On the hypsometric map of Russia and on photographs from space, the orographic pattern of the entire territory of our country is clearly visible. It is characterized by a complex combination of low and elevated plains, plateaus, highlands and mountains.
On the vast plains, vast areas are occupied by lowlands with heights of less than 200 m, among which hills and individual island ridges are scattered here and there. Higher up are the plains of the SS; they are more like plateaus strongly indented by valleys, especially at the edges. They form a kind of step in the transition from the lowlands of the west of the country to the highlands of its east. Most plains have a stable foundation and a quiet geological regime for a long time. But in the distant past, the plains either sank or rose, and more than once served as the bottom of the sea, and their very flatness often owes to the strata deposited in ancient seas.
The mountainous regions of the country, in contrast to the plains, are not so calm: the earth’s crust here and now is mobile, subject to compression, distortion, fragmentation, and especially intense uplift and subsidence; it is the scene of ongoing modern mountain building.
The map shows that the mountainous outskirts of our country are divided into three heterogeneous stripes - southern, eastern and diagonal. The southern one is a link in the Alpine-Himalayan belt of geologically young mountain structures (Caucasus). The eastern strip is a link in the even younger East Asian mountain belt, and along with it, part of a grandiose ring of mountain systems that embraces the Pacific Ocean on almost all sides (Sikhote-Alin, Kuril-Kamchatka ridge, Sakhalin). A third band of mountains cuts diagonally across the eastern half of the country from the Chukotka and Kolyma highlands to southern Siberia.
The southern and eastern stripes are zones of not only the newest vertical uplifts, but also the most recent folding. In contrast, the structures of the third stripe are built by folds of various, including ancient ages. However, the latest uplift here also took place a long time ago, as well as in zones of young folding.
But not all links of folded margins on last stage geological history have risen. Some, on the contrary, sank and in some places found themselves flooded by the Pacific, Caspian, and Black seas. Therefore, the stripes of raised folds do not form continuous barriers, but alternate with depressions, depressions, and here and there, in coastal areas, form islands.
A mountain fringe could have existed in the north of the country, but the land here over a large area sank under the waters of the Arctic seas, and the mountain systems turned into isolated archipelagos. This is how Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya arose. It emerged in the form of two islands of Novaya Zemlya and the northern continuation of the Ural mountain rampart.
This is, in the most general terms, the picture of the horizontal division of the land surface of our country. But dismemberment in plan is also characteristic of coasts, where there are peninsulas and islands, bays and straits.
The largest bays represent entire seas: the Baltic, the White, the Black and Azov, the Okhotsk, each of them has its own dead-end arches.
The Far Eastern seas - the Bering Sea and the Sea of Japan - in contrast to the “sea-bays” are “sea-straits”. Each of the marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean is also a kind of bay-strait: they are delimited by archipelagos of islands, interrupted by straits.
The bottom of the seas has its own relief, in which one can distinguish plains and mountain systems (for example, a strip of mountains with the mountain ranges of Mendeleev, Lomonosov and Otto Schmidt in the Central Arctic), and the deepest depressions, including the Kuril-Kamchatka, the third deepest in the world , reaches 10540 m below sea level. The relatively shallow bottom of the Arctic seas rises above the depths of the central parts of the Arctic Ocean like a balcony, forming a continental shoal or shelf.
Plains are concentrated mainly in the western half of Russia, and plateaus, highlands and mountains predominate in the east - from the Yenisei valley to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Plains make up about 60% of the territory. The two largest of them - BE and ZS - are among the greatest plains in the world. Medium-altitude mountain systems stretch as a continuous barrier parallel to the coasts of the Pacific Ocean. In the south, along the border, there is a belt of high mountains, from which the entire territory descends towards the Arctic Ocean. The largest rivers of Siberia - the Ob, Yenisei, and Lena - flow north along this slope. And powerful currents of cold air pass south from the Arctic across the plains.
The southern belt of mountains is included in the belt of high elevations of Eurasia and consists of separate mountain systems of different ages: the Caucasus, Altai, Sayan, Baikal region and Transbaikalia. The Caucasus and Altai are considered among the highest mountains of Eurasia.
Climate is a long-term weather regime that has developed as a result of the interaction of the atmosphere with all natural geographic factors and is subject to the influence of space and human economic activity.
The climate of Russia is formed under the influence of a number of climate-forming factors and processes. The main climate-forming processes are radiation and circulation, which are determined by the conditions of the territory.
Radiation– incoming solar radiation is the energy base; it determines the main heat flow to the surface. The further you are from the equator, the lower the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the smaller the amount received. The expenditure part consists of reflected radiation (from albedo) and effective radiation (increases with decreasing cloudiness, the total - from north to south).
In general, the radiation balance in the country is positive. The only exceptions are some Arctic islands. In winter it is negative everywhere, in summer it is positive.
Circulating. Due to various physical properties land and ocean there is unequal heating and cooling of the air in contact with them. As a result, movements of air masses of various origins occur - atmospheric circulation. It occurs under the influence of centers of low and high pressure, their position and severity changes seasonally. However, in most of our country, westerly winds prevail, bringing Atlantic air masses, which are associated with the main precipitation.
The influence is especially great in winter, due to the westerly transfer of warm and humid air masses from the Atlantic.
Big sizes territory of our country, the presence of vast valleys and large mountain systems determined a clear zonal provincial distribution of soils, vegetation and animals. The main conditions for the formation of biocomponents are the ratio of temperature and moisture. Their distribution is significantly influenced by the topography of the territory and the degree of continental climate.
The unity of the biocomplex is determined by the zonal structure of atmospheric processes, the interaction of all components of nature and the long history of the development of the territory in the Phanerozoic.
The distribution of soils, vegetation and animals on the territory of Russia is determined by the law of zonation on the plains and altitudinal zonation in the mountains. Therefore, when moving along meridians or along mountain slopes due to changes in hydro-climatic conditions, there is a gradual replacement of some types of soil and vegetation, as well as animal complexes, by others.
But at the same time, the increasing continentality of the climate to the east (up to certain limits) and the different geological history of large geostructures (platforms and folded belts) led to the differentiation of soils, vegetation and fauna, i.e. to the manifestation of provincialism (sectoralism).
