The course of world artistic culture systematizes knowledge about culture and art acquired in educational institutions that implement programs of primary and basic general education in the lessons of fine arts, music, literature and history, forms a holistic idea of world artistic culture, the logic of its development in a historical perspective, about its place in the life of society and every person.
The developing potential of the course in world artistic culture is directly related to the ideological nature of the subject itself, on the material of which various historical and regional systems of worldview, embodied in bright images. Taking into account the specifics of the subject, its direct access to the creative component of human activity, the program places emphasis on active forms of learning, in particular on the development of perception (function - active viewer/listener) and interpretive abilities (function - performer) of students based on updating their personal emotional, aesthetic and sociocultural experience and their mastery of elementary techniques for analyzing works of art. In this regard, the program, under the headings “creative experience,” provides an approximate list of possible creative tasks on relevant topics.
In terms of content, the program follows the logic of historical linearity (from the culture of the primitive world to the culture of the twentieth century). In order to optimize the load, the program is based on the principles of highlighting the cultural dominants of the era, style, and national school. Using the example of one or two works or complexes, the characteristic features of entire eras and cultural areas are shown. Domestic (Russian) culture is considered in inextricable connection with world culture, which makes it possible to appreciate its scale and general cultural significance.
The study of world artistic culture at the level of secondary (complete) general education at the basic level is aimed at achieving the followinggoals :
development of feelings, emotions, figurative and associative thinking and artistic and creative abilities;
education of artistic and aesthetic taste; needs for mastering the values of world culture;
mastering knowledge about styles and trends in world artistic culture, their characteristic features; about the peaks artistic creativity in domestic and foreign culture;
mastering the ability to analyze works of art, evaluate their artistic features, and express one’s own judgment about them;
using acquired knowledge and skills to broaden one’s horizons and consciously form one’s own cultural environment.
The author of the program and textbook offers an originaltypology of MHC lessons : image-model, research, contemplation, panorama. This typology is taken into account in planning.
As a result of studying world artistic culturethe student must:
Know/understand:
main types and genres of art;
studied directions and styles of world artistic culture;
masterpieces of world artistic culture;
features of the language of various types of art.
Be able to:
recognize the studied works and correlate them with a certain era, style,
direction.
establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art;
use various sources of information about world artistic culture;
carry out educational and creative tasks (reports, messages).
Use acquired knowledge in practical activities and everyday life for:
choosing the paths of your cultural development;
organization of personal and collective leisure; expressing your own judgment about works of classics and modern art;
Requirements for the level of mastery of the subject
Graduates will learn:
navigate the cultural diversity of the surrounding reality, observe various phenomena of life and art in educational and extracurricular activities, distinguish between true and false values;
organize your creative activity, determine its goals and objectives, choose and put into practice ways to achieve them;
think in images, make comparisons and generalizations, highlight individual properties and qualities of a holistic phenomenon;
perceive aesthetic values, express an opinion about the merits of works of high and popular art, see associative connections and realize their role in creative activity.
Personal results art studies are:
a developed aesthetic sense, manifesting itself in an emotional and value-based attitude towards art and life;
implementation creative potential in the process of collective (or individual) artistic and aesthetic activity in the embodiment (creation) of artistic images;
assessment and self-assessment of artistic and creative capabilities; ability to conduct a dialogue and argue one’s position.
Graduates will learn:
accumulate, create and transmit the values of art and culture (enriching your personal experience with emotions and experiences associated with the perception and performance of works of art); feel and understand your involvement in the world around you;
use the communicative qualities of art; act independently when individually performing educational and creative tasks and work in project mode, interacting with other people in achieving common goals; show tolerance in joint activities;
participate in artistic life class, school, city, etc.; analyze and evaluate the process and results of one’s own activities and correlate them with the assigned task.
Artistic Culture of the Ancient World (14 hours)
Mesopotamia (1 hour)
Mesapotamian ziggurat - the dwelling of God. Realism of images of living nature - the specificity of Mesopotamian fine arts
Ancient Egypt (2 hours)
Ancient India (2 hours)
Ancient America(1 hour)
Ancient Greece (4 hours)
Ancient Rome (2 hours)
Roman house layout. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. Sculptural portrait.
Artistic culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)
Byzantine central-domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Space and topographic symbolism.
Generalization on the topic “Artistic culture of Byzantium and Ancient Rus'»
Western Europe (4 hours)
New art – Ars nova (3 hours).
Artistic culture of the Far and Middle East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).
China (1 hour)
The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious-moral ideas of Ancient China
Japan (1 hour)
The Ancient East(2 hours)
Calendar-thematic distribution of the number of hours
Notes(ICT, etc.)
date
plan
fact
1st quarter “Artistic culture of the primitive world” (3 hours)
Myth is the basis of early ideas about the world. Ancient images in vertical and horizontal models of the world: world tree, world mountain, road. Fertility ritual as a reproduction of the primary myth
Image model
Know: what role did myths play in the life of primitive people, which myths belong to the category of cosmogonic. World tree, world mountain, road.
EUM “Mythological thinking and the primitive picture of the world”, card-scheme of the horizontal model of the world, card-scheme of the vertical model of the world, text of the ritual dedicated to Osiris
Folklore as a reflection of the primary myth. "The Tale of Princess Nesmeyan". Slavic agricultural rituals: Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Semik, the holiday of Ivan Kupala.
Study
Know: Slavic rituals - Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Rusal Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala. Folklore as a reflection of the primary world.
Texts of the rituals of Christmastide, Maslenitsa, Mermaid Week, Semik, Ivan Kupala.
The birth of art. The artistic image as the main means of cognition and comprehension of the world in primitive art. Rock paintings of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. Imagery of architectural primary elements.
Panorama
Know: what forms of art are characteristic of the primitive world, how artistic images of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic reflect the living conditions during these periods.
EUM “Syncretism of Primitive Art”, images of rock paintings of the Altamira and Lascaux caves, images of Stonehenge
2. Artistic culture of the Ancient world (14 hours)
Mesopotamia (1 hour)
Mesapotamian ziggurat - the dwelling of God. Realism of images of living nature - the specificity of Mesopotamian fine art
Study
Know: what features are characteristic of architectural structures in the city-states of Mesopotamia, what causes them.
Flash diagram of the ziggurat model, images of the ziggurats in Ur and Etemenanka, flash diagram of the Ishtar Gate
Ancient Egypt (2 hours)
The embodiment of the idea of eternal life in the architecture of necropolises. The above-ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra.
Image model
Know: what was the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians, how the architecture of Egyptian necropolises reflects the idea of eternal life.
Flash diagram of the pyramid model, EUM “Pyramids - monuments of the immortality of the pharaohs”, images of the pyramid in Giza, the temple of Amun-Ra in Karnak
Magic. Decor of tombs. Canon of the image of a figure on a plane.
Study
Know: how the design of the tombs of the nobility changed in different periods of Egyptian culture, what decorative elements of sarcophagi indicate their role as a talisman of “sacred remains”
Compulsory medical insurance “Ancient Egyptian canon. Painting, relief and sculpture", depiction of the tomb of RamsesIX in the Valley of the Kings
Ancient India (2 hours)
A Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of a sacrificial body and a sacred mountain. The role of sculptural decoration.
Image model
Know: architectural forms of a Hindu temple, decor of a Hindu temple
EUM "The Art of Ancient India", images of the Kandarya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho
Buddhist places of worship are a symbol of space and divine presence. Features of divine plasticity and painting.
Image model
Generalization
Know: the history of the emergence of Buddhism, the main types of Buddhist temple architecture, their differences.
Depiction of the great stupa at Sanchi, a fresco painting of the Ajanta cave temples
2nd quarter Ancient America (1 hour)
The temple culture of the Mesaamerican Indians as the embodiment of the myth of the sacrifice that gave life.
Panorama
Know: which determines the architectural appearance of temples on the territory of the Central Mexican Plateau.
Image of the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan, the Mayan complex at Palenque
Creto-Mycenaean culture (1 hour)
Cretan-Mycenaean culture and decor as a reflection of myth.
Study
Know: the origins of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, the myth of the abduction of Europe.
Images of the Knossos labyrinth palace, the palace of King Agamemnon in Mycenae
Ancient Greece (4 hours)
Greek temple - an architectural image of the union of people and Gods
Study
Know: the main features of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period, what gods were Greek temples dedicated to, what characteristic features possessed the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis.
Flash diagram of the Athens Acropolis, image of the Parthenon
The evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classic
Study
Know: what new did Phidias bring to relief, why his work is considered the pinnacle of Greek sculpture, what idea was expressed by the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
Image of the Temple of Athena at Selinunte, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, friezes and metopes of the Parthenon
Sculpture of Ancient Greece from archaic to late classic.
Contemplation
Know: ancient Greek sculptors and their works (Polykleitos, Phidias, Skopas), as sculpture allows us to imagine the worldview of the Greeks in the era of the early, high, and late classics.
EUM “Outstanding Sculptors of Ancient Greece”, images of kouros and kors, “Doriphoros” by Polykleitos; “Torso of the Goddess” by Phidias; "Maenad" by Skopas
Synthesis of eastern and ancient traditions in Hellenism. Gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration.
