The excavations also revealed jewelry in the form of stone beads made during the earliest stages of settlement of the Indus Valley. The first samples of stone beads had small holes with a diameter of 1.5-3 mm. Some of the early examples were made from soapstone (a soft talc known as soapstone). Craftsmen knew how to drill holes in them with copper drills for hanging, about half a millimeter in diameter. After this, the beads were given the desired shape using grinding wheels. Finally, the craftsmen fired the beads in special kilns at a temperature of 850 "C. Harappan craftsmen used agate and jasper as materials for beads. Around 2600 BC, the Indus Valley craftsmen learned to make harder drills, the secret of which remained unsolved.

One of the most complex technologies was used to produce earthenware beads. The quality of the Indus Valley pottery was higher than that of Egypt or Mesopotamia, since it was made from crushed quartz. The elite classes of the Indus Valley used faience not only for decoration but also for ritual purposes. Faience items with images of various subjects were also used in special ceremonies, during which they were given as gifts to people bringing gifts or performing sacrifices.

Harappa is a great monument of Indian culture, arousing interest among researchers and tourists of all nationalities. Material culture Harappa has been studied quite well, however, the death of Harappa still remains a mystery.

Buddhism, spreading over the centuries to vast neighboring territories, did not conflict with the primordial religions and culture that already existed there. There were many similarities with local deities, customs and rituals. Buddhism assimilated with them, absorbing many aspects of local cults, modified under the pressure of other religions, but fundamentally remained unchanged.

Architecture, sculpture, and painting contributed to the spread of the ideas of Buddhism. Initially, the art of Buddhism was a set of “reinforcements” or “reminders” that helped the believer in perceiving a doctrine that was often too complex for him. As religion spread, it was filled with new meanings and cast into completely new forms.

The contemplative Buddhist "art of living" required a fusion artistic forms with natural ones. Therefore, Buddhist architecture differs from European architecture: it is not a shelter from nature, but a dissolution in it. Main idea Buddhist buildings - the creation of a visible resemblance of artificial and natural forms, harmony with nature, conditions for finding peace of mind. The architecture is based on a classic sense of organic, free-growing volume from the earth. Tibetan temples and Chinese pagodas seem to be natural formations; they echo the shapes of mountains, hills or weathered rocks, blooming on their slopes like strange flowers.

Two main types of Buddhist buildings can be distinguished. The first type is services designed to support the life of the monastery: temples, sometimes reaching enormous sizes, rooms for monks - vihara, a hall for believers - chaitya, libraries, towers for gongs and bells. The second type is a structure that is itself an object of worship: a stupa or pagoda. They are usually the center of the monastery in accordance with their role as guardian of sacred relics.

Stupas are not buildings, but solid monolithic monuments with small chambers - reliquaries and niches for sculptures. According to legend, the first stupas were erected after the burning of the Buddha's body according to Indian custom - to store his ashes, divided into eight parts according to the number of regions of India that claimed their rights to his relics. Stupas are hemispherical, tower-shaped or bell-shaped. In the system of Buddhist symbolism, the stupa is considered as a vertical model of the Universe. It symbolizes " creativity Universe", "impulse of life", nirvana. Architectural features Stupas in each country are determined by local traditions, but in plan they must be round or square.

The entire group of buildings of the monastery complex is organized according to a single plan. In East Asia, the monastery is surrounded by a wall and is usually oriented along a central axis with the main gate to the south, behind which stood a pagoda, followed by a temple. This line was completed by a preaching hall and a back gate. The location of the buildings could change due to the terrain, especially in the mountains, but Buddhist culture always involves a ritual walk around clockwise. In temples carved out of rocks, a special path was used for this. Over time, the temple displaced the pagoda from its central place, so it became less sacred and more decorative look, and often a second one was attached to one pagoda - for symmetry.

In Buddhist temples, on a raised platform - a kind of altar in the back of the hall - there are statues of Buddhas or bodhisattvas (saints who decided to leave the circle of reincarnations and achieve Buddhahood). The altar consists of several steps: the square step is a symbol of the earth, the round one is a symbol of the sky. In the wall niches there are statues of deities, on the walls there are paintings reminiscent of the previous deeds of the Buddha, pictures of paradise, figures of bodhisattvas, and countless decorative motifs.

The heyday of Buddhist sculpture dates back to the 4th – 5th centuries. During these years, a huge number of images of Buddha and bodhisats were made from gold, bronze, painted wood, ivory, stone, from small (2-3 cm) to huge figures 54 m high.

Often Buddhist buildings turn into giant pyramids of sculptures that completely cover the main volume. Reliefs and sculptures of temple and monastery buildings also include images not related to the philosophy of Buddhism, reflecting more ancient cults and beliefs, and sometimes simply the artist’s imagination.

Buddhism did not declare bans on images of living beings, encouraged independent thinking, and declared the most important principle of great complexity and continuous variability of the world. The Buddha taught that the road to salvation lies through getting rid of illusions, so Buddhist characters have a clear and enlightened expression, they are beyond moral weaknesses and selfish passions.

Picturesque images of Buddha, bodhisats, Buddhist symbols (vase, scepter, begging bowl, bow and arrows, rosary, wheel of Samsara or wheel of the Law, etc.) can be seen in almost every Buddhist temple.