The orographic features of the territory are predetermined by the complex geological history and varied geological structure. Large lowlands, plains and plateaus correspond to platforms, and mountain structures correspond to folded belts.
The territory of Russia is located on several lithospheric plates: the northern part of the Eurasian, the western part of the North American, the northern part of the Amur. And only the Sea of Okhotsk plate is almost entirely located on the territory of the country.
The earth's crust within Russia, as elsewhere on Earth, is heterogeneous and of different ages. It is heterogeneous both horizontally and vertically.
Rigid, stable sections of the earth's crust - platforms - differ from more mobile ones - folded belts, which are more susceptible to both compression and vertical swings. Platforms are typically characterized by a two-tier structure, where a crushed crushed base and a cover of horizontal layers covering it are distinguished.
The oldest platforms are considered to be Precambrian. Their foundation is composed not only of the oldest rocks, which are more than 570-600 million years old, but was also folded into folds before the strata of subsequent eras appeared. This is the structure of our two extensive platforms, which are among the largest in the world.
In those parts where the oldest structures of the Earth were not flooded by the seas, or where marine sediments were washed away in subsequent eras, ancient foundations come to the surface - the so-called shields. There are also underground foundation outlets that approach the surface closely (Voronezh crystalline massif). Don reached its arch only in one place.
Stable platforms increased in size over time - sections of neighboring folded zones were soldered to them, acquiring rigidity during the process of crushing. At the end of the Precambrian era, i.e. 500-600 million years ago, the Baikal folding sharply increased the Precambrian core of the future Siberian platform: huge folded massifs of the Baikal region and parts of Transbaikalia were attached to the Aldan shield.
During the Paleozoic era, powerful folding shook the earth's crust twice. The first, called the Caledonian folding, occurred in several stages in the early Paleozoic 300-400 million years before the present day. His monuments remain in the folds in the center of the Sayan Mountains. The second, called the Hercynian folding, occurred in the late Paleozoic (200-250 million years ago) and turned a huge trough of the earth’s crust between the Russian and Siberian platforms into the Ural-Tien Shan folded zone. As a result of this folding, the Russian and Siberian platforms united into an integral continent - the basis of the future Eurasia.
In the wide belt adjacent to the Pacific Ocean, the main stage of crushing of the earth's crust was the Mesozoic era - 60-190. its structures, called Pacific, built up the Siberian platform from the east, forming powerful folded areas in Primorye, Amur region, Transbaikalia and in the northeast of Siberia.
Only two vast strips, where the restless regime was preserved, did not lose their pliability to the dislocations after the Mesozoic movements. One stretched through the Alps and the Caucasus to the Himalayas. The second strip, bordering the east of Asia and including the western margins of the Pacific Ocean, is the East Asian folded region. Both areas continued to exist not only in the Mesozoic, but also later. It was in the Cenozoic, i.e. in the last 60 million years, they turned out to be the scene of powerful crumples. Here the last of the foldings unfolded - the Alpine folding, during which the subsoil of the Caucasus, Sakhalin, Kamchatka and the Koryat Highlands were crushed. These active areas continue to exist today, manifesting their activity through numerous earthquakes and, in East Asian mountain-island arcs, volcanism.
In the second half of the Alpine era of folding - in the Neogene, 10-20 ml. years ago, started completely new stage history of the earth's crust, which was of particular importance for modern relief. It is associated with recent, or neotectonic movements, mainly vertical uplifts and subsidences, which covered not only the Alpine mobile zones, but also structures significantly removed from them of very different ages.
The youngest folded zones were very intensely affected: the Caucasus, Sakhalin and the Kuril-Kamchatka arc. All these mountainous countries now exist not so much as a result of recent folding, but as a result of the recency and intensity of these new vertical uplifts. In the general diagonal belt of mountains, the uplift involved structures of different ages, such as Precambrian (southern Aldan Shield, Baikalids of the Stanovoy Range and Highlands), Paleozoic (Hercynides of Altai, Urals), Mesozoic (northeast Asia). The latest movements were expressed not only in uplifts, but also in descents. Depressions in the earth's crust created the modern appearance of sea depressions and large lakes, many lowlands and basins (Baikal). The foothill depressions adjacent to the young mountains were subjected to especially strong subsidence.
The stability of platforms in relation to crushing does not mean immobility in general. Both platforms and folded areas are subject to another type of movement - alternating vertical oscillations (swelling and subsidence).
The relationship between relief and the structure of the earth's crust is approximately as follows: the higher the surface area, the greater the thickness of the crust. The largest is where the mountain formations are (40-45 km), the smallest is the basin of the Sea of Okhotsk. Isostatic equilibrium. At the contact of the Eurasian and North American plates, plates move apart (Moma Rift) and a zone of diffuse seismicity forms. The latter is also typical for the margin of the Sea of Okhotsk plate. At the contact of the Eurasian and Amur there is also a movement - the Baikal Rift. The Okhotsk Sea at the contact with the Amur Sea (Sakhalin and the Sea of Japan) plate convergence is 0.3-0.8 cm per year. The Eurasian Sea borders on the Pacific, North American, African (Arabian) and Indian (Indostano-Pamir). The lithospheric compression belts between them are the Alpine-Asian in the south and the Circum-Pacific in the east. The margins of the Eurasian plate are active in the east and south and passive in the north. In the east, the oceanic is immersed under the continental: the junction zone consists of marginal seas, island arcs and a deep-sea trench. In the south there are mountain ranges. The passive margins in the north are a huge shelf and a clearly defined continental slope.
Eurasia is characterized by linear and ring structures, established from satellite images, geological, geophysical and geological studies. seismic cores of the continental crust. Nuclears, 14.
The heat flow of the Earth on the territory of Russia has different values: the lowest values are on ancient platforms and the Urals. Increased - on all young platforms (slabs). Maximum values – fold belts, Baikal rift, marginal seas of the TO.