Panorama
Know: characteristic features of Hellenistic art, what painting techniques Hellenistic sculptors used to convey drama and expression.
Depiction of a sleeping hermaphrodite, Venus of Melos, altar of Zeus in Pergamon
Ancient Rome (2 hours)
Features of Roman urban planning. Public buildings from the times of the republic and empire.
Image model
Know: what structures created the appearance of cities Ancient Rome, Which architectural element formed the core of any Roman structure.
Images of the Roman Forum, Pantheon, Colosseum
Roman house layout. Fresco and mosaic are the main means of decoration. Sculptural portrait.
Contemplation
Know: what was the architectural feature of the Roman house, what artistic means The Romans used it to decorate their homes.
Images of the House of the Vettii and the House of the Tragic Poet in Pompeii, images of portraits of Brutus, Augustus, Constantine the Great
Early Christian Art (1 hour)
Types of Christian churches: rotunda and basilica. Christian symbolism. Mosaic decor.
Panorama
Know: what types of temples became widespread in the era of early Christianity, what is common in the decor of early Christian churches of any type, what places especially stand out when decorating the interior with mosaics in central-domed churches and basilicas.
Images of the mausoleums of Constantius in Rome and Galla Placidia in Ravenna, image of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome
3. Artistic culture of the Middle Ages (14 hours)
Byzantium and Ancient Rus' (7 hours)
Holy Cathedral
Image model
Know: what are the features of the Byzantine style, what determines the cosmic symbolism of the Byzantine cathedral, how the decor of the cross-domed church reflects the symbolic idea of the Eternal Church.
Flash diagram of a Byzantine temple, images of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
Temporary symbolism of the cross-domed church. Byzantine style in mosaic decor.
Contemplation
Know: how earthly life Jesus Christ is depicted in the architecture of the cross-domed church.
Images of the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna and the Hagia Sophia in Kyiv
Byzantine style in the icon painting of Ancient Rus'.
Study
Know: what painting techniques were used in the Byzantine temple to create the atmosphere of the supersensible world, what is associated with the transition from colorful facial modeling to linear stylization.
EUM “Our Lady of Vladimir”, image of the Deesis iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin by Theophan the Greek
Formation of the Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis.
Study
Know: how the difference in the perception of the Day of Judgment is manifested in the works of Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev, why Rublev is considered the creator of the Russian iconostasis.
Flash diagram “Iconostasis of the Orthodox Church”, EUM “Andrei Rublev “Trinity””, image of the Savior of the Zvenigorod rank
Stylistic diversity of cross-domed churches of Ancient Rus'. Moscow architectural school.
Contemplation
Know: architectural temple buildings of the early 16th century. Cathedral of the Savior Not Made by Hands of the Spaso-Andronikov Monastery, Assumption Cathedral, Archangel Cathedral, Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye.
EUM "Temples of Ancient Rus'", images of the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Church of the Transfiguration in Novgorod, images of the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin, EUM "Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye"
Fresco paintings on the theme of the Greatness of the Virgin Mary. Znamenny chant.
Contemplation
Know: what is a “fresco”, the artist Dionysius, his work.
Presentations “Frescoes of Dionysius in the Ferapontov Monastery”; EUM “Old Russian music. Znamenny chant"
Generalization on the topic “The artistic culture of Byzantium and Ancient Rus'.”
Panorama
Be able to: answer questions correctly.
EUM “Architecture of Ancient Rus'. Practical task", EUM "Old Russian icon painting. Practical task", EUM "Old Russian music. Znamenny chant. Practical task."
Western Europe (4 hours)
Pre-Romanesque culture. "Carolingian Renaissance". Architecture, mosaic and fresco decor.
Panorama
Know: on what grounds is the Aachen Chapel perceived as a replica of the architecture of Ancient Rome, how do the basilicas of the “Carolingian Renaissance” differ from the early Christian ones.
Images of the Charlemagne Chapel in Aachen, the Basilica of Saint-Michel de Cux in Languedoc, the Church of St. Johann in Müster
Romanesque culture. Representation of human life in the Middle Ages in the architecture of monastery basilicas, bas-reliefs, frescoes, stained glass windows.
Image model
Know: how the architecture and decoration of the Romanesque basilica and the Byzantine cathedral expresses the main idea of the cultural development of the western and eastern areas, what role the stone decor of the Romanesque basilica played.
Flash diagram “Model of a Romanesque temple”, EUM “Romanesque style in architecture”, image of the Church of St. Apolsten in Cologne, Abbey of Saint-Pierre in Moissac
Gothic. The Gothic temple is an image of the world. Architecture and sculptural decor of a Gothic temple. Interior decor of the temple: stained glass windows, sculpture and tapestries. Gregorian chant.
Image model
Know: the difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque basilica (in ideological content, functions, decor), what role did stained glass windows play in the interior of a Gothic cathedral.
Flash diagram “Model of a Gothic temple”, EUM “Artistic culture of the Middle Ages. Gothic style", image of the Church of Saint-Denis near Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, EUM "Music of the Middle Ages"
Generalization on the topic “The artistic culture of Western Europe in the Middle Ages.”
Panorama
Be able to correctly complete practical work on the topic
EUM “Romanesque style in architecture. Practical creative work",
New art – Ars nova (3 hours).
Proto-Renaissance in Italy. Ars aesthetics are new in literature. The ancient principle of “imitating nature” in painting.
Contemplation
Know: how new humanistic thinking appeared in literature, what was Giotto’s innovation.
Text of cantos 1, 5 and 32 of Dante's Inferno, image of the frescoes of the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua by Giotto
Allegorical cycles of Ars nova on the theme of the Triumph of Repentance and the Triumph of Death. The musical movement of Ars Nova.
Contemplation
Know: what semantic parallel can be seen between painting and music Ars nova.
Images of Andrea da Boi nauti "Triumph of Penance", Master of the "Triumph of Death", Camposanto cemetery in Pisa
The specificity of Ars is new in the north.
Contemplation
Know: What determines the features of Ars nova in the Netherlands, what features inherent in Gothic style are preserved by the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan Van Eyck, why the Ghent Altarpiece by Jan Van Eyck is considered an example of Renaissance painting.
Image of Jan van Eyck's altarpiece "Adoration of the Lamb"
4. Artistic culture of the Far and Middle East in the Middle Ages (3 hours).
China (1 hour)
The specificity of Ars is new in the north.
Image model
The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese architecture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious-moral ideas of Ancient China.
EUM “Artistic culture of China. Mythology and philosophy", image of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing
Japan (1 hour)
Japanese gardens as the quintessence of Shinto mythology and the philosophical and religious views of Buddhism.
Contemplation
Know: why gardens are a special type of Japanese art, how the idea of finding an “empty heart” finds expression in the design of philosophical gardens.
Image of the Garden of Eden of Byodoin Monastery in Uji, the philosophical rock garden of Ryoanji in Kyoto, the Pines and Lute tea garden near Kyoto
Ancient East (2 hours)
The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of mosques.
Contemplation
Know: what differences exist in the organization of the internal space and decor of the columned mosque and basilica, to what decorative means Architects resorted to creating the image of the Garden of Eden in domed mosques.
Flash diagram “Mosque Model”, image of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, the Umayyad Mosque in Cordoba, the Alhambra Palace in Granada
The image of Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces.
(complete the final assignment on Middle Eastern culture)
Generalization
Know: what elements made up the image of the Garden of Eden in the Alhambra.
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: program for grades 10 – 11: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2007. – 16 p.;
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2009. – 240 p.
Emokhonova L. G. World artistic culture: workbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level). – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2008. – 48 p.
Albanese M. Ancient India. From origin to the 13th century / M. Albanese.-M.,-2003.
Barskaya N.A. Subjects and images of ancient Russian painting / N.A. Barskaya.-M., 1993.
Bongard-Levin G.M. Ancient civilizations / G.M. Bongard-Levin. - M., 1989.
Gnedich P.P. The World History arts / P.P. Gnedich.-M., 1996.
Gombrich E. History of Art / E. Gombrich.-M., 1998.
Lyubimov L. D. The Art of the Ancient World / L. D Lyubimov.-M., 1997.
China. Land of the Heavenly Dragon/edited by: E.L. Shaughnessy.-M., 2001.
NON-STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
CAPITAL FINANCIAL AND HUMANITIES ACADEMY
FACULTY OF ARTS AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
SPECIALTY: DESIGN
COURSE WORK
by discipline:
Art History
Topic: “Features of the architecture of ancient Greece. Ensemble of the Athens Acropolis"
Completed by a 3rd year student
Lystseva N. I.
Vologda, 2008
Introduction
1. The system of Greek orders and their origin
1.1 Doric order
1.2 Ionic order
1.3 Corinthian order
1.4 Caryatids and Atlanteans
2. Types of Greek temples
2.1 Features of the architecture of the Homeric period (XI - VIII centuries BC)
2.2 Architecture during the archaic period (VII–VI centuries BC)
2.3 Ensemble Acropolis of Athens
Conclusion
Application
Bibliography
Introduction
In this work we will look at the main features of the architecture of Ancient Greece.