This is how he describes it interior decoration one of the Buddhist monasteries in Tibet, a European traveler who studied Buddhism in the East for many years, A. David - Neel in the book “Mystics and Magicians of Tibet” (M., 1991): “A mass of banners suspended from the ceiling in the galleries and attached to high supporting pillars, a great many images of Buddha and gods are displayed to the audience, and on the frescoes covering the walls, among cohorts of other heroes, saints and demons flaunt in threatening or benevolent poses. In the depths of the huge room, behind several rows of altar lamps, statues of great, long-departed lamas and jeweled arks of silver and gold, containing their mummies or cremation ashes, flicker softly. Having fixed their demanding or commanding gazes on people, overwhelming them with their numbers, all these creatures... seem to mingle with a crowd of monks. A mystical atmosphere envelops people and objects, obscures trivial details with a haze, and idealizes faces and poses. ")

In Tibetan Buddhist art significant place Tanka is occupied by images of Buddha, church hierarchs, characters of the Buddhist pantheon, hagiographic cycles, etc. They are made with paints on silk or printed on cotton fabric and are intended for meditation, religious processions, in temple interiors, and home altars.

Characteristic of Buddhist art is the desire for a contrasting combination of bright, colorful materials: gold and silver, red and black lacquer, inlay with colored glass, porcelain, foil, mother-of-pearl, precious stones. Buddhism became a school for several generations of masters in India, Persia, Burma, Thailand, and Indonesia. Many classical works of art from China and Japan and other countries are associated with Buddhism.

Buddhism flourished in India in the 5th-7th centuries. Mahayana promoted a return to hierarchical ideas, and Tantrism promoted the rehabilitation of the sensory world. From the 4th century flourishes under the Gupta dynasty secular culture. Along with temples in the treatise on architecture of the V-VI centuries. public buildings and palaces are described. The invasion of the Huns also contributed to the transition to a hierarchical organization of society. As in Europe, the collapse of the Hunnic state led to the formation of principalities and relations, which in Europe were called feudal. In the V-VII centuries. There were about 50 states on Indian territory.

The Gupta kings patronized different religions, but called themselves devotees of Vishnu. In the inscriptions of this time, Hindu names appear five times more often than Buddhist and Jain names. KV c. collections of Hindu myths and traditions are compiled. These codes were not intended for a select few, but for the entire population, to whom they were close and understandable. The basic idea of ​​Hinduism was fully consistent with the spirit of a hierarchical society - the idea of ​​personal service to God and boundless devotion to him. The most popular gods were Vishnu and Shiva.

TOPIC 1. LEGAL MONUMENTS OF THE ANCIENT INTERFLIVE REGION

TOPICS AND PLANS OF SEMINAR LESSONS

(Laws of Hammurabi)

Plan:

1. Sources of law of the countries of Ancient Mesopotamia. General characteristics of the Laws of Hammurabi.

2. Social structure and legal status of the basis of population groups of Ancient Babylon.

3. Property and obligations under the Laws of Hammurabi.

4. Marriage and family in Ancient Babylon.

5. Legal proceedings. Crimes and punishments.

Purpose of the lesson: to study during the seminar the monuments of the history of law of the ancient Eastern civilizations of Mesopotamia - the laws of Hammurabi (Old Babylonian Kingdom, XVIII century BC) and allows you to get acquainted with the legal status of individual groups of the population, consider the features political system countries of Ancient Mesopotamia, sources and basic institutions of law of these states.

Security questions:

1. Are all aspects of the life of Babylonia considered in the 3rd century with equal completeness? What issues does ZH not touch upon at all and why?

2. Why is there relatively little evidence of the existence of a community in AZ?

3. What social groups known to us from ZH?

4. How are the public sector of the economy and the people employed in it protected?

5. Could Babylonian slaves own property?

6. What was the difference between the slaves Mushkenum and Mar-Avelim?

7. What were the terms and working conditions of those caught in debt bondage?

8. Give a general description of the Babylonian family: was it monogamous?

9. What remnants of tribal law are preserved in ZH?

10. To what extent have the goals and promises proclaimed in the introduction and conclusion been realized in the Landscape?

Sources:

Anthology of world legal thought. In 5 volumes. T. 1. M., 1999.

Dyakonov I.M. Laws of Babylonia, Assyria and the Hittite Kingdom // VDI. 1952. No. 3-4.

Reader on the history of state and law foreign countries/ Rep. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. In 2 volumes. T. 1. M., 2003.

Literature:

History of the Ancient East. The origins of ancient class societies and the first steps of slave civilization. Part 1. Mesopotamia. M., 1983.

History of the ancient world. Early antiquity // Ed. THEM. Dyakonov et al. M., 1989.

Yakobson V.A. The emergence of written law in ancient Mesopotamia// VDI. 1981. No. 4.

Jacobsen T. Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. M., 1995.

Dandamaev M.A. Slavery in Babylonia VII-IV centuries. BC (626-331). M., 1974.

Klengel-Brandt E. Travel to ancient Babylon. M., 1979.

(Laws of Manu and Arthashastra of Kautilya)

Plan:

1. The origin and evolution of the sources of law of the countries of Ancient India, their originality. General characteristics of the Laws of Manu and Arthashastra.

2. Social structure and legal status of the basis of population groups of Ancient India. Features of the Varna-caste division of ancient Indian society.

3. Property and obligations under the Laws of Manu.

4. Marriage and family in Ancient India.

5. Litigation. Crimes and punishments.

Purpose of the lesson: study of monuments of the history of law of ancient Indian civilization - the Laws of Manu (India, 2nd century BC - 2nd century AD) and the political and legal treatise of Kautilya, familiarization with the legal status of certain population groups of Ancient India, consideration features of the political system, sources and basic institutions of law.

