Europe 17-19 centuries. This period showed the world many talented authors who made significant contributions to the development of art: literature, painting, sculpture, music and architecture. The trends of classicism first appeared in France, when the ancient times and the ideals of that time.
Features of classicism
The main features of this trend originate in antiquity. The authors' thinking was artistically oriented and tended towards clear, holistic expression, as well as simplicity. visual arts, balance and logic of statements. Therefore, we can say that the thinking of a person in the era of classicism is rational and idealized.
If we talk about the fact that classicism is related to antiquity, then it is important to note that their similarity lay in the form, which, however, might not meet the standards that were accepted in Classical art is distinguished from others, first of all, by respect for ancient values and the ability to display even when they are not relevant.
Characteristic classicism - ontological understanding of beauty. Here she is timeless, and therefore eternal, and also great attention devoted to the laws of harmony.
Psychologically, classicism is explained by the fact that in complex historical periods, which are transitional and carry a lot of new things, a person strives to turn to what is unchangeable: for example, to the past. In this he finds support: the ancient Greeks are an example of rationalism in thinking, they gave humanity complete ideas about space and time, and many other phenomena in life, and did this in a simple and accessible form. Complex and florid thoughts and their presentation do not mean the clarity and specificity that humanity required in a dramatically changing world. Therefore, antiquity played an important role in the formation of classicism.
The ideas of classicism are romantic, so many are of the opinion that they are inseparable. And yet there are significant differences in them: romanticism is more divorced from reality in its ideals and ways of displaying them than classicism.
What is classicism? V. Tatarkevich tried to explain this with the help of several principles, which, in turn, were originally set out by the theorist L. B. Alberti:
- Beauty is an objective property of real objects.
- Beauty is order, correct composition, which is assessed by the mind.
- Since art uses science, it must have rational discipline.
- An image created in the direction of classicism may be real, but depicted according to the model of antiquity.
What is classicism in painting
The main feature of this direction is artistic creativity manifests itself in the artist’s attitude to the work: his feelings, expressed through painting, are also subject to logic.
Among the prominent representatives are the works of N. Prussen, who painted paintings with mythological themes. Special attention what attracts them is the exact geometric composition and a thoughtful combination of colors. Also K. Lorrain: although the theme of his paintings differs from the works of N. Prussin (landscapes of the city’s environs), the rationalism in execution is also consistent: he harmonized them with the help of the light of the setting sun.
What is classicism in sculpture and architecture
Since in classicism antique works were used as a model, when sculpting the authors faced a contradiction: in Ancient Greece models were depicted naked, but this was now immoral. Artists got out of the situation in a cunning way: they depicted real people in the image of ancient gods. During Napoleon's reign, sculptors began making models of togas.
Classicism in Russia arose much later, but, nevertheless, this did not prevent talented authors from appearing in this country who created in accordance with its ideas: Boris Orlovsky, Fedot Shubin, Ivan Martos, Mikhail Kozlovsky.
In architecture they also sought to recreate the forms inherent in antiquity. Simplicity, rigor, monumentality and logical clarity are the main features.
What is classicism in literature
The main achievement of classicism is that they were divided into hierarchical groups: among them they distinguished high (epic, tragedy, ode) and low (fable, comedy and satire).
The literature has put forward a strict requirement for compliance genre characteristics in the work.
Painting
Interest in art ancient Greece and Rome appeared back in the Renaissance, which, after centuries of the Middle Ages, turned to the forms, motifs and subjects of antiquity. The greatest theorist of the Renaissance, Leon Batista Alberti, back in the 15th century. expressed ideas that foreshadowed certain principles of classicism and were fully manifested in Raphael’s fresco “The School of Athens” (1511).
The systematization and consolidation of the achievements of the great artists of the Renaissance, especially the Florentine ones led by Raphael and his student Giulio Romano, constituted the program of the Bolognese school of the late 16th century, the most characteristic representatives of which were the Carracci brothers. In their influential Academy of Arts, the Bolognese preached that the path to the heights of art lay through a scrupulous study of the heritage of Raphael and Michelangelo, imitation of their mastery of line and composition.