The origin of Greek architecture occurs at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e., and in its development there are 4 stages: 1100-800 BC. e. – Homeric; 700-600 BC e. - archaic; 500-400 BC e. – classic; 300-100 BC e. - Hellenism.
In particular, in the first chapter we describe the origin of the order in Greek architecture, its main distinctive features, in the second we will find out the features of the main order buildings of the Acropolis of Athens - the famous architectural ensemble, the types of Greek temples formed in the Homeric period and in the archaic period. In all Greek art we find a combination of subtle intellectual calculation and sensual life-likeness. Such deviations from geometric correctness make the building like an organism - constructive, but alien to abstraction and scheme. In the second chapter, using the example of the Parthenon temple, we will describe this feature of Greek architecture; the geometric correctness of the Parthenon is accompanied at every step by slight deviations from correctness. So deviations of horizontals and verticals are almost invisible. Knowing the effect of optical distortions, the Greeks used this to achieve the desired effect
The order temple was a kind of pinnacle in Greek architecture and therefore, it had a huge impact on the subsequent history of world architecture. Artistic creativity permeates all the work of the Greek builders, who created each stone block from which the temple was composed as a sculptural work.
The architectural forms of the Greek temple did not develop immediately and underwent a long evolution during the Archaic period. However, in archaic art a well-thought-out, clear and at the same time very diversely applied system of architectural forms had already been created, which formed the basis for all further development of Greek architecture.
The legacy of ancient Greek architecture underlies all subsequent development of world architecture and related monumental art. The reasons for such a sustainable influence of Greek architecture lie in its objective qualities: simplicity, truthfulness, clarity of composition, harmony and proportionality general forms and all parts, in the plasticity of the organic connection between architecture and sculpture, in the close unity of architectural-aesthetic and structural-tectonic elements of structures.
Ancient Greek architecture was distinguished by the complete correspondence of forms and their structural basis, which formed a single whole. The main structure is stone blocks from which the walls were laid. The columns and entablature (the ceiling lying on a support-column) were processed with various profiles, acquired decorative details, and were enriched with sculpture.
The Greeks brought the processing of architectural structures and all decorative details without exception to of the highest degree perfection and elegance. These structures can be called gigantic works of jewelry, in which there was nothing secondary for the master.
The architecture of Ancient Greece is closely connected with philosophy, because at its basis and at the basis of ancient Greek art were ideas about the strength and beauty of man, who was in close unity and harmonious balance with the surrounding natural and social environment, and since social life developed greatly in ancient Greece, architecture and art had a pronounced social character.
It was this unsurpassed perfection and organic nature that made the monuments of ancient Greek architecture models for subsequent eras.
The classic type of Greek temple was the peripterus, that is, a temple that had a rectangular shape with a gable roof and was surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade. The peripterus, in its main features, was already formed in the second half of the 7th century. BC. Further development of temple architecture proceeded mainly along the lines of improving the system of structures and proportions of the peripter.
1. The system of Greek orders and their origin
For many hundreds of years, Greek architects developed every building element. The result of their work was the creation of an order system, the main form of which is a column.
The column with all its parts, as well as the parts located above and below the column, form a single whole, and its construction is subject to a certain rule and order. Order was called the Latin word “ordo”. Hence the names order system, architectural order.
We learned about the order system from the scientific work of the Roman architect Vitruvius. He lived in the 1st century AD. e. When writing his treatise, Vitruvius used the works of Greek architects, which, unfortunately, have not reached us.
The order (from Latin - “order”, “system”) suggested using a single module (measure) - a span, an elbow or a foot - in the construction of buildings. This gave the buildings a special completeness. Thanks to the order system, the opposing forces of upward growth and downward pressure were balanced in the architectural structure. The load-bearing parts were the base (stereobat) and its upper platform (stylobate), as well as the supports (columns) standing on it. The supporting parts are the entire upper part of the building, the roof with the entablature - the ceiling lying directly on the columns. The entablature consisted of three subordinate parts: the architrave, frieze and cornice. The column, in turn, had a base (base), which rested on a stereobat - a trunk consisting of several drums stacked on top of each other, and ended with a “head” - a capital, in which a “cushion” stood out - an echin and a square slab lying on top of it - abacus.
Greek architecture developed under the influence of two order systems: Doric And Ionic. The names of these order systems come from the names of the main Greek tribes - the Dorians, who lived in the Peloponnese, Sicily and the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula, and the Ionians, who lived on the Attica Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and in the western part of Asia Minor.
The character traits of the Dorians, their courage, firmness, and perseverance are reflected in the architecture. The main attention was paid not to decorative elements, but to the strict beauty of lines.
Unlike the Dorians, the Ionians had a gentle character and were prone to peaceful pursuits and the arts.
Later, a third order appeared in architecture - the so-called Corinthian. Its name comes from the city of Corinth, in which, according to legend, a new order was created. This order did not have much influence on the development of architecture.
Let's take a closer look at these order systems and dwell on their features.
1.1 Doric order
The column in the Doric order (Fig. 1) does not have a supporting part - bases Its trunk tapers upward for stability and is decorated with longitudinal grooves - fluted and crowned capital. The transition from column to capital is made in the form of several rings (anuli). The capital - a structural element - serves to reduce the distance between the columns, and also plays a decorative role - the transition from a round column to the straight lines of the span beam - entablature.
The capital of the Doric order consists of an echinus, shaped like a truncated cone, and abacus- square plate. The entablature rests on the abacus. It in turn consists of architrave- lower part, frieze- middle part and upper part - cornice. The transverse ones rest on the architrave beams. With wooden structures, the ends of the beams were covered with wooden planks, and the gaps were filled with terracotta slabs with paintings or bas-reliefs (sculptural images protruding less than half the volume of the depicted object). In stone structures, wooden planks were replaced by stone slabs with vertical cutouts - triglyphs, in between - metopes - stone slabs with sculpture or pictorial decoration. The cornice hangs over the entire structure, protects it from rain and completes the entire composition. In the most ancient buildings, the columns consisted of one solid stone (monolith), but later the column trunk was made up of several separate stone drums. The drums stood firmly one on top of the other, due to their significant weight and the heaviness of the upper parts, but, in addition, they were fastened together with pins (mostly wooden) placed in square sockets in the center of the two surfaces of the drums in contact with each other.
1.2 Ionic order
Originating in Asia Minor, the Ionic order (Figure 2) developed in Greece. The order seemed to combine two schools - Asia Minor and Attic.
The example of the Asia Minor school was the temple of Athena in Priene (320 BC, architect Pytheas), and the Attic school - the Erechtheion in Athens (420-393 BC, architect Philocles).
The Ionic order is more complex than the Doric and has more details. Slender columns generally have a base and a complex capital. The columns are pierced with vertical grooves, but unlike flutes, they are deep and positioned in such a way that there are gaps - paths - between them. The order has a spiral-shaped capital decorated with decorative details. in volutes. The upper part of the capital is represented by a square slab - an abacus.
The ancient period, which is characterized by the rise and prosperity of Hellas (as the ancient Greeks called their country), is the most interesting for most art historians. And for good reason! Indeed, at this time the origin and formation of the principles and forms of almost all genres took place. contemporary creativity. In total, scientists divide the history of the development of this country into five periods. Let's take a look at the typology and talk about the formation of some types of art.
Aegean era This period is most clearly represented by two monuments - the Mycenaean and Knossos palaces. The latter is better known today as the Labyrinth from the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur. After archaeological excavations, scientists confirmed the veracity of this legend. Only the first floor has survived, but there are more than three hundred rooms in it! In addition to palaces, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is known for the masks of Achaean leaders and small Cretan sculptures. The figurines found in the palace's hiding places amaze with their filigree. Women with snakes look very realistic and graceful. Thus, the culture of Ancient Greece, a brief summary of which is presented in the article, arose from the symbiosis of the ancient island civilization of Crete and the arriving Achaean and Dorian tribes who settled on the Balkan Peninsula.
Homeric period This era is significantly different in material terms from the previous one. From the 11th to the 9th centuries BC, many important events took place. First of all, the previous civilization died. Scientists suggest that due to a volcanic eruption. Then there was a return from statehood to a communal structure. In fact, society was being formed anew. An important point is that against the backdrop of material decline, spiritual culture was fully preserved and continued to develop. We can see this in the works of Homer, which reflect precisely this turning point. The Trojan War dates back to the end of the Minoan period, and the writer himself lived at the beginning of the archaic era. That is, the Iliad and the Odyssey are the only evidence about this period, because apart from them and archaeological finds, nothing is known about it today.
Archaic era. At this time there is rapid growth and formation of state-policies. Coins begin to be minted, the alphabet is formed and writing is formed. In the archaic era, the Olympic Games appeared, and the cult of a healthy and athletic body was formed. It was during this period that the culture of Ancient Greece was born.
Classical period. Everything that the culture of Ancient Greece fascinates us with today happened precisely in this era. Philosophy and science, painting and sculpture, oratory and poetry - all these genres are experiencing a rise and unique development. The apogee of creative self-expression was the Athens architectural ensemble, which still amazes viewers with its harmony and elegance of forms.