Security questions:

1. How does the literary and religious tradition explain the origin of varnas?

2. Does the varna-caste division coincide with the class-class division?

3. How was the inequality of varnas expressed?

4. How was the status of children born in intervarn marriages determined?

5. Is it possible to trace changes in the position of individual varnas?

6. What caused the development of the system of lower castes (“untouchables”, chandala, dvipada, panchala)?

7. What are the similarities and differences between the class structure of Indian and other ancient Eastern societies?

8. What are the features of the position of women in Indian society according to ZM (in comparison with ZH)?

9. What types of obligations appear in the LM and CA?

10. Do ZM and CA distinguish such concepts as intent, guilt, presumption of innocence?

Sources:

Arthashastra, or the Science of Politics. M.-L., 1959; M., 1993.

Laws of Manu. M., 1960; M., 1992.

Literature:

Bongard-Levin G.M., Ilyin G.F. India in ancient times. M. 1985.

Vigasin A.A. “The Statute of Slaves” in Kautilya’s Arthashastra // VDI. 1976. No. 4.

World history. T. 1. M., 1956.

Ilyin G.F. The main problems of slavery in Ancient India // History and culture of Ancient India. M., 1963.

History of the East. T. 1. The East in antiquity // Rep. ed. V.A. Jacobson. M., 1997.

History of state and law of foreign countries: Educational and methodological manual/ Rep. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. M., 2006.

History of the ancient world. Early antiquity // Ed. THEM. Dyakonov. M., 1989.

Krasheninnikova N.A. Hindu law: history and modernity. M., 1982.

Samozvantsev A.M. Legal text of the Dharmashastra. M., 1991.

Samozvantsev A.M. The theory of property in Ancient India. M., 1978.

TOPIC 3. LAWS OF XII TABLES

Plan:

1. History of the compilation and sources of the Laws of HP tables.

2. Legal status main population groups in Ancient Rome.

3. Property rights according to the Laws of the HP tables.

4. Obligations arising from contracts and torts.

5. Court and process.

The purpose of the lesson: to study the laws of the XII tables - the oldest monument of Roman law, which reflected the processes of social differentiation in ancient Rome and the formation of its main institutions. When starting to study Roman law, one must understand its periodization. Roman law only in the process of long development turned into the most perfect form of law, “resting on private property.” It survived the fall of Rome, being adopted in feudal Europe, and formed the basis of civil codifications of the capitalist period. When studying the history of Roman law and, in particular, one of its oldest sources - the Laws of the XII Tables, it is necessary to take into account the changing nature of the institutions of this law, depending on the specific historical conditions of the development of Roman society. This note applies not only to the topic of this seminar, but also to the next topic on the Guy Institutions.

Laws of the XII tables as a reflection initial stage in the evolution of Roman law, they regulated the legal relations of Roman citizens during the formation and development of the Roman slave-owning republic.

Security questions:

1. In what historical situation were the Laws of the XII Tables adopted?

2. What remnants of tribal law do the Laws of the XII Tables contain?

3. What are the fundamental differences in the legal status of Latins and Peregrines compared to the position of Roman citizens?

4. What are the main approaches to classifying things according to the Laws of the XII Tables?

5. What is the difference between obligations arising from a contract and those arising from a tort?

6. Did private ownership of land exist in Rome during the era of the Laws of the XII Tables?

7. What are the characteristic features of the legislation process?

8. What evidence did the court operate under the Laws of the XII Tables?

9. Can the Laws of the XII Tables be called a code?

10. List the main features of Roman law according to the Laws of the XII Tables?

Sources:

Laws of the XII Tables / Trans. L. Kofanova. M., 1996.

Laws of the XII Tables // Monuments of Roman Law. M., 1997.

Laws of the XII tables // Ruzina E.G., Bessilin N.A. Fundamentals of Roman private law. Ufa, 2000.

Literature:

Bartoszek M. Roman law (concepts, terms, branches). M., 1989.

Dozhdev D.V. Roman private law: Textbook for universities. M., 1999.

History of state and law of foreign countries: Educational and methodological manual / Responsible. ed. N.A. Krasheninnikova. M., 2006.

Story ancient Rome. M., 1997.

Kofanov L.L. Law of obligations in archaic Rome (VI-IV centuries BC), M., 1994.

Puhan I., Polenak-Akimovskaya M. Roman law. M., 1999.

Chernilovsky Z.M. Roman private law: Elementary course. M., 1997.

Culture of Ancient India

II. Literary monuments

A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.

The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.

The largest in volume and most abundant in content are poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magic spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (the epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).

Besides the mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.

Peculiar written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.

For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.

The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.

Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country 11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian Civilization”, M., 1993

The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are true encyclopedias of Indian life. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.

In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.

Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the acting technique were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.

The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.

The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.

The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.

The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of ​​the world, man, moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.

Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.

Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.

A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of ​​the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .

The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and inner world, consisting of four or even five real elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.

Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level one can only know surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.

One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, the dependence of these states on external elements and primary elements of the external world.

In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. This expresses the desire to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” philosophical thought in India for a long time.

Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle, in various books of the Mahabharata there are texts and philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).

In terms of their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.

The main significance among these concepts in the epic is the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads. True, these teachings various parts The Mahabharatas are presented in different ways, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it and unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).

Greatest interest with philosophical point view is represented by one of the books - Bhagavad Gita ( divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.

The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are black, red and white colors that determine people's lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one’s duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and non-genuine knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.

III. Religious cult in ancient India

Millennial cultural tradition India has developed in close connection with the development of religious ideas of its people. The main religious movement was Hinduism. The roots of this religion go back to ancient times.

The religious and mythological ideas of the tribes of the Vedic era can be judged from the monuments of that period - the Vedas, which contain rich material on mythology, religion, and ritual. Vedic hymns were and are considered sacred texts in India; they were passed down orally from generation to generation and carefully preserved. The set of these beliefs is called Vedism. Vedism was not a pan-Indian religion, but flourished only in Eastern Punjab and Uttar Prodesh, which were inhabited by a group of Indo-Aryan tribes. It was she who was the creator of the Rigveda and other Vedic collections (samhita).