At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who provided unsurpassed examples of geometrically precise composition and thoughtful relationships between color groups. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antique landscapes of the environs of the “eternal city”, ordered the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.
Poussin's coldly rational normativism aroused the approval of the Versailles court and was continued by court artists like Lebrun, who saw the ideal in classicist painting. artistic language to praise the absolutist state of the "sun king". Although private clients favored various variants of Baroque and Rococo, the French monarchy kept classicism afloat by funding academic institutions such as the École des Beaux-Arts. The Rome Prize provided the most talented students with the opportunity to visit Rome for direct acquaintance with the great works of antiquity.
The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art critic Winckelmann and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the “new classicism” was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution (“Death of Marat”) and the First Empire (“Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I”).
In the 19th century, classicist painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. David’s artistic line was successfully continued by Ingres, who, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor (“Turkish Baths”); his portrait works are marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (like, for example, Karl Bryullov) also filled works that were classic in form with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds. In the middle of the 19th century, a young generation gravitating towards realism, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers, rebelled against the conservatism of the academic establishment.
Sculpture
The impetus for the development of classicist sculpture in the mid-18th century was the writings of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. In France, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon vacillated on the verge of Baroque and Classicism. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.
Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize military valor and the wisdom of statesmen. Fidelity to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which conflicted with accepted moral norms. To resolve this contradiction, modern figures were initially depicted by the sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Suvorov - in the form of Mars, and Polina Borghese - in the form of Venus. Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the depiction of modern figures in ancient togas (these are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).
Private customers of the Classical era preferred to immortalize their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classicist ideal, figures on tombstones are usually in a state of deep repose. The sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sudden movements and external manifestations of emotions such as anger.
Architecture
For more details, see Palladianism, Empire, Neo-Greek.The main feature The architecture of classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity volumetric shape. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.
By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban planning ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.
The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.
The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.
The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. Cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.
In the period following Napoleonic wars, classicism had to get along with romantically colored eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque (see Beaux-Arts).
Literature
Boileau became famous throughout Europe as the “legislator of Parnassus”, the largest theorist of classicism, who expressed his views in the poetic treatise “ Poetic art" He influenced the poets John Dryden and Alexander Pope in Britain, who made the alexandrines the main form of English poetry. English prose of the era of classicism (Addison, Swift) is also characterized by Latinized syntax.
Classicism XVIII century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. Voltaire's work (-) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, and is filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world in better side, construction in accordance with the laws of classicism of society itself. From the standpoint of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson reviewed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed, including the essayist Boswell, the historian Gibbon and the actor Garrick. For dramatic works three unities are characteristic: unity of time (the action takes place on one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (one storyline).
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the reforms of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of “three calms”, which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, since they are designed primarily to capture stable generic characteristics that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism we got great development genres that require the author's assessment of historical reality: comedy (
Details Category: Variety of styles and movements in art and their features Published 03/05/2015 10:28 Views: 10116"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin the word classicus and means "exemplary".
Classicismcalled art style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the 17th-19th centuries.
What about as a sample? Classicism developed canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set of artistic techniques or rules that are mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.
Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! Canons made it possible to streamline creativity a certain type art, give direction, show examples and sweep aside everything insignificant and not deep.
But canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. V fine arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.
Hierarchy of classicism genres
Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's consider the hierarchy of genres using examples of various types of art.
Literature
Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theoretician of classicism, but the founder is François Malherbe, who carried out the reform French and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.
Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place over one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (the work must have one storyline). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.
In Russia
In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.
M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.
“Theory of three calms” M.V. Lomonosov
The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. The tendency to see art as the main force for educating a person has intensified. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.
Painting
Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on tradition high Renaissance, which also saw a pattern in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.
Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)
N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created based on historical mythological stories. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.
N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby blowing soap bubbles - a symbol of fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.
V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin" (1795)
V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a traditional ceremonial portrait for classicism. Derzhavin – senator, member Russian Academy, statesman, his uniform and awards speak about this.
But at the same time, he is also a renowned poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. In the middle of the 19th century. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
Sculpture
The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was also facilitated by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.
Antonio Canova (1757-1822)
A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.