Hellenism. The last period of development of Greek culture is interesting precisely because of its ambiguity. On the one hand, there is a unification of Greek and Eastern traditions due to the conquests of Alexander the Great. On the other hand, Rome captures Greece, but the latter conquers it with its culture. Architecture The Parthenon is probably one of the most famous monuments ancient world. And Doric or Ionian elements, such as columns, are found in some later architectural styles. We can mainly trace the development of this type of art through temples. After all, it was in this type of construction that the most effort, money and skills were invested. Even palaces were valued less than places for sacrifices to the gods. The beauty of ancient Greek temples lies in the fact that they were not formidable temples of mysterious and cruel celestial beings. In terms of their internal structure, they resembled ordinary houses, only they were more elegantly equipped and richly furnished. How could it be different if the gods themselves were portrayed as similar to people, with the same problems, quarrels and joys? Subsequently, three orders of columns formed the basis of most styles European architecture. It was with their help that the culture of Ancient Greece briefly, but very succinctly and lastingly entered the life of modern man.
Vase painting. Works of this type of art are the most numerous and studied to date. The first monuments of this civilization are black-glazed ceramics - very beautiful and stylish dishes, copies of which served as souvenirs, decorations and collectibles in all subsequent eras. Vessel painting went through several stages of development. At first these were simple geometric patterns, known since the times of the Minoan culture. Then spirals, meanders and other details are added to them. In the process of formation, vase painting acquires the features of painting. Scenes from mythology and everyday life of the ancient Greeks, human figures, images of animals and everyday scenes appear on the vessels. It is noteworthy that the artists managed not only to convey movement in their paintings, but also to give personal features to the characters. Thanks to their attributes, individual gods and heroes are easily recognized.
Mythology. The peoples of the ancient world perceived surrounding reality a little differently than we are used to understanding it. Deities were the main force that was responsible for what happened in a person’s life. The ancient Greek pantheon included many gods, demigods and heroes, but the main ones were the twelve Olympians. The names of some of them were already known during the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. They are mentioned on clay tablets with Linear writing. The remarkable thing is that at this stage they had female and male counterparts of the same character. For example, there was Zeus-on and Zeus-on. Today we know about the gods of Ancient Greece thanks to monuments of fine art and literature that have remained for centuries. Sculptures, frescoes, figurines, plays and stories - all of this reflected the Hellenic worldview. Such views have outlived their time. The artistic culture of Ancient Greece, in short, had a primary influence on the formation of many European schools of various types of art. Renaissance artists resurrected and developed ideas of style, harmony and form that had been known since classical Greece.
Architecture Ancient Greece developed in three stages. The period is approximately from 600 to 480 BC. e. marked by the reflection of the Persian invasion. After the liberation of their land, the Greeks began to create freely again. This period was called "archaic". The architecture of Ancient Greece experienced its heyday from 480 to 323 BC. e. During this period, Alexander the Great conquered vast territories that varied significantly in their cultures. This had a devastating impact on classical Greek art. The late period - Hellenism - ended in 30 BC. e. It was conquered by the Romans at that time Ancient Egypt, influenced by Greece. The ruins of temples date back to the archaic period. These ancient buildings were one of the greatest achievements of architecture. During that period, wood was replaced by white marble and limestone. Presumably, the prototype of ancient temples was the dwelling of the Greeks. It looked like a rectangular building, with two columns installed in front of the entrance. This fairly simple structure marked the beginning of more complex structures. As a rule, the temple was installed on a stepped base. The building had no windows; a statue of a deity was placed inside it. The building was surrounded by columns in two or one row. They served as a support for the gable roof and beams in the ceiling. Only priests were allowed to visit the interior. Other people saw the temple from the outside. The construction of the temple was subject to certain laws; precisely established proportions, dimensions, and the number of columns were used. The architecture of Ancient Greece was characterized by three directions: Corinthian, Ionic, Doric. The latter was formed in the archaic era. Thus, the Doric style was the most ancient. It was distinguished by a combination of power and simplicity. The name of the style comes from the Doric peoples who created it. The Ionic style was formed in Asia Minor, in its Ionian region. From there it was adopted by Ancient Greece. The architecture of this style was distinguished by its slender and elegant columns. The middle part of the capital looked like a pillow with corners twisted into a spiral. During the Hellenistic period, the architecture of Ancient Greece was distinguished by its desire for splendor, a certain majesty. At that time, Corinthian capitals (the crowning parts of columns) were most often used. Their decoration is dominated by plant motifs, mainly depicting acanthus leaves. In the 5th century BC e. Ancient Greek architecture was experiencing its heyday. The famous statesman Pericles had a great influence on the formation of art during this classical period. His reign was marked by the beginning of large-scale construction in Athens, the largest artistic and cultural center of Ancient Greece. The main work was carried out in the Acropolis - on an ancient hill. The Greeks were able to bring to perfection the unity of constructive and artistic content of buildings in their architecture. It should be noted that in the 5th century BC. e. Both the architecture and sculpture of Ancient Greece experienced their heyday. During this period, the greatest historical monuments were created. However, early works of Greek sculptors have also survived to this day. In the 7th-6th centuries BC. e. The statues are distinguished by amazing symmetry - one part of the body mirrors the other. The sculptures were in constrained positions - outstretched arms pressed to the muscular body. Despite the absence of any sign of movement (turning the head or tilting), the lips of the statues were open in a slight smile. Sculpture more later periods has a wide variety of forms. In the 1st century BC e as a result of the active expansion of the Roman Empire, ancient Greek architecture takes on more of the features of the conquerors, losing its own.
In ancient times, the city of Cecropia was erected on the high hill of the Acropolis, which later received a new name - Athens. It is better to admire the Acropolis in Athens at sunrise or sunset; it is at this time that the ruins of the former great city come to life and seem to be rebuilt.
History of the Athenian Acropolis
Let's look a little at the history of the city. King Cecrops is considered the founder of Athens. This great man is credited with the founding of 12 Greek cities, the introduction of a ban on human sacrifice, and, most importantly, the introduction of the cult of Zeus the Thunderer. The advent of the greatness of the goddess Athena occurs during the reign of another king - Erechthonius; it was during his reign that the city was renamed Athens.
Around the 2nd millennium BC, the territory of the Acropolis completely contained Athens. It was surrounded by powerful walls. On the western, flat side, a particularly strong fortification, Enneapylon “Nine Gates,” was erected. Behind the walls was the palace of the Athenian kings. It was here that the sanctuary of Athena was later located, and as the city grew, the Acropolis became a religious center dedicated to the patroness of the city. Architecture of the Athenian Acropolis.
The construction of the ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis began after the great victories of the Greeks over the Persians. In 449, Pericles' plan to decorate this territory was approved. The Acropolis of Athens was to become a great symbol of a great victory. No expense or materials were spared. Pericles could get whatever he wanted for this matter.
Tons of material were transported to the main hill of the Greek capital. It was considered pride for everyone to work at this facility. Several magnificent architects were involved here, but the main role was given to Phidias.
Propylaea of the Athenian Acropolis
The architect Mnesicles created the buildings of the Propylaea, which are the entrance to the Acropolis, decorated with porticoes and a colonnade. A similar structure introduced the visitor sacred place into a completely new world, not similar to everyday reality. At the other end of the Propylaea, there was a statue of the patroness of the city, Athena Promachos, personally executed by Phidias. Speaking about Phidias, we can mention that it was from his hands that the famous statue of Zeus in Olympia came out, which became one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Even sailors passing through Attica saw the helmet and spear of the warrior Athena.
Parthenon - the first temple
The main temple of the Athenian Acropolis is the Parthenon. Previously, it housed another statue of Athena Parthenos, also made by Phidias. The statue was made in the chrysoelephantine technique, like Olympian Zeus. But this miracle has not reached us, so we can only believe rumors and images. The columns of the Parthenon, made of marble, have lost their original whiteness over many centuries. Now its brownish columns stand out beautifully against the evening sky. The Parthenon was the temple of Athena Polias the City Guardian. Due to the position of the building, this name was usually shortened to the Great Temple or even simply the Temple.
The construction of the Parthenon was carried out in 447-428 BC under the leadership of the architects Ictinus and his assistant Callicrates, of course, not without the participation of Phidias. The temple was supposed to be the embodiment of democracy. For its construction, great calculations were made, which is why the building was completed in just 9 years. Other decoration continued until 432.
Erechtheion - the second temple
The second temple of the Acropolis is the old Erechtheion, also dedicated to Athena. There was a functional difference between the Erechtheion and the Pantheon. The Pantheon was intended for public needs; the Erechtheion, in fact, was a temple of priests. According to legend, the temple was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to power in Athens. The elders of the city had to resolve the dispute; at their request, power was given to whichever god whose gift would be most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the Acropolis hill, and Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was recognized as the winner, and the olive tree was recognized as the symbol of the city.
According to legend, the temple was built at the site of the dispute between Poseidon and Athena for the right to power in Athens. The elders of the city had to resolve the dispute; at their request, power was given to whichever god whose gift would be most useful for the city. Poseidon made a stream of salt water from the Acropolis hill, and Athena grew an olive tree. The daughter of Zeus was recognized as the winner, and the olive tree was recognized as the symbol of the city.