With depth, the temperature in the Earth gradually increases. Under the oceanic plates, the temperature of the mantle reaches the melting temperature of mantle rocks. Therefore, the surface of the beginning of melting of mantle material is taken as the base of the lithosphere under the oceans. Below the oceanic lithosphere, the mantle material appears to be partially molten and plastic with reduced viscosity. The plastic layer of the mantle stands out as an independent shell - the asthenosphere. The latter is clearly expressed only under oceanic plates; under thick continental plates it is practically absent (basaltic magmatism). In the context of continental plates, it can only appear in the case when hot mantle material, due to the splitting of the plate, can rise to the level at which this substance begins to melt (80-100 km).
The asthenosphere does not have a tensile strength and its substance can deform (flow) under the influence of even very small excess pressures, although very slowly due to the high viscosity of the asthenospheric substance (about 10 18 - 10 20). For comparison, the viscosity of water is 10 -2, liquid basaltic lava is 10 4 - 10 6, ice is about 10 13 and rock salt- about 10 18 .
Movements of lithospheric plates along the surface of the asthenosphere occur under the influence of convective currents in the mantle. Individual lithospheric plates can move apart, move closer together, or slide relative to each other. In the first case, tension zones with rift cracks along the plate boundaries appear between the plates, in the second - compression zones, accompanied by the thrust of one of the plates onto the other, in the third - shear zones, transform faults, along which the neighboring plates are displaced.
As the main categories of tectonic areas, we will distinguish: 1. relatively stable areas - ancient platforms, mainly possessing a pre-Proterozoic metamorphic basement, 2. mobile mobile Neogean belts, consisting of folded areas of different ages (in place of dead geosynclinal areas) and modern geosynclinal areas, 3. areas, transitional - metaplatforms.
Ancient platforms, or cratons, represent vast areas of ancient continental crust, measuring millions of square kilometers, largely formed in the Archean and almost entirely by the end of the Early Proterozoic. Neogean is a relatively calm tectonic regime: “sluggishness” of vertical movements, their weak differentiation in area, relatively low speeds uplifts and subsidences (less than 1 cm/thousand years). At the early megastage of development, most of their area experienced uplift, and subsidence mainly involved narrow linearly elongated graben-like depressions - aulacogens. At the later, slab megastage (Phanerozoic), a significant area of platforms was drawn into the subsidence, on which a cover of almost undisplaced sediments was formed - a slab. Simultaneously with the subsidence of the foundation, areas of platforms became isolated within the plates, which throughout most of their history had a tendency to rise and represented extensive protrusions of the ancient foundation - shields.
The cover of ancient platforms usually does not bear traces of metamorphic changes, which, like the absence or limited development of manifestations of magmatism, is explained by a significant decrease in the thermal regime during the formation of ancient platforms and, as a rule, low heat flow over most of their territory (except for aulacogens). However, in some zones of the ancient platforms, manifestations of magmatism took place, and in certain rare phases, due to the anomalous heating of the upper mantle beneath them, the ancient platforms could become the scene of powerful trap magmatism in effusive and intrusive forms.
Movable belts. They were founded mainly in the ancient Proterozoic. Their development goes through 2 megastages: geosynclinal (the greatest tectonic mobility, expressed in differentiated horizontal and vertical movements and a high, albeit unstable thermal regime in the crust and upper mantle) and postgeosynclinal (in place of dead geosynclinal belts, activity is reduced, but much more, than on ancient platforms).
The total duration of the goesynclinal process is 1-1.5 billion years, but in some areas it ends earlier. “Cycles”, the geosynclinal stage itself and the shorter orogenic stage (orogenesis) are distinguished.
Actually geosynclinal: stretching of the crust, the appearance of elongated graben-like depressions. Wide deflections break up into narrow ones. At the end there is the gesyncle itself. stages stop descending. At the beginning of the orogenic stage, they undergo strong compressive deformations (from the internal zones to the periphery). They turn into folded structures. During the orogenic stage, they experience gradually increasing uplift, not fully compensated by denudation, and at the late orogenic stage they turn into mountain structures. Thus, a complete reversal of the tectonic plan occurs (geosynclinal troughs into mountain uplifts). At the same time, in the zones of growing folded structures, marginal troughs appear, as if compensating for their uplift, and in the rear - internal troughs or depressions filled with fragmentary material.
The “cycles” into which the process of development of geosynclinal belts breaks down are completed by the relative strengthening of the crust, which acquires over a significant (or entire) area the features of a typical (mature) continental-type crust. At the beginning of the next “cycle”, partial destruction of this crust and regeneration of the geosynclinal regime occurs, while other areas are excluded from the further geosynclinal process.
In most of the North Atlantic mobile belt, the geosynclinal process ended in the middle of the Paleozoic, in the Ural-Mongolian belt - in the late Paleozoic - early Mesozoic, in most of the Mediterranean belt it is close to completion, and significant parts of the Pacific belt are still at different stages of the geosynclinal process.
Metaplatform areas. Something average in the nature of tectonic structures, the degree of crustal mobility and the characteristics of tectonic movements. On the borders. Structurally, it is a combination of two main types of tectonic elements - mobile aulakogeosynclinal zones and relatively “hard” metaplatform massifs, separated by these zones from ancient platforms. Avlacogeosynclinal zones represent linearly elongated zones of an intermediate nature between the aulacogens of ancient platforms and geosynclinal troughs of mobile belts. In the Late Proterozoic, simultaneously with the mobile belts framing the platforms, usually branching off from the latter. Graben-like troughs – compression – metamorphism, intrusion of intrusive bodies – folded zones (Donetsk, Timan).
The role of climate in human life is difficult to overestimate. It determines the ratio of heat and moisture, and, consequently, the conditions for the occurrence of modern relief-forming processes, the formation of internal waters, the development of vegetation, and the placement of plants. Climate features have to be taken into account in human economic life.