A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculptural group “The Three Graces” belongs to the late period of Antonio Canova’s work. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the Graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an interlacing of arms and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.
F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted as naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.
Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.
B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw
Architecture
The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order- type architectural composition, using certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.
London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.
Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi (1775-1849) – Russian architect Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with the grandiose arched building of the General Staff and triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with buildings Alexandrinsky Theater(1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).
The General Staff Building on Palace Square
Music
The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction further development European music.
Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)
Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)
Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of the basic canons of musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the 17th century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart and L. van Beethoven.
Note
It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And « classical music» . The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.
Classicism (from Latin classicus - “exemplary”) is an artistic direction (current) in art and literature XVII- the beginning of the 19th century, which is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. In the West, classicism was formed in the struggle against the magnificent Baroque. The influence of classicism on artistic life Europe XVII - XVIII centuries. was widespread and long-lasting, and in architecture continued into the 19th century. Classicism as defined artistic direction It is common to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate toward the universal “norm” and model. Hence the cult of antiquity in classicism: classical antiquity appears in it as an example of perfect and harmonious art.
Writers and artists often turn to images ancient myths(see Ancient literature).
Classicism flourished in France in the 17th century: in drama (P. Corneille, J. Racine, J. B. Moliere), in poetry (J. Lafontaine), in painting (N. Poussin), in architecture. At the end of the 17th century. N. Boileau (in the poem “Poetic Art”, 1674) created a detailed aesthetic theory of classicism, which had a huge impact on the formation of classicism in other countries.
The clash of personal interests and civic duty underlies the French classic tragedy, which reached ideological and artistic heights in the works of Corneille and Racine. Corneille's characters (Sid, Horace, Cinna) are courageous, stern people, driven by duty, completely subordinating themselves to serving the interests of the state. Showing contradictory mental movements in their heroes, Corneille and Racine made outstanding discoveries in the field of depiction inner world person. Imbued with the pathos of exploring the human soul, the tragedy contained a minimum of external action and easily fit into the famous rules of the “three unities” - time, place and action.
According to the rules of the aesthetics of classicism, which strictly adheres to the so-called hierarchy of genres, tragedy (along with ode and epic) belonged to the “high genres” and was supposed to develop especially important social problems, resorting to ancient and historical subjects, and reflect only the sublime heroic aspects. “High genres” were opposed to “low” ones: comedy, fable, satire, etc., designed to reflect modern reality. La Fontaine became famous in the fable genre in France, and Moliere in the comedy genre.
In the 17th century, permeated with the advanced ideas of the Enlightenment, classicism was imbued with passionate criticism of the orders of the feudal world, protection of natural human rights, and freedom-loving motives. It is also distinguished by its great attention to national historical subjects. The largest representatives Enlightenment classicism are Voltaire in France, J. W. Goethe and J. F. Schiller (in the 90s) in Germany.
Russian classicism originated in the second quarter of the 18th century, in the works of A. D. Kantemir, V. K. Trediakovsky, M. V. Lomonosov, and reached development in the second half of the century, in the works of A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizina, M. M. Kheraskova, V. A. Ozerova, Ya. B. Knyazhnina, G. R. Derzhavina. It presents everything the most important genres- from ode and epic to fable and comedy. A remarkable comedian was D. I. Fonvizin, author of the famous satirical comedies"Brigadier" and "Minor". Russian classicist tragedy showed a keen interest in national history (“Dimitri the Pretender” by A.P. Sumarokov, “Vadim Novgorodsky” by Ya.B. Knyazhnin, etc.).
At the end of the XVIII - early XIX V. classicism both in Russia and throughout Europe is experiencing a crisis. He increasingly loses touch with life and withdraws into a narrow circle of conventions. At this time, classicism was subjected to sharp criticism, especially from the romantics.
Classicism is an artistic and architectural style, dominant in Europe in the 17th-19th centuries. The same term served as the name for the aesthetic direction. The objects created during this period were intended to serve as examples of the ideal, “correct” style.
Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism and adheres to certain canons, therefore almost all projects implemented in the era of classicism are characterized by harmony and logic.