In one of the premises of the temple there was a trace left from the impact of Poseidon’s trident on a rock. Near this place there is an entrance to a cave where, according to another legend, the snake of Athena, who is the personification of the glorious king-hero Erechthonius, lived.
In the same complex there is the grave of Erechthonius himself, and in the western part of the temple there is a well with salt water, as if appeared by the will of the same Poseidon.
Temple of Athena Nike
Athena on the Acropolis found its embodiment in yet another form - Athena Nike. The first temple, dedicated to the goddess of victory, was destroyed during the wars with the Persians, so after the truce it was decided to restore the sanctuary. The temple was built by Callicrates in 427-424 BC.
With the arrival of the Turks, the temple was dismantled for the construction of fortifications. The restoration of the temple was carried out in the 1830s, after the restoration of Greece to the status of an independent state. The next reconstruction was carried out in 1935-1940, and since that time the temple appears in all its glory before visitors to the complex.
The Acropolis is a majestic complex of beautiful buildings with a rich and interesting history. This is a piece of Greece, without which it is difficult to put together complete image its former greatness.
Plan of the Athenian Acropolis.
Architecture of Ancient Rome. Architectural symbols of Roman greatness. The Roman Forum, the center of business and social life of the “eternal city”. Pantheon – “temple of all gods”. The Colosseum is a majestic, spectacular building of Ancient Rome.
The composition of a characteristic Roman urban ensemble - the form bears traces of the influence of the compositions of the Greek agora and folk housing.
The predominant type of developed residential building was atrium-peristyle. Usually it was located on an elongated site, fenced off from the streets by blank external walls. The front part of the house was occupied by an atrium - an enclosed space, on the sides of which there were living rooms and utility rooms. In the center of the atrium there was a pool, above which an open part was left in the roof for lighting and drainage of water into the pool. Behind the atrium, through the tablinum, there was a peristyle with a garden inside. The entire composition developed in depth along the axis with a consistent opening of the main spaces.
IN Roman forums The same idea of a closed axial composition - an order peristyle, but increased to the size of a city square - was reflected. In the initial period, forums usually served as markets and along their perimeter, shops and sometimes other public buildings adjoined the galleries. Over time, they turned into ceremonial squares for public meetings, ceremonies, religious events, etc.
The ideological and compositional center was the temple, located in the middle of the narrow side of the rectangular square on its main axis. Towering on the podium, he dominated the composition. In plan, the temple had the shape of a rectangle, to which a portico was attached. A similar composition of the temple was traditional in Rome and had its origins in the most ancient types of temples of the Etruscan-Archaic period. In the composition of the forum, the frontal construction of the temple emphasized its deep-axial structure, and a rich portico (of the composite, Corinthian, or less often Ionic order) accentuated the entrance to the temple. Beginning with the Republican period, several forums were successively erected in Rome. Later emperors interpreted the forum as a monument to their own glory.
In its splendor, luxury, size and complexity of the composition it stands out Forum of Emperor Trajan(architect Apollodorus of Damascus, 112-117). In addition to the main square and the temple, a five-span elongated hall was erected on it - a basilica with an area of 55x159 m and two symmetrical library buildings, between which a memorial was erected on a small square Trajan's Column 38 m high. Its marble trunk is covered with a spiral band of bas-relief with 2500 figures depicting episodes of Trajan’s victorious campaigns. The triumphal arch serves as the main entrance, the statue of the emperor is installed in the center of the square, the temple is in its depths. Colonnades and porticos made of marble, which had various and sometimes enormous sizes, were the main motif of the ensemble.
Built in conjunction with forums and on main roads, triumphal arches are one of the most common types of memorial structures in Rome. Examples are Arch of Titus(70s), Arch of Constantine(IV century), where the monumental massif is dressed in a rich decorative dress with a relaxed order.
Arch of Constantine, placed near the Colosseum, surpasses others not only in its size (21.5 m high, 25 m wide), but also in the abundance of decorations. Some details (for example, round and rectangular reliefs, figures, etc.) were taken from architectural monuments of an earlier time, which was common in the architecture of late Rome. The plastic richness and large size of the structure are designed to convincingly express the ideas of the power of the emperor, ruling both in Rome itself and in the vast imperial colonies.
Arched and vaulted forms initially became widespread in utilitarian structures - bridges and aqueducts. City water pipelines - aqueducts- occupied a special place in the improvement of cities, the growth of which required more and more water. The water supplied from the hilly surroundings to the city reservoirs flowed through stone channels (chutes) plastered with hydraulic mortar, which were supported by arched structures in low-lying areas and at the intersections of rivers or ravines. The majestic arcades of bridges and aqueducts already determined the type of structures in the Republican period. Characteristic of these types of structures; Aqueduct of Marcius in Rome, 144 BC and etc.
some of them rose to the level of the best examples of Roman architecture, not only in technical, but also in architectural artistically. These should include Trajan's Bridge in Alcantra in Spain (98-106 AD) and an aqueduct in the city of Nimes in France (2nd century AD), crossing the river. Gard, et al.
Length Garda Aqueduct Bridge 275 m. It consists of three tiers of arched abutments with a total height of 49 m. The span of the largest arch is enormous for that time - 24.5 m. The abutments and arches are dry-built from precisely hewn stones. The arcade is distinguished by its simplicity of form and harmony of relationships, clarity of tectonics, large scale, and expressive texture. The monumental and exquisite beauty of the composition is achieved exclusively with the help of constructive forms.
Palace construction took place on a huge scale in Rome. Particularly stood out Imperial Palace on the Palatine, consisting of the palace itself for ceremonial receptions and the emperor’s home. The ceremonial premises were located around a vast peristyle courtyard. The main room - the throne room - was amazing in its size. The hall was covered with a cylindrical vault with a span of 29.3 m, which rose 43-44 m above the floor level. The main premises of the residential part were also grouped around peristyles on the terraces of the hills, using villa construction techniques. The construction of villas also became widespread in Rome. In addition to large palace complexes, the principles of landscape architecture, which have been intensively developed since the 1st century BC, are implemented in them to the greatest extent. ( Villa Adriana in Tibur, first floor II century, etc.).
The most grandiose public buildings of Rome, carried out during the imperial period, are associated with the development of arched concrete structures.
Roman theaters were based on Greek traditions, but unlike Greek theaters, the seats of which were located on natural mountain slopes, were free-standing buildings with a complex substructure supporting the seats for spectators, with radial walls, pillars and stairs and passages inside the main semicircular volume ( Theater of Marcellus in Rome, II century BC, which accommodated about 13 thousand spectators, etc.).
Colosseum (Collosseum)(75-80 AD) - the largest amphitheater in Rome, intended for gladiator fights and other competitions. Elliptical in plan (dimensions in the main axes are about 156x188 m) and grandiose in height (48.5 m), it could accommodate up to 50 thousand spectators. In plan, the structure is divided by transverse and circular passages. A system of main distribution galleries was built between the three outer rows of pillars. A system of stairs connected the galleries with exits evenly spaced in the funnel of the amphitheater and external entrances to the building, arranged along the entire perimeter.
The structural basis consists of 80 radially directed walls and pillars supporting the ceiling vaults. The outer wall is made of travertine squares; in the upper part it consists of two layers: an inner one of concrete and an outer one of travertine. Marble and knock were widely used for facing and other decorative works.
With a greater understanding of the properties and performance of the material, the architects combined different types of stone and concrete compositions. In elements that experience the greatest stress (in columns, longitudinal arches, etc.), the most durable material is used - travertine; radial tuff walls are lined with brick and partially relieved by brick arches; In order to lighten the weight, the inclined concrete vault uses light pumice as a filler. Brick arches of various designs penetrate the thickness of the concrete both in the vaults and in the radial walls. The “frame” structure of the Colosseum was functionally expedient, provided lighting for internal galleries, passages and stairs, and was economical in terms of materials.
The Colosseum also provides the first known example in history of a bold solution to tent structures in the form of a periodically arranged covering. On the wall of the fourth tier, brackets were preserved that served as supports for the rods, to which a giant silk awning was attached using ropes, protecting spectators from the scorching rays of the sun.
The external appearance of the Colosseum is monumental due to its enormous size and the unity of the plastic design of the wall in the form of a multi-tiered arcade. The system of orders gives the composition scale and, at the same time, a special character of the relationship between the plastic and the wall. At the same time, the facades are somewhat dry, the proportions are heavy. The use of an order arcade introduced tectonic duality into the composition: a multi-tiered, complete order system here serves exclusively decorative and plastic purposes, creating only an illusory impression of the order frame of the building, visually lightening its mass.
Roman baths- complex complexes of numerous rooms and courtyards intended for ablution and various activities related to recreation and entertainment (rooms and open areas for sports exercises, meeting rooms, rooms for games and conversations, etc.). The basis of the composition was the ablution halls with a gradual transition from a cold room (frigidarium) to a warm one (tepidarium) and then to a room with the highest temperature (caldarium), containing a pool of hot water in the center. The halls located along the main axis reached enormous sizes, since large baths were designed for the broad masses of the plebs.
All halls and rooms were heated with warm air supplied through special channels, which were installed under the floor and in the walls of the buildings.