Influence of geographical location.
| Latitudinal position | Determines the amount of solar radiation arriving at the surface, as well as its intra-annual distribution. Russia is located between 77 and 41°, but its main area is between 50 and 70°. This determines Russia’s position in high latitudes, in the temperate and subarctic zones, which predetermines sharp changes in the amount of incoming solar radiation according to the seasons of the year. The large extent from north to south determines significant differences between the north and south of the territory. The annual total solar radiation is 60 kcal/cm2, in the extreme south – 120 kcal/cm2. |
| The country's position in relation to the oceans | Directly affects the distribution of cloudiness, and therefore the ratio of diffuse and direct radiation, and the supply of moist air. Russia is washed by seas from the north and east, which is not significant given the prevailing western transport and only affects the coastal strip. In the Far East sharp increase cloudiness reduces the influx of direct solar radiation, amounting to the same value as in the north of the Kola Peninsula, Yamal, Taimyr. |
| Position of the country in relation to pressure centers (CPC) | Azores and Arctic highs, Aleutian and Icelandic lows. Determine the prevailing wind direction, weather type, and prevailing air masses. |
| Relief | The location of mountains in the south and east and openness to the Arctic Ocean ensure the influence of the North Atlantic and Arctic Ocean on most of the territory of Russia, limiting the influence of Ton and Central Asia. - The height of the mountains and their location in relation to the dominant ones air flows determine different degrees of influence - Aggravation of cyclones - Mountain climate, changing with altitude - Differences in the climate of windward and leeward slopes, mountain ranges and intermountain basins - On the plains the differences are much weaker |
| Features of the underlying surface | Snow increases the reflectivity of the surface, black soils and forests decrease it. Differences in albedo are one of the reasons for differences in the radiation balance of territories receiving the same total radiation. Moisture evaporation and plant transpiration also vary from place to place. |
Air masses and their frequency. Russia is characterized by three types of air masses: arctic air, temperate air and tropical air.
In most parts of the country, air masses predominate throughout the year moderate latitudes, represented by two sharply different subtypes: continental and maritime. Continental The air is formed directly over the mainland and is dry throughout the year, with low temperatures in winter and fairly high temperatures in summer. Nautical air comes from the North Atlantic, and to the eastern regions - from the northern part of To. Compared to continental air, it is more humid, cooler in summer and warmer in winter. Moving across the territory of Russia, the sea air quickly transforms, acquiring continental features.
Arctic the air is formed above the ice of the Arctic, so it is cold, has low absolute humidity and high transparency. Impact on the northern part of the country, especially SS and NE. During transition seasons it causes frosts. In summer, moving forward and becoming increasingly dry, it brings droughts and hot winds (south of EE and WS). The air formed over the Arctic can be designated continental. Only over the Barents Sea does the Arctic sea form.
Tropical air over the southern territories is formed over Central Asia, Kazakhstan, the Caspian lowland, and the eastern regions of the Ciscaucasia and Transcaucasia as a result of the transformation of air in temperate latitudes. Characterized by high temperatures, low humidity and low transparency. Tropical sea air from the central regions sometimes penetrates to the south of the Far East, and to the Caucasus from the Mediterranean. Characterized by high humidity and high temperatures.
Atmospheric fronts.
Physico-geographical conditions of the territory. The underlying surface over which they form and acquire new properties has a great influence. Thus, in winter, moist air masses bring latent heat of vaporization to a cold surface and warming occurs. In summer, moist air masses also bring precipitation, but on the warm underlying surface, evaporation and slight cooling begin.
The influence of relief on climate is great: with altitude, the temperature drops by 0.6°C for every 100 meters (due to a decrease in the radiation balance), and atmospheric pressure decreases. The influence of exposure is felt. Mountains play an important barrier role.
Special role – sea currents. Warm North Atlantic, cold around the Kuril Islands, Kamchatka, Sea of Okhotsk.
Climatic features of the winter period. During the cold season in Russia, from October to April, an area of high pressure (Asian maximum) is established, an area of low pressure develops off the eastern coast (Aleutian minimum) and the Icelandic minimum intensifies, reaching the Kara Sea. Between these main pressure centers of the winter period, the differences in pressure reach the greatest values and this contributes to the aggravation of circulation processes.
In connection with the western transport, the development of cyclones and anticyclones, circulation processes are very pronounced and they largely determine the distribution of heat and moisture. The influence of the Atlantic, Asian High, Aleutian Low and solar radiation is clearly visible.
In winter, air masses from the Atlantic Ocean bring a large amount of heat to the mainland. Therefore, in the EE and northern half of the WS, the temperature decreases not so much from south to north, but from west to east and northeast, which is confirmed by the course of January isotherms.
The impact of the Asian High is reflected in the extremely low temperatures of Central Siberia, the Northeast and the position of the isotherms. In the basins the temperature reaches -70 (the cold pole of the northern hemisphere - Oymyakon and Verkhoyansk).
In the Far East, the Aleutian minimum and the Okhotsk branch of the Arctic front predetermine cyclonic activity, which is reflected in warmer and snowy winters than on the continent, so January isotherms run parallel to the coast.
The greatest amount of winter precipitation falls in the west, where air flows from the Atlantic in cyclones. From west to east and northeast, the amount of precipitation gradually decreases.
Climatic features of the summer period. The ratio of radiation and circulation conditions changes dramatically. The temperature regime is determined by radiation conditions - all land heats up significantly more than the surrounding water areas. Therefore, already from April to October the isotherms extend almost sublatitudinally. In July, throughout Russia, average monthly temperatures are positive.
In summer, the Azores maximum moves north and its eastern branch penetrates the EE plain. From there, the pressure decreases to the north, south and east. The Arctic maximum remains above the Arctic Ocean. Therefore, cold air moves into the interior, warmer territories of Russia, where it heats up and moves away from its saturation point. This dry air contributes to the occurrence of droughts, sometimes with hot winds in the southeast of the EE plain, in the south of the WS plain and in the north of Kazakhstan. The development of dry, clear and warm weather is also associated with the spur of the Azores High. Over TO, the North Pacific High moves north (the Aleutian Low disappears), and sea air rushes toward land. The Far Eastern summer monsoon begins.
In summer, there is also a western transfer - from the Atlantic - of the greatest amount of precipitation.
All air masses entering the country in summer are transformed into continental air of temperate latitudes. On atmospheric fronts (Arctic and polar), cyclonic activity develops. It is most pronounced on the polar front over the EE plain (continental and maritime temperate).