Classicism in architecture
Classicism replaced Rococo, which was subject to public criticism for excessive complexity, pompousness, mannerism, and excess of decorative elements. At the same time, European society increasingly began to turn to the ideas of enlightenment, which was expressed in all aspects of activity, including architecture. The architects' attention was attracted by the simplicity, conciseness, clarity, calm and rigor characteristic of ancient architecture, primarily Greek. In fact, classicism became a natural result of the development of Renaissance architecture and its transformation.
The goal of all objects created in the classicism style is the desire for simplicity, rigor, and at the same time, harmony and perfection - which is why medieval masters often turned to monumental ancient architectural forms. Classical architecture is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of forms. The basis of this style was the order of ancient times, in particular spatial compositions, restraint of decor, a planning system, according to which the buildings were located on wide straight streets, proportions and strict geometric shapes were observed.
The aesthetics of classicism were favorable for the creation of large-scale projects within entire cities. In Russia, many cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism.
The tectonics of walls and vaults continued to influence the character of architecture. During the period of classicism, the vaults became flatter and a portico appeared. As for the walls, they began to be separated by cornices and pilasters. In the classic composition, following the composition of antiquity, symmetry prevails. The color scheme is predominantly light pastel shades, which serve to highlight architectural elements.
The most large-scale projects of the late 18th and first centuries are associated with classicism. half of the 19th century c.: new cities, parks, resorts appear.
In the 20s of the 19th century, along with classicism, the eclectic style was popular, which at that time had a romantic overtones. In addition, classicism was diluted with elements of the Renaissance and (beaux-arts).
Development of classicism in the world
Classicism arose and developed under the influence of educational progressive trends in social thought. The key ideas were the ideas of patriotism and citizenship, as well as the idea of value human personality. In antiquity, supporters of classicism found an example of the ideal government structure and harmonious relationships between man and nature. Antiquity is perceived as a free era, when the individual developed spiritually and physically. From the point of view of classicists, it was an ideal time in history without social contradictions and social conflicts. Cultural monuments have also become role models.
Three stages in the development of classicism in the world can be distinguished:
- Early classicism (1760s - early 1780s).
- Strict classicism (mid-1780s - 1790s).
- Empire style
These periods are valid for both Europe and Russia, but Russian classicism can be considered a separate architectural movement. In fact, like European classicism, it became the opposite of Baroque and quickly supplanted it. In parallel with classicism, there were other architectural (and cultural) movements: rococo, pseudo-gothic, sentimentalism.
It all started with the accession of Catherine the Great. Classicism harmoniously fit into the framework of strengthening the cult of statehood, when the priority of public duty over personal feelings was proclaimed. A little later, the ideas of the Enlightenment were reflected in the theory of classicism, so that the “class classicism” of the 17th century was transformed into “ educational classicism" As a result, architectural ensembles appeared in the centers of Russian cities, in particular St. Petersburg, Tver, Kostroma, and Yaroslavl.
Features of classicism
Classicism is characterized by a desire for clarity, certainty, unambiguity, and logical consistency. Monumental structures of rectangular shapes predominate.
Another feature and fundamental task was to imitate nature, harmonious and at the same time modern. Beauty was understood as something born of nature and at the same time surpassing it. She must portray truth and virtue and engage in moral education.
Architecture and art are intended to promote personal development so that man becomes enlightened and civilized. The stronger the connection between various types arts, the more effective their action and the easier it is to achieve this goal.
Predominant colors: white, blue, as well as rich shades of green, pink, purple.
Following ancient architecture, classicism uses strict lines and smooth patterns; the elements are repeating and harmonious, and the shapes are clear and geometric. The main decorations are bas-reliefs in medallions, statues on roofs, rotundas. Antique ornaments were often present in the exterior. In general, the decor is restrained, without frills.
Representatives of classicism
Classicism has become one of the most widespread styles throughout the world. Throughout the entire period of its existence, many talented craftsmen appeared, and it was created a large number of projects.
The main features of architectural classicism in Europe were formed thanks to the works of the Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.
In Paris, one of the most influential architects of the classicism period was Jacques-Germain Soufflot - he was looking for optimal solutions for organizing space. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux anticipated many of the principles of modernism.