Vedism was characterized by the deification of nature as a whole (by the community of celestial gods) and individual natural and social phenomena: So Indra is the god of thunder and powerful will; Varuna is the god of world order and justice; Agni - god of fire and hearth; Soma is the god of the sacred drink. In total, 33 gods are considered to be the highest Vedic deities. The Indians of the Vedic era divided the whole world into 3 spheres - heaven, earth, antarizhna (the space between them), and certain deities were associated with each of these spheres. The gods of the sky included Varuna; to the gods of the earth - Agni and Soma. There was no strict hierarchy of gods; turning to a specific god, the Vedic people endowed him with the characteristics of many gods. The creator of everything: gods, people, earth, sky, sun - was a certain abstract deity Purusha. Everything around - plants, mountains, rivers - was considered divine, and a little later the doctrine of the transmigration of souls appeared. The Vedic people believed that after death the soul of a saint goes to heaven, and the soul of a sinner goes to the land of Yama. Gods, like people, were capable of dying.

Many features of Vedism entered Hinduism; this was a new stage in the development of spiritual life, i.e. emergence of the first religion.

In Hinduism, the creator god comes to the fore, and a strict hierarchy of gods is established. The Trimurti (trinity) of the gods Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu appears. Brahma is the ruler and creator of the world, he was responsible for the establishment of social laws (tharmas) on earth, the division into varnas; he is the punisher of infidels and sinners. Vishnu is the guardian god; Shivu is the destroyer god. The increasing special role of the last two gods led to the emergence of two directions in Hinduism - Vaishnavism and Shaivism. A similar design was enshrined in the texts of the Puranas - the main monuments of Hindu thought that developed in the first century AD.

Early Hindu texts speak of ten avatars (descensions) of Vishnu. In the eighth of them he appears in the guise of Krishna, the hero of the Yadava tribe. This ovatara became a favorite plot, and its hero became a character in numerous works. The cult of Krishna gained such popularity that a movement of the same name emerged from Vishnaism. The ninth avatara, where Vishnu appears as Buddha, is the result of the inclusion of Buddhist ideas in Hinduism.

The cult of Shiva, who in the triad of the main gods personified destruction, gained great popularity very early on. In mythology, Shiva is associated with different qualities - he is an ascetic fertility deity, a patron of livestock, and a shaman dancer. This suggests that local beliefs were mixed into the orthodox cult of Shiva.

Indians believed that you cannot become a Hindu - you can only be born one; that Varna, social role, is predetermined forever and changing it is a sin. Hinduism gained particular strength in the Middle Ages, becoming the main religion of the population. The “book of books” of Hinduism was and remains the “Bhagavad Gita”, part of the ethical poem “Mahabharata”, in the center of which is love for God and through this the path to religious liberation.

Much later than Vedism, Buddhism developed in India. The creator of this teaching, Sidgartha Shanyamuni, was born in 563 in Lumbina into a Kshatriya family. By the age of 40, he achieved enlightenment and began to be called Buddha. It is impossible to tell more precisely about the time of the appearance of his teachings, but the fact that Buddha is a real historical person is a fact.

Buddhism in its origins is associated not only with Brahmanism, but also with other religious and religious-philosophical systems of Ancient India. Analysis of these connections shows that the emergence of Buddhism was also conditioned by objective social processes and prepared ideologically. Buddhism was not born from the “revelation” of a being who had attained divine wisdom, as Buddhists claim, or from the personal creativity of a preacher, as Western Buddhists usually believe. But Buddhism was not a mechanical collection of existing ideas. He introduced into them a lot of new things, generated precisely by the social conditions of the era of his emergence.

Initially, elements of the new religious teaching, as the Buddhist tradition claims, were transmitted orally by monks to their students. Literary design they began to receive relatively late - in the 2nd-1st centuries. BC The Pali corpus of Buddhist canonical literature, created around 80 BC, has survived. to Sri Lanka and later called “tipitaka” (Sanskrit - “tripitaka”) - “three baskets of the law”.

In the 3rd-1st centuries. BC and in the first centuries AD. Further development of Buddhism occurs, in particular, a coherent biography of the Buddha is created, and canonical literature is formed. Monastic theologians develop logical “justifications” for the main religious dogmas, often called the “philosophy of Buddhism.” Theological subtleties remained the property of a relatively small circle of monks who had the opportunity to devote all their time to scholastic disputes. At the same time, another, moral and cult side of Buddhism developed, i.e. a "path" that can lead everyone to the end of suffering. This “path” was actually the ideological weapon that helped keep the working masses in obedience for many centuries.

Buddhism enriched religious practice with a technique related to the field of individual cult. This refers to such a form of religious behavior as bhavana - deepening into oneself, into one’s inner world for the purpose of concentrated reflection on the truths of faith, which became further widespread in such directions of Buddhism as “Chan” and “Zen”. Many researchers believe that ethics occupies a central place in Buddhism and this makes it to a greater extent ethical, philosophical teaching, and not religion. Most concepts in Buddhism are vague and ambiguous, which makes it more flexible and adaptable to local cults and beliefs, capable of transformation. Thus, the followers of the Buddha formed numerous monastic communities, which became the main centers for the spread of religion.