The Arctic front is expressed within the Barents and Kara seas and on the coast of the eastern seas of the Arctic Ocean. Along the Arctic front, cyclonic activity intensifies and causes prolonged drizzle in the subarctic and arctic zones. In summer, maximum precipitation occurs, which is associated with increased cyclonic activity, moisture content of air masses and convection.
Changes in radiation and circulation conditions occur in spring and autumn. In the spring, the negative radiation balance turns into a positive one, and in the fall, vice versa. In addition, the position of areas of high and low pressure, the type of air masses, and, consequently, the position of atmospheric fronts change.
The southern continents conventionally refer to not only Australia and Antarctica, which are entirely located in the Southern Hemisphere, but also Africa and South America, which are partially located in the Northern Hemisphere. All four continents have a common history of the development of natural conditions - they were all part of the single continent of Gondwana.
Geographical position. Consideration of the geographical location of the continent always precedes its study. What is geographical location? This is essentially a mainland address. And its nature depends on what part of the earth’s surface the continent is located in. If it is located near the pole, naturally, there will be harsh natural conditions, and if it is located near the equator, then it will have a hot climate. The amount of solar heat and precipitation received and their distribution over the seasons depends on the geographical location.
From a previous geography course, you know: in order to determine the position of any geographic object on the surface of the Earth, you need to know its geographic coordinates. First of all, they determine the extreme northern and southern points of the continent, that is, they find out in what latitudes it is located. The position of the continent in relation to the prime meridian, its extreme western and eastern points, is also important. The extent of the continent from west to east determines the degree of influence of the ocean, the continentality of its climate, and the diversity of natural conditions. The proximity of other continents and surrounding oceans also matters. (For a plan to characterize the geographical location of the continent, see the appendix.)
The peculiarities of the geographical location of the southern continents are that three continents: South America, Africa and Australia are located near the equator, so high temperatures prevail there throughout most of the territory all year round. Only the narrow southern part of South America extends into temperate latitudes. Most of the continents are located in the subequatorial and tropical zones. Antarctica is the only continent on Earth that is located around the South Pole, which makes its nature exceptionally harsh.
Thus, the geographical location was the cause of great contrasts in the nature of the southern continents: from eternal summer to eternal winter.
- Using the plan, determine the geographical location of the island of Madagascar.
- The largest desert in the world is located in northern Africa. What influence do you think the geographical location of the mainland has on its formation?
General features of the relief. As you already know (see the topic “Lithosphere and Topography of the Earth”), the northern and southern continents developed differently. Since the southern continents once formed a single continent, they have similar natural features.
A careful examination of the physical map of the world and individual continents allows us to identify several common features of the relief of all four continents:
- The topography of all continents has two main parts: vast plains and mountains.
- Most of the continents are occupied by plains located on platforms.
- Different mountain systems are located on the outskirts of the continents: the Andes in South America - in the west, the Atlas in Africa - in the northwest, the Great Dividing Range in Australia - in the east. These mountains, as if in a ring, surround the plains of Gondwana that were once united in the past. The structure of the plains of modern continents has much in common. Most of them are formed on ancient platforms composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks at their base.
In addition to relatively flat areas on the plains, there are areas where ancient crystalline rocks of the platform base protrude to the surface. Block mountains and highlands in the form of horst uplifts formed on these ledges. The platform depressions, covered with sedimentary rocks, are represented in the relief by extensive depressions, some of which are low-lying plains.
What are the reasons for the breakup of Gondwana into separate continents? Scientists believe that approximately 200 million years ago internal forces Earth (the movement of matter in the mantle) led to the split and separation of a single continent.
There is also a hypothesis about the cosmic reasons for the change in the appearance of our planet. It is believed that the collision of an extraterrestrial body with our planet could have caused the splitting of the giant landmass, the moving apart of sections of the lithosphere, the uplift and subsidence of individual sections, which were accompanied by the outpouring of basaltic lavas. In the spaces between the individual parts of Gondwana, Indian and atlantic oceans, and where lithospheric plates collided with other plates, folded mountain regions were formed.
Mineral deposits are closely related to geological history, the composition of rocks and the topography of continents. All southern continents are rich in them. Deposits of ores of ferrous and non-ferrous metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel, etc.), diamonds, precious and rare metals are associated with the close occurrence of the crystalline foundation of the platforms and its outcrops on the surface. Their deposits are located both on the plains and in the mountains.
Areas of the plains, composed of strata of sedimentary rocks, are rich in deposits of oil, natural gas, phosphorites, hard and brown coal. Geologists conducting exploration of deposits use data on the unity of the continental relief structure. Behind last decades in similar geological conditions, for example, oil deposits were found off the western coast of Africa and at approximately the same latitudes off the eastern coast of South America.
- Using a plan to characterize the geographical location of the continent (ocean), explain the significance of each point of the plan.
- What are the patterns of location of mountains and vast plains on the surface of the Earth and how does this manifest itself on the continents of the Southern Hemisphere?
Geography. 8th grade
General features of the relief
What is relief?
A set of irregularities on the earth's surface that differ in height, age and origin.
Relief is the frame of nature. Agree? Prove it !
lesson topic
Features of the relief of Russia
Lesson objectives:
Find out the features of the relief of our country, its main forms;
Determine their combination and placement on the territory of the country;
Prove the influence of relief on life and economic activity person.
- The relief of our country is varied and contrasting: vast plains are adjacent to high mountain structures.
- The highest point in Russia, Mount Elbrus in the Caucasus, reaches 5642 m (Fig. 34), and the coast of the Caspian Sea lies 27 m below the level of the World Ocean.
- Thus, the elevation difference in Russia is about 6 thousand m.
Landforms:
PLAINS
MOUNTAINS
Plains - large areas of the earth's surface with a flat or slightly undulating surface.
up to 200 m - lowlands
from 200 m to 500 m – hills
above 500 m - plateaus
According to landforms:
flat
hilly
Mountains - vast areas of the earth's surface, elevated above the plains and having large differences in elevation.
Differences in mountain heights
Low - up to 1000 m
Medium - from 1000 m
up to 2000 m
High – more than 2000 m
Exercise:
Features of the relief of Russia
Examples confirming them
Exercise: Using the listed sources of information, collect evidence confirming the correctness of certain statements about the features of the relief.