In Rome, 11 large imperial baths and about 800 small private baths were built. Most famous Baths of Caracalla(206-216) and Baths of Diocletian(306). The main building of the baths sometimes reached enormous sizes (the Baths of Caracalla - 216x120 m). Surrounded by gardens, areas for recreation and entertainment, it, together with the latter, occupied a significant area (the Baths of Caracalla - 363x535 m).
The technical basis for the appearance of such grandiose structures was the accumulated experience in creating bold structural forms - vaults and domes made of concrete. In thermal baths, these forms interact spatially with each other, forming a complex structure. By reducing the “inert” mass of structures to a minimum, the architects distributed efforts economically and expediently. By giving the structures different shapes, they made maximum use of the possibilities of mutual cancellation of horizontal forces by the vaults themselves. Thus, the ceiling of the central hall usually consisted of three adjacent cross vaults with a span of up to 25 m, resting on transverse abutments, between which cylindrical vaults were thrown.
Large and small halls, connecting into enfilades, created a complex interior that amazed with the brilliance and luxury of decoration, the abundance of light and air. Decoratively interpreted order elements and divisions were given importance in the interior. With the help of the order and the plastic development of the surfaces of the vaults, a visual effect of lightness of the structure was created, and the idea of the spatiality of the interior was emphasized. ( Baths of Caracalla in Rome, 206-216. Interior reconstruction)
One of the central halls of the baths was often made in a round shape with a dome covering. Its dimensions reached large values: the diameter of the caldarium of the Baths of Caracalla was 34 m. The development of dome structures in the baths contributed to the emergence of a rotunda-type composition, in which the dome shape became dominant.
Pantheon in Rome(about 125) is the most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple, in which the diameter of the dome reached 43.2 m. In the Pantheon, the constructive and artistic tasks of creating the largest large-span domed space in Rome (unsurpassed until the 20th century) were brilliantly resolved.
The spherical vault is made of horizontal layers of concrete and rows of baked bricks, representing a monolithic mass devoid of a frame. To lighten the weight, the dome gradually decreases in thickness towards the top, and a lightweight aggregate - crushed pumice stone - is introduced into the concrete composition. The dome rests on a 6 m thick wall. The foundation is concrete with travertine filler. As the wall rises, the travertine is replaced by lighter tuff, and in the upper part by crushed brick. The filler for the lower zone of the dome is also crushed brick. Thus, in the design of the Pantheon, a system was consistently implemented to lighten the weight of the concrete aggregate.
The system of unloading brick arches in the thickness of the concrete evenly distributes the forces of the dome onto the abutments and unloads the wall above the niches, reducing the load on the columns. A multi-tiered system of arches with a clearly defined subordination of the main and secondary parts made it possible to rationally distribute efforts in the structure, freeing it from inert mass. She contributed to the preservation of the building despite earthquakes.
The artistic structure of the building is determined by its structural form: a powerful domed volume on the outside, a single and holistic space inside. The centric volume of the rotunda from the outside is interpreted as an axial frontal composition. In front of the majestic eight-column portico of the Corinthian order (the height of the columns is 14 m), there previously existed a rectangular courtyard with a ceremonial entrance and a triumphal arch similar to a forum. The developed space under the portico with four rows of intermediate columns seems to prepare the visitor for the perception of the vast space of the interior.
The dome, at the top of which there is a round light opening with a diameter of 9 m, dominates the interior. Five rows of caissons decreasing upward create the impression of a domed “frame”, visually lightening the massif. At the same time, they give the dome plasticity and a scale commensurate with the divisions of the interior. The order of the lower tier, emphasizing deep niches, effectively alternates with massive supports lined with marble.
The intermediate strip of the attic between the order and the dome, with a small scale of division, contrastsly emphasizes the shapes of the dome and the main order. The expressive tectonics of the composition is combined with the effect of diffused lighting pouring from above and subtle color nuances created by the marble cladding. The rich, festively majestic interior contrasts with the appearance of the Pantheon, where the simplicity of the monumental volume dominates.
An important place in the construction was occupied by covered halls - basilicas, which served for various kinds of meetings and tribunal sessions. These are rectangular buildings elongated in plan, internally divided by rows of supports into elongated spaces - naves. The middle nave was made wider and higher than the side ones, and was illuminated through openings in the upper part of the walls.
Three-nave Basilica of Constantine(312) - one of the largest basilicas in Rome. The middle nave, 23.5 m wide, 80 m long and 35 m high, was covered with three cross vaults. The side naves were covered with transversely directed cylindrical vaults, supported by powerful arched abutments, which also served as support for the vaults of the middle nave. The thrust of the cross vaults was compensated by the same supports, which were partially extended outward above the side naves. In the longitudinal walls of the middle nave above the arches of the side parts, arched openings for lighting were installed. As in other major buildings in Rome (therms, Pantheon, etc.), the main attention in the Basilica of Constantine is paid to the creation of large internal spaces. The richly designed interior, which was similar in composition and decoration to the interiors of the thermal baths, was contrasted with the simple and laconic appearance of the building.
In the 4th century. With the adoption of Christianity by Rome on the basis of the basilica, new types of religious buildings began to develop - basilica churches. The Christian basilica became especially widespread in the religious construction of the Western Middle Ages.
Ensemble of the Athens Acropolis
Acropolis- (Greek akropolis, from akros - upper and polis - city), an elevated and fortified part of an ancient Greek city, a fortress, a refuge in case of war.
His buildings are exquisite in proportion and harmoniously connected with the landscape. This ensemble, created under the general direction of Phidias, consists of the main entrance of the Propylaea (437–432 BC, architect Mnesicles), the temple of Athena Nike (449–420 BC, architect Kallikrates), the main temple of the Acropolis and Athens Parthenon (447–438 BC, architects Ictinus and Callicrates), Erechtheion Temple (421–406 BC).
The Acropolis of Athens, which is a 156-meter-high rocky hill with a gentle peak (approx. 300 m long and 170 m wide), is the site of the oldest settlement in Attica. During the Mycenaean period (15-13 centuries BC) it was a fortified royal residence. In the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. There was a lot of construction going on on the Acropolis. Under the tyrant Pisistratus (560-527), on the site of the royal palace, the temple of the goddess Athena Hekatompedon was built (that is, a temple one hundred steps long; fragments of pediment sculptures have been preserved, and the foundation has been identified). At 480 during Greco-Persian wars The temples of the Acropolis were destroyed by the Persians. The inhabitants of Athens swore an oath to restore the shrines only after the expulsion of enemies from Hellas.
In 447, on the initiative of Pericles, new construction began on the Acropolis; the supervision of all the work was entrusted to the famous sculptor Phidias, who, apparently, was the author of the artistic program that formed the basis of the entire complex, its architectural and sculptural appearance.
Even before the 5th century. The Acropolis was not a desert rock. Life has been going on here since the end of the 3rd century. BC. Even then, the elevation was a refuge for residents of the surrounding plains when attacked by enemies. In the 6th century BC. On the Acropolis there was a temple of Athena called Hekatompedon. It was located directly opposite the Propylaea and amazed the person who entered the Acropolis with its beauty. The placement of buildings dates back to the 6th century. BC. symmetry prevailed, which archaic masters often adhered to. The architectural forms of archaic temples are ponderous and severe. The columns seem to swell under the weight of the roof pressing on them. The severity was softened only by sculptural decorations.
All that remains of the buildings of that period are the foundations, and not all of them. This is explained by the fact that the buildings were destroyed during the Greco-Persian wars.
The entire second half of Vn. BC e. Construction was underway on the Acropolis. In 447, work began on the Parthenon. It was finished in rough form in 438 BC. e., and finishing continued until 434 BC. e. In 437 BC. e. laid out the Propylaea and completed it only in 432 BC. e., and around 425 BC. e. created a temple to Nika the Wingless. Before the Peloponnesian War, the colossus of Athena the Warrior was erected in front of the Propylaea on the Acropolis. In 421 BC. h. They began to build the Erechtheion and finished it in 407 BC. e. For almost half a century, construction was in full swing here, architects, sculptors, and artists worked, creating works of which humanity is proud after millennia.
His buildings are exquisite in proportion and harmoniously connected with the landscape. This ensemble, created under the general direction of Phidias, consists of the main entrance of the Propylaea (437–432 BC, architect Mnesicles), the temple of Athena Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”) (449–420 BC, architect Kallikrates ), the main temple of the Acropolis and Athens, the Parthenon (447–438 BC, architects Ictinus and Kallikrates), the temple of the Erechtheion (421–406 BC). (see Appendix 1)
In the arrangement of the temples of the Acropolis of the time of Pericles, architects dig out the symmetry that was typical of the archaic era. The buildings now gradually come into view of a person walking along the Acropolis. The Athenian, having passed the Propylaea, saw first of all not the facade of the temple, but the huge statue of Athena the Warrior. As he came closer to her, he ceased to perceive this colossus. All his attention was drawn to the Parthenon, which seemed to grow gradually to the right. The temple of Erechtheum, located on the left, became especially clearly visible from the Parthenon.
