Topic 2. History of the development of pedagogy.
Plan:
1. Pre-scientific stage.
2. The stage of emergence of theoretical concepts of education and training.
3. Developed stage pedagogical science.
Pre-scientific stage.
In the history of the development of pedagogical science, three main stages of its formation can be distinguished, based on the degree of scientific development of pedagogical knowledge:
Stage I, pre-scientific, lasted until the 17th century and was characterized by:
· accumulation of a significant fund of empirical material in the form of individual scattered pedagogical information, which was recorded in the form of beliefs, rules, requirements, traditions, customs, rituals, which now form the basis of folk pedagogy;
· theoretical understanding of empirical educational experience in philosophical treatises;
· the emergence and consolidation in the use of a number of pedagogical concepts.
The development of society, the need for education and upbringing led to the creation of special educational and educational establishments who were responsible for understanding theoretical knowledge, learning experience and implementation in the educational process. All this led to the fact that pedagogy as a science was formed and separated into a separate branch.
That is why at a certain moment in the development of civilization, when production and science developed, it was in late period slave system, education turned into a specific educational institution, educational institutions, specialists appeared, main task which was the upbringing and education of children. Such schools appeared in Ancient Egypt, in the countries of the Middle East, Ancient Greece.
Already in ancient world some scientific minds realized the importance of education and passing on positive experiences to generations. Even in the Bible there are indications of pedagogical and educational activities. Thus, King Solomon in his statements emphasized educational role fathers who had to take care of training their sons in this or that work. Gradually, becoming more complex and expanding, education began to develop more intensively and effectively. At first this happened in the field of philosophy.
Already in the works of ancient Greek philosophers - Heraclitus (530-470 BC), Democritus (460 - early 4th century BC), Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (427–347 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC) and others - contained many deep thoughts on issues of education. So, the historical stages of development of pedagogy.
Primitive communal system
At the dawn of civilization in the primitive communal system, the goal of education was to acquire life experience and labor skills and abilities.
Since animal husbandry and agriculture were developed, children were taught to care for animals and grow plants. The girls helped the women prepare food, make clothes, and dishes. Together with their fathers, sons learned to hunt and fishing, learned to fight. Lifestyle primitive man was closely connected with nature, so there were many rituals, traditions, pagan holidays, to which children were also initiated. Children had to know the history of the family, customs, etc. Children were taught to participate in holidays, games, rituals, and they also studied oral folk art: fairy tales, songs, legends, etc. Education during this period was closely connected with everyday life, and people were not yet able to isolate this subject into a separate branch of science.
Ancient Greece (Sparta and Athens)
Due to the fact that Sparta is a city where sport played a dominant role, the goal of the educational and pedagogical process was considered to be the education and training of courageous and hardy warriors, who could later become slave owners.
In Sparta they trained warriors, so they raised boys in specialized institutions. Boys at the age of 7 were taken away from their families, the training consisted of military physical training: it was necessary to learn how to run quickly, jump, wrestle, throw a discus and a javelin, be unpretentious in food, not be afraid of the dark, easily endure difficulties, hunger, thirst and other inconveniences . The most important thing the boys were taught was to unquestioningly obey their elders and be able to answer questions clearly and concisely. From 18 to 20 years old, young men underwent special military training and then enlisted in the army. The main focus of education in Sparta was contempt for slaves and physical labor and praise for athletic achievements.
Girls were raised at home, but, like boys, they had to be physically developed and prepared to manage slaves. Education was limited to learning to write and count. Just like men, girls took part in sports competitions and festivals. At a time when male warriors took part in hostilities and were absent from home, female housewives had to guard their homes and their city themselves, as well as keep slaves in strict subordination.
Athens
Unlike Sparta, the goal of education in Athens is the mental, moral, aesthetic and physical development of a person, since the one who is beautiful both physically and morally. Until the age of 7, all children were raised in the family. Great attention was paid to the physical development of children. To help children develop mentally, they were read fairy tales, literary works, played with them, listened to music. Children from an early age participated in celebrations, holidays, sports competitions, learned to play musical instruments. In a word, the development of children was characterized by an emotional orientation, and their upbringing was of an aesthetic nature. First, at the grammar school, children learned reading, writing and arithmetic, then at the kifarist school they studied literature and here they received special education. aesthetic education– learned to sing, recite, play musical instruments. The next stage of training was the palaestra, where teenagers mastered the pentathlon (running, wrestling, javelin and discus throwing, swimming), played sports, and also had discussions on moral and political topics with the most respected citizens.