Features of the relief of Russia
Examples confirming them
1. Variety (uniformity).
2. Lowering of the territory to the north (south).
3. Predominance of plains (mountains).
4. Mountain frame in the south and east (north and west).
Exercise: Using the listed sources of information, collect evidence confirming the correctness of certain statements about the features of the relief.
Features of the relief of Russia
Examples confirming them
1. Variety (uniformity).
The presence of high mountains - the Caucasus, Altai; medium-altitude mountains - the Urals; plains – East European; lowlands - Caspian.
2. Lowering of the territory to the north (south).
It can also be determined by the color on the map (from brown to green).
3. Predominance of plains (mountains).
4. Mountain frame in the south and east (north and west).
Exercise: Using the listed sources of information, collect evidence confirming the correctness of certain statements about the features of the relief.
Features of the relief of Russia
Examples confirming them
1. Variety (uniformity).
The presence of high mountains - the Caucasus, Altai; medium-altitude mountains - the Urals; plains – East European; lowlands - Caspian.
2. Lowering of the territory to the north (south).
The direction of the majority large rivers: Ob, Yenisei, Lena from south to north.
3. Predominance of plains (mountains).
4. Mountain frame in the south and east (north and west).
Exercise: Using the listed sources of information, collect evidence confirming the correctness of certain statements about the features of the relief.
Features of the relief of Russia
Examples confirming them
1. Variety (uniformity).
The presence of high mountains - the Caucasus, Altai; medium-altitude mountains - the Urals; plains – East European; lowlands - Caspian.
The direction of flow of most large rivers: Ob, Yenisei, Lena from south to north.
2. Lowering of the territory to the north (south).
It can also be determined by color (from brown to green).
The largest territory is occupied by the East European and West Siberian Plains and the Central Siberian Plateau. In addition to them, there are many smaller plains.
3. Predominance of plains (mountains).
Main part of the mountains: Caucasus, Altai, Sayan Mountains, mountain ranges Far East– located in the south and east of the country.
4. Mountain frame in the south and east (north and west).
T e s t
1. The prevailing relief in Russia is:
a) mountain
b) flat
2. Mountains in Russia are located mainly:
a) in the north
b) in the southwest, south, east
c) in the central part
3. The most elevated part of Russia is:
a) European
b) Asian
4. The plains are located mainly:
a) in the southwest, south, east
b) in the north and northeast
c) in the central part
Plains
Eastern European,
West Siberian,
North Siberian Lowland,
Kolyma Lowland,
Caspian lowland,
Barabinskaya lowland.
Mountains
– Caucasian
Elbrus (5642m),
– Ural
Narodnaya town (1895m),
– Altai
Belukha (4506m),
– hr. Chersky
Pobeda (3147m),
– Khibiny
Fersman town (1191m).
DEFENDERS OF THE PLAIN
DEFENDERS OF THE MOUNTAINS
1. But in the mountains……………………....
……………………………………… .……
…………………………………………… ..
…………………………………………… ..
2. There are few areas for crops in the mountains, but there are many......
4. But on the plains………………
…………………………………………… ..
…………………………………………… ..
…………………………………………… ..
… .………………………………………… …………………………………………….
3. And in the mountains……………………………
5. But the plains……………………
…………………………………………… .
…………………………………………… .
…………………………………………… .
……………………………………………
DEFENDERS OF THE PLAIN
1. The bulk of the world’s population lives on the plains; there are many cities, villages, plants, factories.
DEFENDERS OF THE MOUNTAINS
2. On the plains there are large areas of fields and gardens.
1. But in the mountains there is clean air, space, and many long-livers.
2. In the mountains there are few areas for crops, but there are many pastures.
3. There are oil and natural gas deposits on the plains.
4. But on the plains there are high-water rivers with a large supply of energy.
3. And in the mountains of iron, copper, polymetallic ores.
4. In the mountains there are fast, stormy rivers with a large supply of energy.
5. But the plains are endless, and there are many picturesque landscapes on them.
5. In the mountains there are snowy peaks, narrow picturesque gorges, a lot of sun.
Exercise:
Draw a conclusion:
Where is it better to live, in the mountains or on the plains?
Conclusion: relief influences human life and economic activity.
Questions:
1. What would the climate be like if the mountain frame was in the north?
2. Let's move the plains to the east of the country - what will happen?
3. Let's remove the Ural Mountains …
Homework:
- Paragraph No. 8;
- working with a map - be able to show plains and mountains;
- creative task - to select in fiction description of mountain and plain landscapes.
Nepeina V.V., Geography teacher of the first category, Municipal Educational Institution "Fominsk Secondary School"
Lesson topic: “General features of the geographical location and general features of the relief of the southern continents.”