By the Mauryan period, two directions took shape in Buddhism: the Sthaviravadins and the Mahasangikas. The latter teaching formed the basis of the Mahayana. The oldest Mahayana texts appear as early as the first century BC. One of the most important in the Mahayana doctrine is the doctrine of the Bodhisattva, a being capable of becoming a Buddha, approaching the achievement of nirvana, but out of compassion for people does not enter into it. Buddha was not considered real person, but the highest absolute being. Both Buddha and Bodhisattva are objects of veneration. According to the Mahayana, the attainment of nirvana occurs through the Bodhisattva and because of this, in the first century AD, monasteries received generous offerings from powerful of the world this. The division of Buddhism into two branches: Hinayana (“small vehicle”) and Mahayana (“big vehicle”) was caused primarily by differences in the socio-political conditions of life in separate parts India. The Hinayana, more closely associated with early Buddhism, recognizes the Buddha as a man who found the path to salvation, which is considered achievable only through withdrawal from the world - monasticism. Mahayana is based on the possibility of salvation not only for hermit monks, but also for lay people, and the emphasis is on active preaching activities and intervention in public and state life. Mahayana, unlike Hinayana, more easily adapted to spread beyond the borders of India, giving rise to many beliefs and movements; Buddha gradually became the highest deity, temples were built in his honor, and religious actions were performed.

An important difference between Hinayana and Mahayana is that Hinayana completely rejects the path to salvation for non-monks who have voluntarily renounced worldly life. In Mahayana, an important role is played by the cult of bodhisattvas - individuals who are already capable of entering nirvana, but conceal the achievement of the final goal in order to help others, not necessarily monks, in achieving it, thereby replacing the requirement to leave the world with a call to influence it.

Early Buddhism is distinguished by its simplicity of ritual. Its main element is: the cult of Buddha, preaching, veneration of holy places associated with the birth, enlightenment and death of Guatama, worship of stupas - religious buildings where the relics of Buddhism are kept. Mahayana added the veneration of bodhisattvas to the cult of Buddha, thereby complicating the ritual: prayers and various kinds of spells were introduced, sacrifices began to be practiced, and a magnificent ritual arose.

Like any religion, Buddhism contained the idea of ​​salvation - in Buddhism it is called “nirvana”. It is possible to achieve it only by following certain commandments. Life is suffering that arises in connection with desire, the desire for earthly existence and its joys. Therefore, one should give up desires and follow the “Eightfold Path”—righteous views, righteous conduct, righteous effort, righteous speech, righteous thought, righteous memory, righteous living, and self-improvement. The ethical side played a huge role in Buddhism. Following the Eightfold Path, a person must rely on himself, and not seek outside help. Buddhism did not recognize the existence of a creator god, on whom everything in the world depends, including human life. The cause of all man's earthly suffering lies in his personal blindness; inability to give up worldly desires. Only by extinguishing all reactions to the world, by destroying one’s own “I,” can one achieve nirvana.

IV. Exact sciences

The discoveries of ancient Indians in the field of exact sciences influenced the development of Arabic and Iranian-Persian sciences. The scientist Aryaphata, who lived in the 5th and early 6th centuries AD, occupies an honorable place in the history of mathematics. The scientist knew the meaning of “pi” and proposed an original solution to the linear equation. In addition, it was in Ancient India that the number system became decimal for the first time. This system formed the basis of modern numbering and arithmetic. Algebra was more developed; and the concepts of “digit”, “sine”, “root” first appeared in Ancient India. The achievements of ancient Indian mathematicians surpassed what was done in these fields of knowledge in Ancient Greece.

Ancient Indian treatises on astronomy indicate a very high development of this science. Regardless of ancient science, the Indian scientist Aryaphata expressed the idea of ​​the Earth rotating around its axis, for which he was angrily condemned by the priests. The introduction of the decimal system facilitated accurate astronomical calculations, although the ancient Indians did not have observatories or telescopes.

Ayurveda, the science of longevity, is still held in high esteem in India. It originated in ancient times. Ancient Indian doctors studied the properties of herbs and the influence of climate on human health. Much attention paid to personal hygiene and diet. On high level there was also surgery; it is known about three hundred operations that ancient Indian doctors were able to perform; in addition, 120 surgical instruments are mentioned. Tibetan medicine, popular today, is based on the ancient Indian science of Ayurveda.

Ancient Indian physicians believed that the human body was based on three main vital juices: wind, bile and phlegm - they were identified with the principles of movement, fire and softening. Indian medicine special attention focused on the impact on the human body natural conditions, as well as heredity. There were also treatises on medical ethics.

Summarizing all these facts, it should be noted that reverence for knowledge is distinguishing feature Indo-Buddhist culture. Specialists from many countries came to India to study. In a number of Indian cities there were universities where religious and philosophical texts, astronomy, astrology, mathematics, medicine and Sanskrit were studied. But it is characteristic that Euclidean geometry did not appear in Indian science. And this is no coincidence. The Indo-Buddhist cultural tradition was not particularly rational. Indian scientists were not interested in the logic of scientific knowledge; they were more concerned with the secrets of the universe and practical issues of calculation, calendaring and measuring spatial forms.

V. Architecture and painting

The first architectural monuments and fine arts Ancient India belongs to the era Harappan civilization, but the most striking examples were created in the Kushano-Gupta era. Monuments of both religious and secular nature were distinguished by high artistic merit.

In ancient times, most structures were built from wood, and therefore were not preserved. The palace of King Chendragupta was built of wood, and only the remains of stone columns have survived to this day. In the first centuries AD, stone began to be widely used in construction. Religious architecture of this period is represented by cave complexes, temples and stupas (stone structures that housed relics of Buddha). Of the cave complexes, the most interesting are those in the city of Karl and Ellora. The cave temple in Karla is almost 14 m high, 14 m wide and about 38 m long. There are a large number of sculptures and stupas here. During the Gupta era, construction of the cave complex at Ellora began and continued for several centuries. Masterpieces of Indian architecture also include the Hindu temple in Sanchi and the Buddhist stupa located there.