For the wealthy slave owners of Athens, there were gymnasiums - schools where sciences such as philosophy, literature, and government were studied. From the age of 18, for two years, young men, just like in Sparta, underwent military physical training.
During the "Golden Age" Greek civilization Athens was the center of the cultural, political and economic life of Attica.
History of Athens in Ancient Greece
The city of Athens was one of the most influential in Ancient Greece. Its formation dates back to ancient times even before the Mycenaean period. One of the most revered rulers of Athens was King Solon - the model of a wise politician; he made a lot of efforts for the well-being of the citizens. His reforms became the basis for the formation of a powerful state.
In 490 BC. During this period, not far from the city, the famous Battle of Marathon took place, in which the Greeks, led by Maltiades, defeated numerous Persian troops. In 431 BC. The Athenian-Spartan war began, in which the army of Athens was defeated. The fortress walls fell, their ruins can still be seen today along the shores of Piraeus. After this, Athens still remained educational and cultural center until 86 BC, when troops under the command of Sulla took the besieged city and it was plundered.
Significance of the city of Athens in Ancient Greece
The enormous importance of Athens is difficult to overestimate. They became the cradle for the entire European world. It was here that democracy arose and developed as the main political system, only in its ancient slave form. Athens is a center of arts and intellectual life. Famous philosophers, politicians and poets of those times are still quoted and considered classics.
The policy was also a center of trade, shipbuilding and handicraft production. The ancient craftsmen were famous for their high-quality processing of metals and ceramics. Their products, food (olives, wine) and materials (copper, wool, marble) were supplied to the markets of other countries. Slaves, livestock, grain and other important goods entered the city through the large Athenian port of Piraeus.
Ancient Greece: Sparta and Athens
Sparta and Athens are the largest state entities in the territory ancient Greece with clearly defined management principles. They took part in joint military campaigns and were often allies. In 146 BC. they became part of the Roman Empire with the rights of self-government.
However, there were many differences between Sparta and Athens in terms of the internal way of life. At a time when a democratic order of government had developed in Athens, there was a military aristocracy in Sparta.
The social structure of the city-states varied radically. Society was divided into aristocracy and demos - free people. In Sparta there were helot and Dorian slaves, and the latter were not engaged in production work, devoting their lives to military craft. The fields of the Dorians were cultivated by the helots, and the trade was carried out by the parieci, from whom a tax was levied.
Freedom to express one's personality was welcomed in Athens. Outstanding thinkers of that era gave speeches at public meetings, and rhetoric and art developed. The emergence Olympic Games the world owes Athens. In contrast, wrestling for public entertainment was prohibited, as was the right to private property. And in general, very strict rules for living in a community without “excesses” were dictated here. This is where the expression “Spartan” lifestyle comes from.
City Founding Myth: Athena
Kerops, the son of the soil, came to Attica and, amazed by the local beauty, he founded the city. After he was faced with the choice of the patron of this place, then Kerop turned to the main cult. He appointed two gods to the role of patron - the deity of the sea Poseidon and his beloved daughter Athena. The applicants had to bring benefits to the city.
Poseidon was the first to do this; he struck with his rod, and water flowed from the rock. Kerop rejoiced at this gift for a hot country, but after tasting the water, it turned out that it was salty and unsuitable for consumption.
The turn came and, striking with her staff, she gave the city an olive tree. The shade from the foliage protected from the unbearable heat, and the tree itself bore fruit and oil. Athena's victory was obvious; she became the patroness of the city, which was named after her. Poseidon's anger later manifested itself in water problems in Athens.
Differences between life in ancient Athens and Sparta.
Ancient Athens and Sparta, two peoples of one state, what are the differences in the lives of their children, women and men? What legacy did these two peoples leave behind?
Intellectual Heritage of Athens.
Education of children in Sparta.
Education of children in Athens.
Life of the Spartans.
Life of women in Sparta and Athens.