Project No. 12 “Relief of the Southern Continents”
Item: Geography
Class: 7
Methodological complex: V.A.Korinskaya, I.V.Dushina, V.A.Schenev
Geography of continents and oceans. 7th grade
M., “Bustard”, 2009
The purpose of the lesson: begin to form in students an idea and knowledge of the general features of the southern continents in geographical location
and relief
Lesson objectives:
Educational:- identify similarities and differences in the geographical location of the southern continents, determine why
Africa, South America and Australia are continents with a hot climate, and Antarctica is the coldest continent;
- find common features in the relief of the southern continents: plains prevailing in the relief - on platforms, mountains - on
continental margins;
Determine the pattern of occurrence of minerals: fuel and salts in the sedimentary cover
platforms, ore deposits – on plateaus and mountains
Educational: develop the ability to work with a map: analyzing, comparing, highlighting general and different; draw conclusions from
the work done; train attentiveness
continue to develop critical thinking
Educational: cultivate hard work, communication skills, responsibility for completing tasks
Lesson type: Combined
Means of education: textbooks, physical maps, maps of the structure of the earth's crust, didactic materials, workbooks,
blackboard
Educational technology: case method, problem-dialogical, collaborative learning
Forms of organization educational activities: group, pair, individual, frontal
Teaching methods: case method, partial search, reproductive
Control system: teacher control and self-control
Predicted result:
personal:
Development of cooperation when working in groups, pairs;
Building confidence in acquired knowledge
Acquiring the ability to learn and purposeful cognitive activity
meta-subject:
Ability to analyze, summarize, find the necessary information
Ability to identify a topic and independently determine tasks
Ability to organize educational cooperation and joint activities
Develop self-control skills
subject:
Students acquire knowledge about the geographical location of the southern continents
They understand why three continents have hot climates, and Antarctica is the coldest continent
It is revealed that the continents are dominated by plains, at the base of which there are ancient platforms, and mountains are located along the outskirts of the continents - at the junction of lithospheric plates
They are convinced that energy minerals such as oil, natural gas, coal and salts lie in the sedimentary cover of platforms, and ore minerals - on plateaus and mountains
Lesson structure:
| Lesson stage | Teacher activities | Student activity |
|
| Organizing time | Hello! Our guests today are geography teachers from schools in the area. Let's greet each other! | They clap in greeting. |
|
| Control of d/z | Test questions on the studied oceans. (see Appendix 1) Post-lesson teacher control | Answer 10 questions about the oceans in 5 minutes. |
|
| Motivational and goal-setting | Arouse interest in the topic of the lesson and define it - preliminary task: Everyone is given a “case” - 2 cards (see Appendix 2 and 3), but it is necessary to discuss in groups: In three minutes, name the topic of the lesson and the tasks. | Discuss in groups and name the topic “GP of the continents and the relief of the southern continents” and write it down in a notebook It is assumed that it is necessary to find the common and different features of these continents in GP and relief and which continents belong to the southern |
|
| Search for new knowledge, stage comprehension: A) southern continents B) GP of the continents B) continental relief | A diagram is prepared on the board in advance (see Appendix 4) Exercise: What does this diagram show? The southern continents are circled together and the question is asked: What continents are these? We are studying these continents in class today Orientation task: During pair work, identify the features of the GP of the southern continents using the questions on card 1 (see Appendix 2) - individual cards, they must be filled out, but you work in pairs. Teacher's word: Highlight the main common feature in the GP of the southern continents Name the main differences During group work with a physical map of the world and a map of the structure of the earth's crust in atlases, fill in the blanks in card 2 (see Appendix 3) - everyone fills in the card. Predictive task after completing the work: Check that the task is completed correctly (see Appendix 5) Summary of the lesson - what were the objectives of the study? Briefly state the results | Answer: the collapse of the ancient continent of Pangea into Laurasia and Gondwana, and then into modern continents: N. America, Eurasia, South America, Africa, Australia The four southern continents are called: South Africa, Africa, Australia, Antarctica During pair work, they find out the similarities and differences in the GPs of the southern continents and fill in the gaps in the cards Answer: South America, Africa and Australia are hot continents, since most of them are located in tropical latitudes South America has a temperate climate zone, and Antarctica is a cold continent, since it is almost entirely located beyond the Arctic Circle Group work on the analysis of two cards with filling in the gaps in the card Carry out self-control, correct mistakes, supplement Recall tasks and draw conclusions based on their completion |
|
| Intermediate control acquired knowledge | Individual written work to monitor acquired knowledge (see Appendix 6) Teacher control enabled: Correct answers are read out | Answer questions in writing individual work After each answer, those who had the correct answer raise their hands |
|
| Reflection | Oral frontal conversation with orienting sentences: Now I know that... I like it… I did not like… It was difficult for me... At home you need to pay attention to... | Express your opinion about the lesson |
|
| House. exercise | Writing on the board: paragraph 21 The task is written in advance on a card for everyone: Practical work on c/c- on physical map world map the mountains and the highest points of the southern continents, excluding Antarctica Label the oceans that wash these continents | Write down homework and receive task cards |
Annex 1.
Ocean test.
The longest ocean
The ocean that F. Magellan named -
The deepest ocean
The ocean where the mid-ocean ridge was first discovered
The ocean where the Mendeleev and Lomonosov ridges stretch along the bottom
The ocean, which includes the saltiest sea -
The oldest ocean
The most developed ocean
Find out the ocean by the description: “Washes the eastern shores of Africa, the Mozambique Channel separates a large island, the Monsoon warm current is the source large quantity moisture." –
The ocean, where the largest shelf with rich reserves of oil, natural gas, coal -
A) Arctic
B) Atlantic
B) Indian
Appendix 2.
Geographical location of the southern continents.
Completing these tasks will help you determine the main common feature of the southern continents (excluding Antarctica)
The equator crosses the southern continents: ______________________ and ______________________.
The equator does not cross the southern continents_____________________ and ______________________.
In the northern and southern hemispheres there are the southern continents ________________ and _______________.
The continents __________________ and __________________ are located entirely in the southern hemisphere.
The northern tropic crosses the southern continent_______________________.
The southern tropic crosses the continents __________________, __________________ and __________________.
Most of South America, Africa and Australia are located at ___________________________________ latitudes.
Almost the entire territory of Antarctica is located beyond the __________________________ Arctic Circle.
The Prime Meridian intersects_____________________ and____________________.
In both the western and eastern hemispheres there are __________________ and ________________.
Entirely in the Western Hemisphere is ______________________________.
Entirely in the eastern hemisphere is ________________________.
E, SE, T, ST climate zones in____________________ and in____________________.
E, SE, T, ST, U climate zones in ______________________________.
SE, T, ST climate zones in __________________________.
SANT., Ant. climatic zones in________________________.
The hottest continent is _________________________.
The driest continent is ___________________________.
The wettest continent is ___________________________.
The coldest continent is ___________________________.
Appendix 3.
_______________________________________-
_________________________
Mountains located on ______________________ continents,
At the base plains are ________________________________________.
On the plains:
A) depressions correspond –______________________ ________________(Amazonian)
B) ledges correspond – _____________________________
At the base mountains are _______________________________________ – boundaries of lithospheric plates.
___________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Appendix 4
S.America
L a v r a s i a
G o n d w a n a
P a g e
Australia
Antarctica
Appendix 5.
General features of the relief of the southern continents.
After completing this task, try to remember the general features.
There are two main forms in the relief of the southern continents:
mountains and plains.