In general, the main features of classicism in France manifested themselves in such a style as the Empire style - the “imperial style”. This is the style of late classicism in architecture and art, which is also called high. It originated in France during the reign of Napoleon I and developed until the 30s of the 19th century. after which it was replaced by eclectic movements.
In Britain, the equivalent of the Empire style was the "Regency style" (in particular, John Nash made a major contribution). Inigo Jones, an architect, designer and artist, is considered one of the founders of the British architectural tradition.
The most characteristic interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam. He tried to abandon parts that did not perform a constructive function.
In Germany, thanks to Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel, public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon appeared.
In Russia, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov showed special skill.
Classicism in the interior
The requirements for an interior in the classicist style were actually the same as for architectural objects: monolithic structures, precise lines, conciseness and at the same time grace. The interior becomes lighter and more restrained, and the furniture becomes simpler and lighter. Egyptian, Greek or Roman motifs are often used.
Furniture from the Classical era was made from precious woods, great importance acquired a texture that began to perform a decorative function. Wooden carved inserts were often used as decoration. In general, the decor has become more restrained, but of higher quality and more expensive.
The shapes of objects are simplified, the lines become straight. In particular, the legs are straightened and the surfaces become simpler. Popular colors: mahogany plus light bronze finish. Chairs and armchairs are upholstered in fabrics with floral patterns.
Chandeliers and lamps are equipped with crystal pendants and are quite massive in design.
The interior also contains porcelain, mirrors in expensive frames, books, and paintings.
The colors of this style often have crisp, almost primal yellows, blues, and purples and greens, the latter being used with black and gray as well as bronze and silver embellishments. Popular White color. Colored varnishes (white, green) are often used in combination with light gilding of individual parts.
Currently, the classicism style can be successfully used both in spacious halls and in small rooms, but it is desirable that they have high ceilings - then this method of decoration will have a greater effect.
Fabrics may also be suitable for such an interior - as a rule, these are bright, rich varieties of textiles, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.
Architecture examples
Let's look at the most significant works of architects of the 18th century - this period marked the peak of the heyday of classicism as an architectural movement.
In Classical France, various public institutions were built, including business buildings, theaters, and commercial buildings. The largest building of those times was the Pantheon in Paris, created by Jacques-Germain Soufflot. Initially, the project was conceived as the Church of St. Genevieve, patroness of Paris, but in 1791 it was turned into the Pantheon - the burial place of great people of France. It became an example of architecture in the spirit of classicism. The Pantheon is a cruciform building with a grandiose dome and a drum surrounded by columns. Main facade decorated with a portico and pediment. The parts of the building are clearly demarcated; one can notice the transition from heavier to lighter forms. The interior is dominated by clear horizontal and vertical lines; the columns support the system of arches and vaults and at the same time create the perspective of the interior.
The Pantheon became a monument to enlightenment, reason and citizenship. Thus, the Pantheon became not only an architectural, but also an ideological embodiment of the era of classicism.
The 18th century was the heyday of English architecture. One of the most influential English architects of the time was Christopher Wren. His work combined functionality and aesthetics. He proposed his own plan for rebuilding downtown London when the fire of 1666 occurred; St. Paul's Cathedral also became one of his most ambitious projects, work on which lasted about 50 years.
St. Paul's Cathedral is located in the City - the business part of London - in one of the oldest areas, and is the largest Protestant temple. It has an elongated shape, like a Latin cross, but the main axis is located similar to the axes in Orthodox churches. The English clergy insisted that the building be based on a design typical of medieval churches in England. Wren himself wanted to create a structure closer to the forms of the Italian Renaissance.
The main attraction of the cathedral is its wooden dome covered with lead. Its lower part is surrounded by 32 Corinthian columns (height - 6 meters). At the top of the dome there is a lantern topped with a ball and a cross.
The portico, located on the western facade, has a height of 30 meters and is divided into two tiers with columns: six pairs of columns in the lower and four pairs in the upper. On the bas-relief you can see statues of the apostles Peter, Paul, James and the four evangelists. On the sides of the portico there are two bell towers: in the left tower there are 12, and in the right there is the “Great Floor” - the main bell of England (its weight is 16 tons) and a clock (the diameter of the dial is 15 meters). At the main entrance to the cathedral there is a monument to Anne, an English queen from a previous era. At her feet you can see allegorical figures of England, Ireland, France and America. The side doors are surrounded by five columns (which were not originally part of the architect's plan).