In history, much more written evidence remains about the life of Athens than about Sparta, since in Sparta they were very wary of literacy and laws were passed on orally, but in Athens education was the most important and all Greek orators imitated the judicial and political oratory of the Athenians. In Athens, education was held in high esteem; playwrights and philosophers, musicians and poets, scientists from all fields of science constituted the elite of society. Ancient Athens gave the world the historian Herodotus, the philosopher Anaxagoras, the sculptor Phidias, the poet Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and the satirist Aristophanes.
In Sparta, the most important virtues of men were physical strength, fortitude, endurance, belligerence, and military skill.
Sparta was formed by the seizure of foreign territory by the Achaeans in the south of the Peloponnese Peninsula, Athens was formed without violence - free, poor citizens surrendered their lands to the rich and at the same time became dependent.
In Sparta, from the age of 7, boys were taught the basics of literacy, military art, endurance, courage, indifference to pain, the skills of feeling a friendly shoulder were instilled, homosexuality was welcomed, it was believed that this strengthens the personal relationships necessary in military field conditions. They lived in very harsh conditions without comfort or convenience, with a strict regime and harsh penalties. They were raised to be brave, strong, skillful, persistent, physically developed, strong-willed, devoted warriors. No defensive fortifications were built in Sparta, which indicated the high combat capability of the army. In Sparta, a man could only become a warrior; no other occupations were accepted there. If it was not a warrior who died, then his name could not be written on his tombstone.
In Athens, children under 7 years of age were raised by wet nurses, told fairy tales, listened to music, and were taken to general celebrations and holidays, and from the age of 7, boys were taught to read and write, recite poetry, sing, play the lyre, flute, and cithara. For counting, they had pebbles and abacuses; they wrote on waxed tablets with sticks. At the age of 13-14, children from poor families were sent to the papestrum, where they mastered five sports: running, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing, and swimming. Children from wealthy families were sent to a gymnasium, where they continued to study the exact sciences and humanities and prepared to govern the state. From the age of 18, for two years, all young men studied the art of war in ephebia.
In Sparta, same-sex love was welcomed, and between men and women, there was also polyandry, when one woman had two brothers as husbands or an old husband invited a young, in his opinion, a worthy warrior, then the children were considered the children of the first husband.
Spartans could get married at the age of 20, but until the age of 30, a Spartan lived with peers and came to his wife only at night. In Sparta it was very important that a man be married. An unmarried person was humiliated in every possible way and was considered not a full-fledged citizen.
The legend that in Sparta disabled boys were thrown off a cliff is doubtful; in Sparta there was a certain layer of hypomeion citizens - mentally and physically disabled people.
The Spartan army was the strongest and they had the most lands of all the Greek tribes. And it was the Spartan army that provided Greece with protection from the warlike attacks of other tribes.
In Sparta, only slaves worked, the indigenous inhabitants of the occupied territories, which the Spartans divided by lot into equal plots.
Women in Sparta did not fight, therefore they did not have political rights, but they enjoyed more freedom than the Athenian women who were a thing to look after the household and they could not go out into the street or into a public place without being accompanied by a slave. The life of Spartan women was not as regulated as that of the Athenians. And although the main goal of raising a Spartan girl was to become a good mother, they were taught military skills: wrestling, discus throwing, darts, running; so that in the absence of her husband, when he is at war, the Spartan woman could pacify the slaves. In the family, Spartan women had great rights and Athenian women considered the Spartan husbands henpecked.
Spartan girls were required to participate in festivals, sing and dance in short tunics or even naked, which horrified other Greek women. Spartan women could get married only at 18 years old, to preserve the woman’s health, and in Athens girls got married at 14, 15 years old.
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In the 2nd millennium BC. e. Greek tribes settled the south Balkan Peninsula. Each tribe had its own national assembly, council of elders and elected leader - basileus. By the beginning of the 1st millennium, the Greeks had developed slavery. Primitive society turns into political society, which is commonly called military democracy, the transition to a producing economy is intensifying, exchange is developing, the population is mixing and the old forms of governance are becoming impossible. All this was the basis for the emergence of the state as a new, highest stage of development of society.
Of particular interest for study is the process of the emergence and development of two Greek city-states - Ancient Athens (an example of slave-owning democracy) and Sparta (an aristocracy).
