648). Hawa Mahal - Palace of the Winds
Hawa Mahal, a five-story pyramidal palace in the city of Jaipur, is made of red-pink sandstone. The palace has 953 small windows through which fresh breezes enter, creating a famous cooling effect. The windows are decorated with intricate crisscrossing stripes that form a network, making appearance the palace is akin to a honeycomb structure.
Maha Bodhi Temple
The temple is located on a plot of 4.86 hectares. The first temple of the complex was built by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. around the Bodhi tree to respect the place where Gautama Siddhartha achieved enlightenment. Main temple is 50 meters high and its construction dates back to between the 5th and 6th centuries. The temple has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its cultural and archaeological significance.
Qutub Minar
This red sandstone tower, 72.5 meters high, is the tallest stone tower in the world, built in the early 13th century. The tower tapers from the base to the top, having a diameter of 14.3 meters at the base, while at the top it is reduced to only 2.7 meters. Many buildings surround the complex, especially the mysterious Iron Pillar, the Alai-Darwaza Gate and the Quwwatul-Islam Mosque.
Iron pillar
The iron pillar is one of the world's outstanding mysteries of metallurgy. The pillar, almost seven meters high, weighing more than six tons, was installed by Chandragapta II Vikramaditya inside the Qutub Minar complex.
Buddhist monuments in Sanchi
The site of Sanchi is a remarkable example of Buddhist art and architecture of the early Mauryan period (3rd century BC-12th century AD). The place is famous for its stupas, monolithic columns, temples and monasteries. Emperor Ashoka started this religious center at Sanchi and installed the Great Stupa-1 after transferring the mortal remains of Buddha Shakyamuni. The Buddhist monuments at Sanchi were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1989.
Humayun's Tomb
Humayun's tomb was built in 1565 AD, nine years after his death, by his eldest widow Bega Begam. The tomb is a significant achievement in the development of Mughal (Great Mughal) architecture and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993.
Jantar Mantar
Jantar Mantar is an astronomical observatory built by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II between 1727 and 1734. The observatory includes a complex of 13 uniquely shaped permanent astronomical rooms, each with a specialized function for astronomical observations. These structures with combinations of large-scale geometric shapes have stunned architects, artists and art historians around the world. Red Fort of Agra
The Red Fort complex, also known as Lal Qila, is mentioned in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. This palace-fort was built in the 17th century (1648) by Shah Jagan as part of his new capital Shahja Khanabad. The fort, covering 94 acres (37.6 hectares), is semicircular in plan and its walls are 70 feet high (about 21 meters).
Charminar Hyderabad
The enormous Charminar (four towers), or Mosque of the Four Minarets, with its four towers soaring to a height of 48.7 meters each, is made of granite, limestone and powdered marble. It was built by Shah Qutub in 1591 in the heart of the city of Hyderabad. The interlocking arches and domes of the Charminar are designed according to Islamic architecture.
Victoria Memorial
The Victoria Memorial, located in the city of Kolkata, was built during the British period as a memorial to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. It was designed by British architect William Emerson and inaugurated by the Prince of Wales. The building houses a museum containing a number of memorabilia of Queen Victoria, paintings from the British reign and other exhibits.
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Each of the monuments we examined has, as we sought to show, a special, unique specificity. The mythological and ideological ideas that underlay the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain canons, respectively, are different, the principles of their composition are dissimilar, and the stylistic accents are placed differently. However, at the same time, one cannot help but notice that they all have certain general characteristics, which, in accordance with chronological criteria, definitely indicate their belonging to one, namely early period development of ancient Indian literature.
First of all, as evidenced by the comparative history of the literatures of Antiquity, the formation of these literatures usually begins with the appearance of religious codes and epics. The first works of Chinese literature are considered to be “Shujing”, “Shijing” and “Iijing”, included in the Confucian “Pentateuch”; the history of Iranian literature opens with the Avesta, Jewish - the Bible, Greek - “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Among ancient monuments Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, Hittite and Egyptian literatures are dominated by fragments of mythological epic and ritual texts. From this point of view, it seems logical that the beginning of the development of Indian literature was marked by the creation of precisely those four literary complexes (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and epic) that were discussed.