Thus, it was possible to examine either the details of a nearby work, or
a completely different, distant monument. The attention of a person standing at the Propylaea at the entrance to the Acropolis could be occupied by the finishing of the architectural details of the ceremonial gates of the Acropolis. But he could also contemplate the huge statue of Athena, which stood in front of the Propylaea. The Erechtheion and Parthenon have not yet been revealed in all their beauty. Approaching the colossus of Athena and being at the pedestal of the statue, the Athenian could get carried away by examining its relief decorations, but from here he already saw the temple of Athena - the Parthenon - from a vantage point. The Erechtheion was still obscured for him by the pedestal of the Colossus of Athena and opened only completely at sea from the Parthenon, where either the details of the Parthenon or the entire Erechtheion could be viewed in the same way.
The change of artistic impressions and their gradual inclusion in human consciousness, the use of various forms and contrasts, when looking at details alternates with the perception of the whole structure - this principle was new in comparison with the simple comparison of monuments in archaic ensembles.
Propylaea
At the foot of the cliff, on the western side, the path to the Acropolis of Athens begins.
The first structure that is encountered on the way is the propylaea or entrance gate (440 - 432 BC). It is believed that in the original plan the left and right sides of the Propylaea should have been the same and the entire building should have been symmetrical. But around 425 B.C. To the right of the gate, the temple of the goddess Nike grew, and this part of the propylaea was made somewhat smaller than the left, as they strived for a general balance of architectural volumes.
Propylaea- the first structure where two different orders were applied. The Propylaea of the Acropolis had five openings (gates), with small six-columned halls and side structures on both sides. The middle opening was wider than the others.
The western portico, located on the side of the main approach to the Acropolis, is decorated much more elegantly than the others.
In the Propylaea, as in the Parthenon, the Doric and Ionic orders are combined. The solemnity and impressiveness of the external Doric columns was revealed to the eyes of a person approaching the Propylaea. But, entering under the roof of the gate, he found himself among the graceful and light Ionic ones. To smooth the transition from one order to another, the architect made square projections at the base of the Doric columns, reminiscent of bases. By introducing the Ionic order, Mnesical complicated and enriched the impression of the architectural image of the Propylaea. Different sizes The columns of the Doric order - large in the center of the Propylaea and small in the side parts - also contribute to the variety.
On both sides of the western portico of the propylaea there were buildings with porticoes of unequal size: on the left, the larger one was an art gallery and on the right, the smaller one was the library.
Temple of Nike Apteros
In front of the short side of the propylaea of the library rises a small graceful temple, the smallest building on the Acropolis (architect Callicrates, 449-421 BC). Made in the Ionic style, this temple is dedicated to Nike Apteros- “Wingless Victory.” In Greece, the goddess of Victory was depicted with large wings: she is fickle, flies from one enemy to another. But the Athenians believed that they had become invincible, and so that Nike would never leave them, they depicted her as wingless.
Rising above the powerful fortress wall, the temple crowns it with its light proportions. Built in the Ionic order, it has four columns on the end sides and has blank side walls without colonnades. Placed at an angle to the Propylaea, it seems to turn slightly towards the gate, as if directing a person approaching the sacred hill towards it. Next to the Doric colonnade of the Propylaea, the Ionic Temple of Nike may seem too light. Therefore, some Doric features were introduced into the order of the temple. The ancient Greek masters were not afraid to deviate from the rules of the order, and if they thought it was necessary, they boldly introduced elements of another into one order. The interior of the temple is small. The walls inside may have been covered with paintings: the surface of the marble walls is unpolished and rough. This temple was destroyed during
Turkish domination in Greece, and only later was it restored again.
The outside of the temple is decorated with a low frieze made of Pentellian marble, the short parts of which show the gods of Olympus, and the long parts show scenes of battles with the Persians. The eastern part of the frieze depicts solemn and calm gods. Above the columns there are mostly standing figures, and between them the gods are sitting or slightly bending; the composition of the frieze is related to the architecture of the structure, as in other buildings of the Acropolis.
Parthenon
A little to the right of the statue, at a short distance, in honor of the goddess Athena, the patroness of the city, the architects Ictinus and Callicrates built a majestic marble temple - the Parthenon. The temple took 9 years to build. The Parthenon occupied the very top part of the Acropolis, being the central structure of the entire ensemble. From distant points of the city, residents saw the silhouette of a temple that towered over the city. The Parthenon crowns the Acropolis. The logically clear architectural forms of the temple are not only contrasted with the wild slopes of the rocks, but are also connected with them into artistic unity.
Researchers of ancient Greek architecture often paid attention to the fact that in the works of Hellenic architects the principle, or rule, of the “golden section” was often used. It was considered harmonious and beautiful to give buildings the proportions of the “golden section”.
The relationship between the sizes of the Parthenon and the Acropolis Hill is not accidental. The dimensions of the temple are determined by the size of the rock. The ancient architects, in addition, placed the Parthenon on the Acropolis in the most artistically advantageous place, so that the size of the temple and the rock are perceived to be consistent when viewed from a distance.
The Parthenon is the largest temple in the ensemble of the Acropolis and the entire Greek metropolis. Inside it has two large halls - rectangular and square, the entrances to which were located on opposite sides. The eastern rectangular hall with a statue of Athena in the back was divided into three parts by two-tiered colonnades of the Doric order. The square hall served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon.
The Doric order in the Parthenon is not as severe as in archaic temples. It is softened by the introduction of some elements of the graceful Ionic order into the architecture. Behind the outer colonnade, on the top of the temple wall, you can see a continuous relief strip depicting the solemn procession of the Athenians. A continuous figured frieze - zophorus - belongs to the Ionic order, and, nevertheless, it was introduced into the architecture of the Doric Parthenon, where there should have been a frieze with triglyphs and metopes.
It organically includes elements of the Ionic order: elongated columns, a lightweight entablature, a continuous frieze encircling the building, made of squares of Pentelic marble.
Ancient Greek architects skillfully combined their buildings with the landscape, harmoniously “fitting” them into the surrounding nature.
The connection between the Parthenon and nature was expressed not only in the proportional relationship between the temple and the hill. Greek architects and sculptors saw that distant objects or their parts seemed smaller, and knew how to correct optical distortions.
The columns of the Parthenon are not strictly vertical, but slightly inclined into the building. The axes of the corner columns, when mentally continuing them, must intersect each other at a great height. This destroyed the effect of that optical illusion in which a series of vertical lines seem to expand slightly upward.
Deviations from horizontals and verticals are almost invisible. However, they Marble is a material that helps this impression. By the time the Parthenon was built, the Greeks had long known and appreciated this wonderful stone, understanding how well marble captures light and, absorbing it, glows with its surface, resembling the tenderness of human tissue.
Before the Parthenon, temples were built mainly from rough porous stone - limestone, which, after construction was completed, was covered with a layer of marble plaster. The Parthenon is all marble. Naturally, some of its parts were made of wood; metal was also used to fasten marble blocks; the main material was
Not far from Athens, in the Pentelikon mountains, deposits of good white marble were found. The smallest ferrous particles contained in it appeared on the surface after processing. When they came into contact with air moisture, they gradually oxidized and formed a uniform layer, and sometimes spots of a beautiful, golden patina. The snow-white, coldish stone became warm, saturated with the sun, as if absorbing the moisture of the air. This ability of processed marble to react to light and to the surrounding air strengthened the building’s connection with nature.
Erechtheion Temple
With its lightness of form, special sophistication of decorative decoration and complexity of the composition, the small Erechtheion contrasts with the strict and majestic, emphatically monumental Parthenon, which is a Doric peripterus.
The place where the Erechtheion was built was not chosen by chance. It was determined in advance. It was believed that it was here that Poseidon struck with his trident and carved out a stream, and Athena planted an olive tree. The architect was faced with the difficult task of constructing a building on a site with a strong slope. It was not possible to carry out large planning work and level the site for the Erechtheion, since at that time the burdensome Peloponnesian War was going on. The premises of the Erechtheum therefore have different levels.
The location of the Erechtheion is nevertheless successful in the ensemble of the Acropolis. Indeed, if in the western part of the Acropolis the heavier part of the Propylaea is located on the left, and the light Temple of Nike is on the right, then in the eastern part of the hill the weight is transferred to the right side, protruding into the volume of the Parthenon, and the graceful and lighter Ionic Erechtheion is on the left. The harmonious distribution of masses, the balance of architectural volumes with general asymmetry is not perceived immediately, but gradually, when moving along the Acropolis.
The layout of the Erechtheion takes into account the unevenness of the ground. The temple consists of two located on different levels premises. WITH three sides it has porticoes of various shapes, including the famous portico of the kor (caryatids) on the south wall (see Appendix 1).
The Erechtheion is very different from the Parthenon. Next to the Doric order of the Temple of Athena the Virgin, the Ionic order of the Erechtheion is perceived as small, although it is a rather large temple in absolute size. Near the strict columns of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion with its rich ornamental decoration seems especially elegant.
Looking at the Parthenon from one point, from a corner, gives an idea of the entire temple. In contrast, the complex and asymmetrical Erechtheion must be walked around on all sides to appreciate the richness of its architectural forms. This is why it was obviously impossible to go to the northern entrance to the Erechtheion directly from the Propylaea. The architect seemed to force the person to walk around the temple.