The scale of the cathedral is another distinctive feature: its length is almost 180 meters, the height from the floor to the dome inside the building is 68 meters, and the height of the cathedral with the cross is 120 meters.
The openwork grilles by Jean Tijou, made of wrought iron (late 17th century) and the carved wooden benches in the choir, which are considered the most valuable decoration of the cathedral, are still preserved.
As for the masters of Italy, one of them was the sculptor Antonio Canova. He performed his first works in the Rococo style. Then he began to study ancient literature and gradually became a supporter of classicism. The debut work was called Theseus and the Minotaur. The next work was the tombstone of Pope Clement XIV, which brought fame to the author and contributed to the establishment of the classicism style in sculpture. In the master’s later works one can observe not only an orientation towards antiquity, but also a search for beauty and harmony with nature, ideal forms. Canova actively borrowed mythological subjects, creating portraits and tombstones. Among his most famous works are the statue of Perseus, several portraits of Napoleon, a portrait of George Washington, and the tombstones of Popes Clement XIII and Clement XIV. Canova's customers included popes, kings and wealthy collectors. From 1810 he served as director of the Academy of St. Luke in Rome. In the last years of his life, the master built his own museum in Possagno.
In Russia, the era of classicism was created by many talented architects - both Russian and those who came from abroad. Many foreign architects who worked in Russia were only able to fully demonstrate their talent here. Among them are the Italians Giacomo Quarenghi and Antonio Rinaldi, the Frenchman Wallen-Delamot and the Scotsman Charles Cameron. All of them mainly worked at the court in St. Petersburg and its environs. According to the designs of Charles Cameron, the Agate Rooms, Cold Baths and Cameron Gallery were built in Tsarskoe Selo. He proposed a number of interior solutions in which he used artificial marble, glass with foil, earthenware, and precious stones. One of his most famous works - the palace and park in Pavlovsk - was an attempt to combine the harmony of nature with the harmony of creativity. The main facade of the palace is decorated with galleries, columns, a loggia and a dome in the center. At the same time, the English park begins with an organized palace part with alleys, paths and sculptures and gradually turns into the forest.
If at the beginning of the new architectural period the still unknown style was represented mainly by foreign masters, then by the middle of the century original Russian architects appeared, such as Bazhenov, Kazakov, Starov and others. The works show a balance of classic Western forms and fusion with nature. In Russia, classicism went through several stages of development; its heyday occurred during the reign of Catherine II, who supported the ideas of the French Enlightenment.
The Academy of Arts is reviving the tradition of training its best students abroad. Thanks to this, it became possible not only to master the traditions architectural classics, but also to present Russian architects to foreign colleagues as equal partners.
This was a big step forward in the organization of systematic architectural education. Bazhenov got the opportunity to create Tsaritsyn’s buildings, as well as Pashkov’s house, which is still considered one of the most beautiful buildings in Moscow. A rational compositional solution is combined with exquisite details. The building stands on the top of a hill, its façade faces the Kremlin and the embankment.
St. Petersburg was more fertile ground for the emergence of new architectural ideas, tasks and principles. At the beginning of the 19th century, Zakharov, Voronikhin and Thomas de Thomon implemented a number of significant projects. The most famous building of Andrei Voronikhin is the Kazan Cathedral, which some call a copy of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, but in its plan and composition it is an original work.
Another organizing center of St. Petersburg was the Admiralty of the architect Adrian Zakharov. The main avenues of the city tend towards it, and the spire becomes one of the most important vertical landmarks. Despite the colossal length of the Admiralty facade, Zakharov brilliantly coped with the task of its rhythmic organization, avoiding monotony and repetition. The Exchange building, which Thomas de Thomon built on the spit of Vasilievsky Island, can be considered a solution difficult task– preserving the design of the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island, and at the same time being combined with the ensembles of previous eras.