In Ancient India there were several schools of sculpture, of which the largest were the Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati schools. Most of the surviving sculptures were also of a religious nature. The art of sculpture reached such a height that there were a number of special guidelines and rules for their creation. Iconography techniques were developed, different for different religious traditions. There were Buddhist, Janiya and Hindu iconography.

The Gandhara school combined three traditions: Buddhist, Greco-Roman and Central Asian. It was here that the first images of Buddha were created, and as a god; these sculptures also depicted statues of bodhisattvas. In the Mathura school, the dawn of which will coincide with the Kushan era, special meaning receives a secular environment along with purely religious architectural compositions. Images of Buddha appeared here just as early. The Mathura school was influenced by earlier Mauryan art, and some sculptures indicate Harappan influence (figures of mother goddesses, local deities, etc.). Compared to other sculptural schools, the Amaravati school absorbed the traditions of the south of the country and Buddhist canons. They survived into later sculptures, influencing the art of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

Ancient Indian art was closely connected with religion and philosophy. In addition, it was always addressed to the lower caste - the peasants, in order to convey to them the laws of karma, the requirements of dharma, etc. In poetry, prose, drama, and music, the Indian artist identified himself with nature in all its moods and responded to the connection between man and the universe. And finally significant influence for development Indian art had a religious prejudice directed against the statues of gods. The Vedas were against the image of a deity, and the image of Buddha appeared in sculpture and painting only in the late period of the development of Buddhism.

On artistic culture Ancient Indian society was deeply influenced by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam.

Artistic and figurative perception through the prism of the named religious and philosophical systems, is marked by the sophistication of the image of man and the surrounding world, the perfection of architectural forms.

Most famous monument ancient Indian paintings are the wall paintings in the Ajanta caves. Over the course of 150 years, ancient craftsmen carved this temple into the rock. In this Buddhist complex of 29 caves, paintings cover the walls and ceilings of the interior. Here are various scenes from the life of Buddha, mythological themes, scenes from everyday life, palace theme. All drawings are perfectly preserved, because... The Indians knew well the secrets of durable paints and the art of strengthening the soil. The choice of color depended on the plot and characters. Gods and kings, for example, were always depicted as white. The Ajanta tradition has influenced the art of Sri Lanka and various parts of India.

One more characteristic feature old Indian culture is expressed in artistic images ideas of worshiping the god of love - Kama. This meaning was based on the fact that the Indians considered the marriage of a god and goddess as a process of cosmic creation. Therefore, images of God's punishment in a tight embrace are common in temples.

Conclusion

By the beginning of the new era, wonderful works of ancient Indian poetry (Vedas) and epics (Mahabharata and Ramayana) were finally formalized and recorded, which were initially passed on from mouth to mouth.

Collections also appear folk fables(Panchatantra, i.e. Five Books).

In the 5th century AD extends greatest playwright ancient India Kalidasa. Of his dramas, “Shakuntala”, named after the main character, a beautiful hermit whom the king loved, gained particular fame.

In rural India, various philosophical schools have developed, including materialist ones. Thus, according to the teachings of Charvaka, the only source of knowledge is experience. The doctrine of the transmigration of souls, so widespread in India, is completely rejected, and the soul itself is recognized as inseparable from the body.

As in other countries with irrigated agriculture, great development achieved in India astronomy and mathematics. Here a unique solar calendar. The year consisted of 360 days, and for the equation with the astronomical year, a leap month was added every five.

In the V-VI centuries. AD Indian scientists knew the sphericity of the Earth and the law of gravity, as well as the rotation of the Earth around its axis. In the Middle Ages these scientific discoveries borrowed from the Indians by the Arabs.

Even in the proto-Indian period (III-II millennium BC), a decimal number system had already developed in the Indus Valley. Subsequently, mathematics reaches a level superior in some respects to other ancient peoples. Thus, only in India was the sign denoting zero used. The numbers that we call Arabic, as opposed to Roman ones, were actually invented by the ancient Indians and passed from them to the Arabs. Also, Arabic algebra was influenced by Indian algebra.

Ancient Indian chemists mined sulfur, salt and nitric acid. Doctors sought to develop a certain systematization of diseases and created a theory of the main juices of the body. The presence of many languages ​​and dialects in India made philological research necessary. The learned Brahman Panini, who lived in the 5th-4th centuries. BC, created a grammar of “purified”, i.e. literary language(Sanskrit).

The most remarkable monuments of ancient Indian architecture are buildings with domes (stupas) and original cave temples. In the cave temples of Ajanta, multicolored frescoes (1st-3rd centuries AD) that are remarkable in their realism have been preserved.

Indian culture had a significant influence on the countries of Central and East Asia (mainly due to the spread of Buddhism). India influenced the Western world through the Arabs.

Literature used

“History of India”, K.A. Antonova, M 1993

Ancient civilizations - M., 1989

Introduction to cultural studies - M., 1995

Culturology - M, 1995

Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, - M., 1993

7. Medicine and pharmacy in Ancient India. Written medical monuments of Ancient India. Advances in surgery and hygiene.

The source for studying the history of medicine and pharmacy of Ancient India is the Vedas (monuments of Indian culture), as well as the collection of laws of Manu. From them we learn that in the 2nd century BC. In India, there was medical education: universities in Taxila and Benares, as well as medical schools at provincial monasteries. The Ayur-Veda (Book of Life) said that disease occurs after an imbalance of air (ether), mucus and bile, which ensure health. The doctor had to restore the balance that existed before the disease with the help of drugs (emetics, laxatives, diaphoretics and oils), surgery or physical methods. In 2Ayur-Veda, a kind of Indian pharmacopoeia, a list of 760 is given medicines. In empirical medicine of Ancient India, cereals, wood, bark, roots, flowers, and fruits were used. Wine, vinegar, milk, oil, fats, blood, glands and other organs of many animals, fish and birds were also consumed. Minerals: arsenic, iron, copper. The composition of ointments often included lead, sulfur, antimony, zinc, and ammonium salts. Especially MERCURY! The most powerful strengthening agent is gold. Silver, copper, iron, and tin were also used. Surgical methods were used to treat diseases, hygienic measures were used, vaccinations against smallpox were carried out, and patients were isolated during the treatment of leprosy. Indian doctors performed amputations of limbs, removal of cataracts, and performed plastic surgery.