The architecture of the Erechtheion is dominated by the principle of contrast. Shaded porticoes are juxtaposed with smooth walls. The white marble of the temple is contrasted with the purple marble of the frieze. Massive bases are combined with light columns. The large surfaces of the steps are perceived next to the complex pattern on the bases of the columns.
The Erechtheion faces the Acropolis square on the south side with a portico, the roof of which is supported by six caryatids, three caryatids resting on the left leg, three on the right. It would seem that the symmetry is clearly and infallibly maintained here. But, looking closely at the marble sculptures of the girls, you see how different they are. The folds of their clothes not only outline strong, beautiful figures, but reveal the degree of tension of each girl. The caryatids calmly, without excessive effort, carry the heavy roof of the portico. Their burden is neither too heavy nor too light for them. They perceive the load extremely naturally. Classical harmony lives in each of these statues, in their beautiful clothes and elegant hairstyles. The stripes, tightly braided at the head, gradually unravel and flow freely down the backs. The master is not trying to deceive the viewer by making him believe that in front of him is not a stone, but hair. It preserves the texture of marble. But the ratio of hair density - tightly braided: loosely braided and loose - exactly
conveyed by the differences of marble surfaces, and this evokes the feeling of almost real hair.
To the right of the portico of the caryatids, rich in light and shadow contrasts, on the dark surface of which the illuminated figures of girls emerge, the calm surface of a large wall protrudes. Only at first glance does it seem massive and monotonous. In fact, this wall, made of large beautiful blocks of marble, has a kind of small pedestal at the bottom, decorated with relief ornaments, and at the top there is a belt with a pattern carved in damask. The decorative completions of the wall at the top and bottom are respectively at the level of the capitals and bases of the columns of the eastern portico. The wall is thus subordinated to the order system of the entire temple.
The interior layout of the Erechtheion is complex. In the eastern part, behind the threshold of the sanctuary of Athena, there was a room with an ancient wooden statue of the goddess, in front of which stood a golden lamp with an unquenchable fire. Next were the sanctuaries of Erechtheus and Poseidon. Their walls are believed to have been decorated with picturesque images.
In contrast to the flat eastern portico, the northern one is made deep so that a dense shadow is created under its roof, on which the light marble columns would appear. Otherwise, they would not be noticeable from the distance below from the city. The northern portico is especially well decorated. Its ceiling is divided into beautiful square recesses that lighten the weight.
Ionic columns stand on richly ornamented bases and bear ornate capitals. The door leading to the temple is especially beautiful with its decorative patterns. The elegance of the decoration of the Erechtheion sets off the restrained grandeur of the Parthenon. The decoration of the Erechtheion was addressed great attention. Orders for the production of decorative patterns were given to various artists so that there were no repetitions.
The change of artistic impressions and their gradual inclusion in human consciousness, the use of various forms and contrasts, when looking at details alternates with the perception of the whole structure - this principle was new in comparison with the simple comparison of monuments in archaic ensembles.
Members of the group "Name of God"
Group Research Topic
"Name of the Gods"
Problematic question (research question)
What gods were Greek temples dedicated to?
Objectives of the study
1. Find out which gods are the ancient Greek temples?
2. Explain why the Parthenon is considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?
3. List what characteristic classical features did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have?
Results of the study
1. The ancient Greek religion, like the Egyptian and many other religions of the world, was characterized by a local character of development. Those. in various places in Greece their own deities were revered, often associated with local relief features or personifying them, on which the lives of believers depended: thus in Psofida they worshiped the local river Erymanthos, to which the temple was dedicated; in Orkhomenes - sacred stones, as if they had once fallen from the sky, on Mount Ankhesme, Zeus Ankhesmius was revered, Zeus Laphistius - the personification of Mount Laphistion. Each locality or city had its own patron patron. This cult was of a state nature. Moreover, this cult was very strict: in general one could be skeptical about the gods, the Greek religion did not know generally binding dogmas, but one could not shirk the duties of rituals in honor of the patron god, one could not show disrespect for him. Violation of this law was punishable by severe punishment.
Of the many local gods, over time, some images merged into single pan-Greek deities, for example, Zeus Laphistius, Zeus Croceat, the cult of Zeus in Crete and Thessaly, grew into the cult of Zeus - as the supreme god, “the father of gods and people.” The very name Zeus means shining sky and goes back to a common Indo-European root (Dyaus among the Indians, Tiu among the Germans). The name Zeus had about 50 epithets indicating his functions: underground, i.e. ensures fertility, rain-bearer, all-begetter, ruler of destinies, etc.
The image of Hera, the main goddess, the wife of Zeus, grew out of the image of the cow goddess, the patroness of Mycenae. Poseidon was the ancient sea deity of Pelaponesse. The cult of Poseidon, having absorbed a number of local cults, became the god of the sea and the patron of horses. Athena is an ancient deity - the patroness of cities and city fortifications. Her other name is Pallas, also an epithet meaning “Shaker of the Spear.” According to classical mythology, Athena acts as a warrior goddess; she was depicted in full armor. The goddess Artemis is one of the most revered deities by the Greeks. It is usually believed that the cult of Artemis originated in Asia Minor, where she was considered the patroness of fertility. In classical mythology, Artemis appears as a virgin huntress goddess, usually with her companion, a doe. An extremely complex and unclear image is represented by Apollo, who had a very prominent place in Greek mythology and religion. In Pelaponesse, Apollo was considered a shepherd deity. Near Thebes, Apollo Ismenias was revered: this epithet is the name of a local river, which was once deified by the inhabitants. Apollo later became one of the most popular gods in Greece. He is considered the embodiment of the national spirit. The main functions of Apollo: divination of the future, patronage of the sciences and arts, healing, cleansing from all filth, the deity of light, a correct, orderly world order. The healer god Axlepius developed on purely Greek soil. The god of the shepherds, Pan, was of Arcadian origin. The Asian Minor goddess of fertility, Aphrodite, became among the Greeks the goddess of beauty, love, and an idealized personification of femininity. Ares, borrowed from the Franks, became the frantic gods of war. Further: Demeter is the goddess of fertility, Hephaestus is the personification of earthly fire and blacksmithing, Hestia is also the personification of fire, only at home, the deity of the family hearth, Hermes is the patron of roads and travelers, the god of trade. Some of greek gods are more or less abstract images - personifications of individual abstract concepts: Plutos - the direct personification of wealth, Nemesis - the goddess of retribution, Themis - the goddess of justice, Moira - the goddess of fate, Nike - the goddess of victory, and these are not all the deities of the Greeks.
Cosmogonic themes did not occupy a prominent place in folk beliefs. The idea of a creator god was absent in this religion. According to Hesiod, from Chaos were born Earth, Darkness, Night, and then Light, Ether, Day, Sky, Sea and other great forces of nature. From Heaven and Earth the older generation of gods was born, and from them Zeus and other Olympian gods.
There was no central cult in Greece, but on the basis of cultural community, some cult centers acquired broad, pan-Greek significance. The sanctuaries of Apollo in Delphi, Zeus in Olympia, Demeter in Epidaurus and others became widely known and were revered throughout Greece. In general, the religion of Greece was disunited, although more or less stable.
2. The temple is a peripterus of the Doric order of 46 columns (8 on the main facade and 17 on the side ones). The Parthenon is an example of the Doric order! Ideally measured proportions Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC, can be considered fundamental in the development of Greek architecture. The strict and solemnly monumental Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e., consists of the following parts:
three-stage base - stereobat;
load-bearing column. Vertically, the column trunk was divided by flutes (vertical grooves) with sharp edges. The column ends with a capital consisting of an echina (a flattened pillow) and an abacus (a tetrahedral slab.)
the supporting part is an entablature, including an architrave (a horizontal beam lying on columns), a frieze with alternating triglyphs (a slab with vertical grooves) and metopes (a slab made of stone or ceramics decorated with relief or painting) and a cornice.
3. In contrast to the archaic with its predilection for rigid symmetry, the picturesque panorama of the classics set a sublimely solemn mood. To the left of the central axis of the Propylaea, on the flat plateau of the hill, stood the seventeen-meter colossus of Athena Promachos (Warrior) made of gilded bronze. To the right, the architects Ictinus and Kallikrates erected the Parthenon (447–438 BC) as a symbol of the victory of Greek democracy over eastern despotism, dedicating it to Athena Parthenos (Virgin). At the same time, the temple symbolized the triumph of the organizing, light principles of religion over its chthonic, unbridled sources. This was evidenced by the relief on the Doric metopes and the Ionic frieze that followed the colonnade along the top of the cella. The eastern pediment was decorated with sculptural compositions on the theme of the birth of Athena 6; western - her dispute with Poseidon7 for power over Attica*. The roof was crowned with stylized lotus petals at the corners. The snow-white mass of the temple made of Pentellian marble, which has the property of acquiring a golden patina of extraordinary beauty over time, appears against the background of the blue sky. Transparent air, bright sunlight a radiant stream washes the outer colonnades, flows into the open space of the cella, dissolving the marble volumes.
Conclusion
The peoples of Ancient Greece made many discoveries, created many magnificent works art, architecture, literature, which are still interesting to us, attracting, beckoning, teaching, giving the best examples of art and morality.