Further, the Vedas, the Tipitaka, and the epic developed as a whole over many centuries, and they developed in line with the oral, rather than written, tradition. We know that the letter was already known to the population of the Indus Valley in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., then his skills were lost, and writing in India was revived only around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, initially it was apparently used mainly only for administrative and economic purposes. Although the Rig Veda already existed by 1000 BC. e., Vedic literature in general - by 500 BC. e., and the early versions of the epic and the first Buddhist and Jain texts - by 400-200 BC. Don. e., they were not recorded immediately and, at least until the turn of our era, functioned as oral monuments. This led to several important consequences for all Indian literature of the ancient period.
Since her works were not fixed, we often deal with not one, but several texts (editions) of the same monument, and in this case it is useless to find its original or archetype. Oral existence also explains such features of the style of the Vedas, epics, Tipitaka, as the abundance in them of clichéd phraseological units (so-called “formulas”), repetitions, refrains, etc. Formulas and repetitions are often seen as a heritage inherent, for example, in hymns Vedas of magical functions, but first of all they were a necessary condition for the creation of any kind of text in oral form and its subsequent reproduction “from memory” by new performers. Oral origin finally determines some of the basic methods of constructing the most ancient Indian monuments (in the form of a sermon, dialogue, address, panegyric, etc.), as well as a number of their names that have come down to us by tradition (shruti, upanishads, etc.).
Partly related to the oral nature of the works we have considered is the fact that we have already noted that they are not distinguished as strictly literary works. It would, of course, be wrong to say that every ancient Indian text pursued only practical - religious or didactic - goals, but in general aesthetic goals have not yet come to the fore. And although we are dealing with works whose artistic merits are unique in their own way, it is no coincidence that most of them were part of religious codes, and the Sanskrit epic, and above all the Mahabharata, is highly characterized by ethical and philosophical coloring.
Lack of artistic self-awareness in Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. It also reveals itself in the fact that the idea of the creator of the work has not yet crystallized into the concept of the poet. The hymns of the Rigveda were composed, as legend says, by the legendary prophets-rishis, the Brahman prose and dialogues of the Upanishads - by holy sages, Buddhist and Jain texts - by religious teachers Buddha and Mahavira and their associates.
At the same time, literature remained mostly anonymous; the name of the author did not so much indicate the real creator of this or that monument, but rather asserted its significance, and literary work belonged, in fact, to the entire society or at least one of its social or religious stratum as a whole.
And therefore - perhaps with the only exception of the Ramayana, which is already on the threshold of a new stage in the development of literature - it would be futile to look for signs of individual style, themes, and means of expression in ancient Indian literature.
Naturally, when literature is not yet aware of its autonomy, literary theory cannot take shape, although the unlimited possibilities of the word as such were more than once praised by the creators of Vedic chants. And since there was no literary theory, one cannot speak in connection with ancient Indian literature and about a clear differentiation of genres in it. When in the Vedic Samhitas we distinguish epic, dramatic and even lyrical hymns, in the Brahmanas we separate theological instructions from narrative episodes, in the Upanishads we isolate philosophical dialogues, and in the Tipitaka - fables, parables, biographies, etc., we are in some kind of to the extent that we bring them into monuments that are syncretic in their essence genre classification later literature. In Indian literature of the Ancient period, a work existed as an indivisible whole, subject to special laws, and this literature must be assessed, first of all, in accordance with the norms and principles put forward by it.
However, this does not mean that already in the literature of the 1st millennium BC. e. new genres and forms were not maturing, albeit still in a diffuse, mixed state. These genres and forms were adopted, developed and refined in stable outlines, by the subsequent literary tradition. Together with them, she inherited everything that turned out to be viable in ideological concepts, themes and visual media Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain texts. And these monuments, although they remain valuable and unique in their appearance and artistic achievements, at the same time can be considered as a prologue to the entire further development of Indian literature.
History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.