In the VlJI century BC. e. in Attica (a region of Greece) a city arose, which was named in honor of the patron goddess Athens. In the city there was a mixture of various tribes, clans, phratries in united people. Free population The city was divided into: “noble” eupatrids, geomors - landowners and demiurges - artisans. All senior positions were filled by eupatrids. Therefore, the council of elders turned into an aristocratic assembly, which was called the Areopagus. The Areopagus had legislative functions, controlled the actions of officials, and exercised the highest court. 9 archon elders were elected from among their members for a period of 1 year.
Reforms of Solon and Cleisthenes By the 6th century BC In Athens, further social stratification of the population occurred. The landed aristocracy dominated. The poor were called “six-dollars” because they cultivated the fields of the rich and received a sixth of the harvest for this. There were mortgage stones in the fields, on which it was written to whom and for how long the plot was mortgaged. There was also such a form of collateral as a mortgage, in which the land was given for the use of the debtor, but if payment was late, it passed to the creditor.
In 594 BC. e. the poet and politician Solon, elected archon, made important reforms: he abolished debt bondage, canceled all land debts, and removed mortgage stones from the fields. Citizens who became slaves for debt were given freedom, and those sold abroad were redeemed at the expense of the state. Slaves could now only be prisoners captured in wars or bought at slave markets.
Solon set the maximum size of land ownership. At the same time, wide testamentary freedom was allowed and the land holdings of the nobility were included in the general civil circulation.
The name of Solon is associated with the census reform, according to which the richest belonged to the first category, and the simply rich to the second. The third category is citizens of average income. All the others are fe-you, who were classified in the last - fourth category.
Each rank had certain political rights: only a citizen of the first rank could become an archon, and therefore a member of the Areopagus; only citizens of the first three categories could hold public positions. At the same time, a new judicial body was created - the “heliei”, to which any Athenian citizen could be elected, regardless of his property status. Solon's reforms were of a compromise nature. Athens experienced an acute political crisis, after which tyranny was established.
Only 90 years after Solon, in 509 BC. e. Democrats led by Cleisthenes dealt a decisive blow to the clan system. Instead of a tribal division of citizens, their territorial division was introduced. Attica was divided into 10 territorial “tribes” (“phyla”). Phila consisted of 3 parts - trittium. The country was also divided into smaller units - demes, of which there were about 100. The territorial division crushed the dominance of the tribal aristocracy.
Expulsion from the country, usually for a period of 10 years, - "ostracism", was
also introduced by Cleisthenes' reform.
In 462 BC. e. A law was passed depriving the Areopagus of all political functions.
According to the law of Pericles, only men whose parents were natural and full citizens of Athens enjoyed the full range of rights and privileges. Citizenship was acquired at the age of 18. For 2 years the young man passed military service, but remained liable for military service until the age of 60.
In Athenian society there was formal equality, which was combined with property inequality. Physical work for a free citizen, except for agriculture, was considered unworthy. Mete-ki - - foreigners were engaged in trade. They were prohibited from holding positions and participating in the national assembly, but they served in the army and paid taxes, Legal status freedmen were close to the situation of foreigners.
A slave was a living thing that could be bought, sold, or hired out, but the law prohibited killing him. But if a slave was killed, the owner was not punished. A slave could not have any property. Women in Athens had no political or civil rights.
The form of government of the Athenian state was a democratic republic. The main bodies in the state were: the Council of Five Hundred, Helium.
The supreme authority of Athens is the people's assembly, which had broad competence: adopted laws, regulations, decided issues of war and peace, elected officials, had control functions, etc. The Council of Five Hundred (bule) included 50 people from each of the 10 th phil. The council decided on management issues.
The highest judicial body of the state was the Heliia, which consisted of 5,000 judges and 1,000 reserve judges. Members of the court were elected by lot for one year from citizens who had reached 30 years of age. Gelieia was divided into 10 panels of 500 judges, who were called to duty by lot on the day of the trial to avoid possible abuses.
The strategoi and archons were the main officials of the state. The College of Strategists consisted of 10 members elected by the people's assembly. The strategists managed the funds allocated for the maintenance of the army and navy, organized the collection of emergency taxes, accepted the surrender of the enemy, concluded a truce, etc. With the growth of the powers of the strategists, the political importance of the archons fell.