15. Asclepiad, his system for preventing and treating diseases.

Asclepiades was a prominent Roman physician from Bithynia (128-56 BC). Health, according to Asclepiades, is preserved with the normal movement of body particles and the normal state of empty spaces between particles - pores and channels. When they become clogged and clogged, when there is stagnation or disruption of the movement of particles, diseases occur. Asklepiades paid special attention to the “invisible breath” of the skin. Health must be maintained first of all by general cleanliness, frequent ablutions, and then by stronger stimulants, such as rubbing, sweating, and physical exercise. If the patient could not move independently, he advised carrying him and rocking him. Along with physiotherapy and balneotherapy, climate therapy occupied a large place in the Asclepiad system. He treated medications with caution and in some cases, under the guise of drugs, he gave clean water. The “pleasant” treatment according to the Asclepiadian system, opposed to the rude methods of the “bloodthirsty torturers,” made it extremely popular in Rome. Asclepiades treated with a diet that had been excellently developed for a long time. He introduced only one new principle into dietetics: food should be tasty.

26. The emergence of medical schools and universities in Western Europe. Teaching methods in them.

The centers of Medieval medicine were universities. In the universities of Western Europe, scholasticism dominated, which involved the construction of hypotheses, theories and the conduct of various disputes only within the strict limits of the dogmas established by the Christian Church.

The medical school in Salerno played a major role in the history of medicine and pharmacy. In 1140, Rector Nicholas compiled the Antidotarium of Nicholas. At first it contained 60 prescriptions, later 150. The highest level of prosperity of the medical school in Salerno was reached towards the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century. Salerno creates his own literature, the school was already close to teaching experimental medicine. For this purpose, autopsies of the corpses of criminals and animals were periodically carried out. The training there lasted 5 years. The Salerno school was given the right to confer the title of doctor and issue licenses.

The University of Padua, which differed from most medieval universities in the possessions of Venice, began to play a role later, towards the end of the Middle Ages, during the Renaissance. It was founded in the 13th century by scientists who fled from the papal regions and from Spain from the persecution of the Catholic Church reaction. In the 16th century it became a center of advanced medicine.

The University of Bologna is one of the oldest continuously operating degree-granting universities in the world, and the second largest university in Italy. It was the first university founded in the Western world (in 1088 AD). The University of Bologna is historically known for its ecclesiastical and civil law courses.

The Sorbonne is historically the University of Paris. It first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was reorganized in 1970 into 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I-XIII).

University of Vienna, a public university located in Vienna, Austria. Opened in 1365, it is one of the oldest universities in Europe.

Universities had 3 faculties: theological, medical, and law. There were also preparatory faculties. Levels of knowledge: 1) from the Bible + works of the church fathers; 2) from the works of other scientists reviewed by the church. Students are rich people with a high position in society; age did not matter. They learned from books by memorizing. The book was fastened with a chain. Universities were separated from the state (their own police, courts). The lecture was given by the professor sitting in the form of debates (throwing around quotes).

27. The spread of infectious diseases in the Middle Ages and measures to combat them.

Infectious diseases became especially widespread in the Middle Ages, when frequent wars of conquest and crusades were fought, and the growth of cities contributed to overcrowding and deterioration of sanitary and hygienic living conditions.

Such diseases often took on the character of epidemics - a massive outbreak of a disease in a certain territory, and sometimes even pandemics, when the disease covered entire continents. The most terrible infectious disease in ancient times and the Middle Ages was the plague. It covered vast territories of Europe and Asia. Pandemic plagues were known in the 6th and 14th centuries. It wiped out entire cities and provinces. In the 14th century, an even more dangerous variety appeared - the bubonic plague. In addition to the plague, other infectious diseases are known that often acquired the character of epidemics: typhoid, cholera, smallpox, anthrax, etc. Even in ancient times, medicine knew anti-epidemic measures: removal sick people from the cities, burning the property of the sick or dead, involving people who had recovered from the disease in caring for the sick. One of the most ancient diseases that humanity encountered at the dawn of its existence was smallpox. In the 14th century. In Europe, quarantine began to be introduced - a system of measures to prevent the spread of infectious diseases from the source of the epidemic with the subsequent elimination of the source of infection itself. In 1423, one of the first quarantine stations (“lazaretto”) was established on the island in Venice. In Europe, smallpox appeared only with the invention of the sail in the 5th-6th centuries. n. e. During smallpox epidemics in some countries, up to half the population died. Back in Ancient China and India, doctors developed a method of protecting people from smallpox through so-called variolation. To do this, they collected smallpox crusts from the patient, dried them and ground them into a fine powder. This powder was rubbed into the skin with a special spatula or needle, which was used to cut the surface of the skin, and sometimes blown into the nose of a healthy person. The purpose of these procedures was to induce a mild form of the disease in him. Variolation did protect many people. But, since the smallpox virus was used to carry it out, variolation often caused severe illness and even death. The patient could subsequently infect people who came into contact with him and even cause a new epidemic. At the beginning of the 18th century, when smallpox spread widely throughout Europe, the search began to protect the population from this infection. Members of the Royal Society of Medicine of London decided to discuss the pros and cons of the variolation method, which was reported by many travelers. British reports on travel to Asian countries were collected. Despite the dangers of the method, they decided to recommend it for use, since the damage caused to society by epidemics was much heavier. At this time, Lady Montagu, the wife of the British ambassador in Constantinople, observed how elderly Turkish women inoculated healthy local residents with material taken from a smallpox patient . In Turkey, she performed variolation on her own son, and upon returning to England, she began to promote the Turkish method of variolation. At first, variolation was met with hostility. The clergy saw in her something contrary to the will of Divine Providence. It took the support of King George I to conduct experiments that proved the enormous effectiveness of the variolation method. Inmates of Newgate Prison, who were promised amnesty, were chosen for testing. Six people - three men and three women - gave their consent to variolation. They all remained healthy. After this, variolation began to be widely used in Great Britain itself, as well as in its American colonies.