In 336 BC. e. The Athenian state was conquered by the troops of Philip of Macedon and included in the Macedonian monarchy. From the 2nd century BC. e. Athens became one of the provinces of the Roman Empire.
Ancient Sparta, XII century BC. e. Migration of tribes began in the territory of Lakonica, which was accompanied by military clashes. As a result of the unification of the Dorian and Achaean tribes, a Spartan community arose in the Lakeonia valley, which in the 8th - 7th centuries. BC e. expanded its holdings.
The social system of Sparta is characterized by the preservation of remnants of the primitive communal system and military organization society.
The dominant group of the population were the Spartiads, who owned land plots. The land was divided into 10 thousand equal plots - according to the number of full citizens. This land was cultivated by helots - representatives of defeated tribes, essentially turned into slaves. But the helots had their own farm and tools. At the same time, they paid their owner approximately 50% of the harvest. The domination of the Spartiade over the helots was carried out using methods of harsh terror.
Residents of the peripheral mountainous regions of Sparta - the Perieki, legally occupied an intermediate position between the Spartiades and the helots. The Perieks were personally free, engaged in trade, crafts and, in case of war, carried out military service.
In my own way state system Sparta was an aristocratic republic. The People's Assembly retained the democratic structure, but lost its real power. All decisions of the meeting were under the control of the council of elders (gerussia), which consisted of 28 members - geronts, elected for life. Gerussia included 2 kings, who served as military leaders, high priests and exercised judicial power. But the actual leadership of the state belonged to five ephors, who occupied an exceptional position in the state. They led the activities of the council of elders and the people's assembly. They were in charge of: foreign policy, internal management country, control over the activities of all officials, and administered justice in civil cases. The ephors reported in their activities only to their successors.
The family in Sparta resembled a group marriage in some respects.
By the 4th century BC. e. the Spartan community is destroyed, its military power falls. In the middle of the 2nd century BC. e. Sparta was conquered by Rome.
Main features of the law of Ancient Greece. Athens had the most developed legal system in Ancient Greece, the sources of law in Athens were: common law, written law in the form of the Laws of Draco (621 BC). According to the Laws of Draco, blood feuds were abolished, property rights were secured, and new rules of legal proceedings were introduced.
Regulation of property relations. Athenian law knew the division of property into movable (land, slaves, livestock) and immovable (money, jewelry). Private property was considered a derivative of the state. In Athenian law, the following transactions were distinguished: purchase and sale, hiring, loan, contract, loan, partnership, commission agreement, storage of things. There was no mandatory form for concluding a transaction, but most often it was in writing. Obligatory relations arose not only from a contract, but from a tort,
Family and inheritance law. In Athens, marriage was considered compulsory, but celibacy did not entail punishment. The marriage was formalized by an agreement concluded by the head of the family. Inheritance took place by law and by will. First of all, the first-line heirs were sons born in a legal marriage. Daughters could receive an inheritance in the absence of sons of the deceased. Inheritance by will was introduced by Solon's reform. Women had no right to a will.
Crime and Punishment. In Athenian law, the following crimes can be distinguished: state crimes, against the family, against the person, against property. At the same time, intentional and careless crimes were distinguished and the concept of self-defense was formulated.
Among the punishments it is necessary to note: death penalty, sale into slavery, confiscation, fine, dishonor. According to the Laws of Draco, punishments were particularly cruel. The purpose of punishment is to cause suffering to the offender.
Court and process. Only full-fledged Athenian citizens could begin legal proceedings. The master acted for the slave, and the head of the family for the woman and children. A preliminary investigation was carried out before the trial. The parties had the right to submit written objections to the hearing on the merits. They presented all the necessary evidence in the case. The decision was made in secret. It could be appealed to the Heliei, whose decision was final.
Sparta and Athens are two city-states that became the cradle of Western civilization. They had several common features, and throughout history they have fought each other for dominance and power.
Ancient Greece was not a single country; instead, there were independent city-states - “polises”. These states had their own government and army. Sparta and Athens were among the most powerful poleis of ancient Greece. They were also each other's biggest rivals. Both had problems feeding the population because their land was barren. Thus, they conquered neighboring states that had enough food, and in return the conquered land received protection from later invading enemy armies.