Each of the monuments we examined has, as we sought to show, a special, unique specificity. The mythological and ideological ideas that underlay the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain canons, respectively, are different, the principles of their composition are dissimilar, and the stylistic accents are placed differently. However, at the same time, one cannot help but notice that they all have certain general characteristics, which, in accordance with chronological criteria, definitely indicate their belonging to one, namely early period development of ancient Indian literature.

First of all, as evidenced by the comparative history of the literatures of Antiquity, the formation of these literatures usually begins with the appearance of religious codes and epics. The first works of Chinese literature are considered to be “Shujing”, “Shijing” and “Iijing”, included in the Confucian “Pentateuch”; the history of Iranian literature opens with the Avesta, Jewish - the Bible, Greek - “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Among ancient monuments Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, Hittite and Egyptian literatures are dominated by fragments of mythological epic and ritual texts. From this point of view, it seems logical that the beginning of the development of Indian literature was marked by the creation of precisely those four literary complexes (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and epic) that were discussed.

Further, the Vedas, the Tipitaka, and the epic developed as a whole over many centuries, and they developed in line with the oral rather than written tradition. We know that the letter was already known to the population of the Indus Valley in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., then his skills were lost, and writing in India was revived only around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, initially it was apparently used mainly only for administrative and economic purposes. Although the Rig Veda already existed by 1000 BC. e., Vedic literature in general - by 500 BC. e., and the early versions of the epic and the first Buddhist and Jain texts - by 400-200 BC. Don. e., they were not recorded immediately and, at least until the turn of our era, functioned as oral monuments. This led to several important consequences for all Indian literature of the ancient period.

Since her works were not fixed, we often deal with not one, but several texts (editions) of the same monument, and in this case it is useless to find its original or archetype. Oral existence also explains such features of the style of the Vedas, epics, Tipitaka, as the abundance in them of clichéd phraseological units (so-called “formulas”), repetitions, refrains, etc. Formulas and repetitions are often seen as a heritage inherent, for example, in hymns Vedas of magical functions, but first of all they were a necessary condition for the creation of any kind of text in oral form and its subsequent reproduction “from memory” by new performers. Oral origin Finally, some basic methods of constructing the most ancient Indian monuments have been identified (in the form of a sermon, dialogue, address, panegyric, etc.), as well as a number of their names that have come down to us by tradition (shruti, upanishads, etc.).

Partly related to the oral nature of the works we have considered is the fact that we have already noted that they are not distinguished as strictly literary works. It would, of course, be wrong to say that every ancient Indian text pursued only practical - religious or didactic - goals, but in general aesthetic goals have not yet come to the fore. And although we are dealing with works whose artistic merits are unique in their own way, it is no coincidence that most of them were part of religious codes, and the Sanskrit epic, and above all the Mahabharata, is highly characterized by ethical and philosophical coloring.

Lack of artistic self-awareness in Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. It also reveals itself in the fact that the idea of ​​the creator of the work has not yet crystallized into the concept of the poet. The hymns of the Rigveda were composed, as legend says, by the legendary prophets-rishis, the Brahman prose and dialogues of the Upanishads - by holy sages, Buddhist and Jain texts - by religious teachers Buddha and Mahavira and their associates.

At the same time, literature remained mostly anonymous; the name of the author did not so much indicate the real creator of this or that monument, but rather asserted its significance, and literary work belonged, in fact, to the entire society or at least one of its social or religious stratum as a whole.

And therefore - perhaps, with the only exception of the Ramayana, which is already on the threshold of a new stage in the development of literature - it would be futile to look for signs of individual style, themes, and means of expression in ancient Indian literature.

Naturally, when literature is not yet aware of its autonomy, literary theory cannot take shape, although the unlimited possibilities of the word as such were more than once praised by the creators of Vedic chants. And since there was no literary theory, one cannot speak in connection with ancient Indian literature and about a clear differentiation of genres in it. When in the Vedic Samhitas we distinguish epic, dramatic and even lyrical hymns, in the Brahmanas we separate theological instructions from narrative episodes, in the Upanishads we isolate philosophical dialogues, and in the Tipitaka - fables, parables, biographies, etc., we are in some kind of to the extent that we bring them into monuments that are syncretic in their essence genre classification later literature. In Indian literature of the Ancient period, a work existed as an indivisible whole, subject to special laws, and this literature must be assessed, first of all, in accordance with the norms and principles put forward by it.

However, this does not mean that already in the literature of the 1st millennium BC. e. new genres and forms were not maturing, albeit still in a diffuse, mixed state. These genres and forms were adopted, developed and refined in stable outlines, by the subsequent literary tradition. Together with them, she inherited everything that turned out to be viable in ideological concepts, themes and visual media Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain texts. And these monuments, although they remain valuable and unique in their appearance and artistic achievements, at the same time can be considered as a prologue to the entire further development of Indian literature.

History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.