Even though Sparta and Athens were geographically close to each other, their ideologies, societies, forms of government, and basic lifestyles were very different. Athens was one of the leading cities of ancient Greece in the first millennium, bringing cultural and philosophical achievements that laid the foundations of the new Western civilization. On the other hand, militaristic Sparta, formed after Dorian's migration from the north, and known for its military strength, became the main enemy of the Persian Empire and the eventual conqueror of Athens. While the militaristic and machismo culture of Sparta was entirely dependent on war, Athens was the source of some of the most remarkable achievements of philosophy, art and science in human history.
Brief comparisons between Sparta and Athens
Origin
The main reason for the difference between the two cultures was origin, as the Spartans were descendants of the Dorian invaders and the Athenians were of Ionian origin.
Form of government
There were two forms of government in Ancient Greece: democracy and oligarchy. Sparta was ruled by two kings and a council of 28 elders. Additionally, a group of 5 members known as Ephri were responsible for raising children and daily life citizens. This form of oligarchic government was elected by Spartan citizens who were over thirty years old. Athens shaped democracy in Ancient Greece. It was a council of 500 members who were elected by the citizens. The council met, voted and passed laws. The Athenian democratic government was elected and governed by the upper class male population. 
Culture and faith
The culture of the two policies was very different. Sparta became a military stronghold, emphasizing only the expansion of its power, while the Athenians grew in infrastructure and culture. The Spartan faith was full of loyalty to the state the only reason their existence. The Athenians and Spartans had different ideologies and goals. Athens always sought to conquer as much land as possible, while the Spartans always held their lands unless they were attacked. However, in Athens and Sparta there were some things that had striking similarities, such as the worship Greek gods and goddesses, as well as courage and bravery on the battlefield.
Lifestyle
The way of life of Sparta was the opposite of the way of life of Athens. While the Athenians spent considerable time studying literature, art, and music, the Spartans trained to become excellent soldiers. The Spartans were brilliant at war and their warriors were considered among the best in the world. Strict training starting with early childhood, tempered the Spartan soldiers so that they never left the battle in the bloody conflicts that constantly arose between the small poleis of ancient Greece. The citizens of Athens and Sparta had different moral values and were unique in their own ways. Both men and women enjoyed various privileges, both in Sparta and Athens. 
Sparta: In Sparta, it is believed that elders would check a newborn child for deformities, and if the child was considered too weak to become a strong soldier, he would be thrown into a ravine. Otherwise the training was rigorous. At the age of 7, the child was taken from the mother and placed under the control of the army. There they were educated and trained, and then enrolled in regular army at the age of 20. Even after marriage, the Spartan soldier remained in the army barracks.
At the age of 30, a Spartan received the right to vote and permission to stay at home. Spartan women were independent and enjoyed freedom to the fullest, which was not the case in other policies of Greece. They were also allowed to train and study military science.
Athens: Unlike Sparta, the Athenian way of life was freer, in which men had access to good education and could practice any kind of arts or sciences. However, women had limited rights and were not considered full members of society. Only men were given the title "citizen". Unlike Sparta, men were not forced to join the army, they could do whatever they wanted.
Economy
While the Spartans relied on Agriculture to maintain its economy, Athens became a major trading power in the Mediterranean by the 5th century BC. and, therefore, were significantly richer. The Spartans were simple warriors, and they trained all the time. They relied solely on helots (slaves) to manage their farm and supply them with food supplies.
Military strength
At the front, the famous Spartans had a great advantage on land, while Athens was distinguished by its power at sea. Sparta was surrounded by mountains. If attacked, they used these mountains for their defense and relied entirely on their army. Athens did not have a very strong land army; their main power was concentrated in the navy. Athens used walls to defend against other city-states. This type of defense was not observed in Sparta.
While the two great states of ancient Greece had a number of differences, they were also similar in certain ways. Education was compulsory for men. Although in Sparta it was limited to military training, in Athens boys were trained in a range of subjects. The states had strong soldiers and both needed slaves or helots to make their lives easier or work on their farms. Regardless of their differences and similarities, Athens and Sparta were the two strongest superpowers of Ancient Greece.