Most of the continents are occupied plains.
Mountains are located on the outskirts of the continents, since the plains were in the center of Gondwana.
At the base plains are ancient platforms.
On the plains:
A) depressions correspond – lowlands (Amazonian)
B) ledges correspond – plateaus (East African, Brazilian)
At the base mountains are pleated belts – boundaries of lithospheric plates.
In the sedimentary cover (or layer) of platforms lie oil, etc. gas, stone coal, salt.
Ore minerals lie in the mountains and plateaus.
Appendix 6.
Test tasks on the southern continents.
The equator crosses almost in the middle the continent _______________ (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica).
The continents ___________________ and _______________ (South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica) are located entirely in the southern hemisphere.
Is it correct that South America, Africa, and Australia are located near the equator, so high temperatures prevail there for most of the year? (Yes or no)
Mountains are located on ____________________________ continents (in the center or on the outskirts).
On continents, the relief is dominated by __________________________ (mountains or plains).
At the base of most continents there are _____________________ (folded belts or platforms).
Deposits of oil, natural gas, and phosphorites are confined to _________________________________________ (crystalline basement or sedimentary cover).
Foreign Europe
The geological structure of Europe is diverse. In the east, ancient platform structures, which are associated with plains, predominate, in the west - various geosynclinal formations and young platforms. In the west, the degree of vertical and horizontal division is much greater.
At the base of the East European Platform lie Precambrian rocks, which are exposed in the northwest in the form of the Baltic Shield. Its territory was not covered by the sea, having a constant tendency to rise.
Beyond the Baltic Shield, the foundation of the European Platform is submerged to a considerable depth and is covered by a complex of marine and continental rocks up to 10 km thick. In the areas of the most active subsidence of the plate, syneclises were formed, within which the Central European Plain and the Baltic Sea basin are located.
To the south and southwest of the European platform in the Archean era, the Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan) geosynclinal belt extended. To the west of the platform was the Atlantic geosyncline, bounded by the North Atlantic Land (Eria). Most of it subsequently sank into the waters of the Atlantic, with only small remnants surviving in the north of western Scotland and the Hebrides.
At the beginning of the Paleozoic, sedimentary rocks accumulated in geosynclinal basins. The BAIKAL FOLDING, which occurred at this time, formed small land masses in the north of Fennoscandia.
In the middle of the Paleozoic (end of the Silurian), the Atlantic geosyncline underwent strong mountain building (CALEDONIAN FOLDING). The Caledonian formations stretch from northeast to southwest, covering the Scandinavian mountains and the northern parts of Great Britain and Ireland. The Caledonides of Scandinavia sink into the waters of the Barents Sea and reappear in the western part of Spitsbergen.
Caledonian tectonic movements also manifested themselves partially in the Mediterranean geosyncline, forming there a number of isolated massifs, which were later included in younger folded formations.
In the Upper Paleozoic (mid and late Carboniferous), the entire Central and large parts of Southern Europe were captured by the HERCYNAN OROGENESIS. Powerful folded ridges formed in the southern part of Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in the central part of Europe (Armorican and Central French Massifs, Vosges, Black Forest, Rhine Slate Mountains, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Bohemian Massif). The extreme eastern link of the Hercynian structures is the Lesser Poland Upland. In addition, Hercynian structures can be traced on the Iberian Peninsula (Meseta massif), in certain areas of the Apennine and Balkan peninsulas.
In the Mesozoic, south of the Hercynian formations of Central Europe, a vast Mediterranean geosynclinal basin extended, captured by mountain-building processes in the ALPINE OROGENESIS (Cretaceous and Tertiary periods).
Folding and block uplifts, which led to the formation of modern alpine structures, reached their maximum development in the Neogene. At this time, the Alps, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Pyrenees, Andalusian, Apennine mountains, Dinara, Pindus were formed. The direction of the Alpine folds depended on the position of the middle massifs of Hercynian age. The most significant of them were in the western Mediterranean the Iberian and Tyrrhenian, in the eastern - the Pannonian massif, which lies at the base of the Middle Danube Plain and determined the double bend of the Carpathians. The southern bend of the Carpathians and the shape of the Stara Planina arc were influenced by the ancient Pontida massif, located on the site of the Black Sea and the Lower Danube Plain. The Aegean massif was located in the central part of the Balkan Peninsula and the Aegean Sea.
In the Neogene, alpine structures undergo vertical movements of the earth's crust. These processes are associated with the subsidence of some middle massifs and the formation in their place of depressions, now occupied by sections of the Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Aegean, Black Seas or low accumulative plains (Middle Danube, Upper Thracian, Padanian). Other central massifs experienced significant uplifts, which led to the formation of such mountainous territories as the Thracian-Macedonian (Rhodope) massif, the mountains of Corsica, Sardinia and the Calabrian peninsula, the Catalan Mountains. Fault tectonics caused volcanic processes, which, as a rule, are associated with deep faults in the contact zones of the middle massifs and young folded ridges (the coasts of the Tyrrhenian and Aegean seas, the internal arc of the Carpathians).
Alpine movements covered not only Southern Europe, but also appeared in Central and Northern Europe. In the Tertiary period, the North Atlantic landmass (Eria) gradually split and sank. Fractures and subsidence of the earth's crust were accompanied by volcanic activity, which caused the outpouring of enormous lava flows; as a result, the island of Iceland and the Faroe archipelago were formed, and some areas of Ireland and Scotland were blocked. Powerful compensation uplifts captured the Caledonides of Scandinavia and the British Isles.
Alpine folding revived tectonic movements in the Hercynian zone of Europe. Many massifs were raised and broken by cracks. At this time, the Rhine and Rhone grabens were founded. The activation of faults is associated with the development of volcanic processes in the Rhine Slate Mountains, the Auvergne massif, the Ore Mountains, etc.
Neotectonic movements that swept across Western Europe affected not only the structure and topography, but also led to climate changes. The Pleistocene was marked by glaciation, which repeatedly covered vast areas of plains and mountains. The main center of continental ice distribution was located in Scandinavia; the centers of glaciation were also the mountains of Scotland, the Alps, the Carpathians, and the Pyrenees. The glaciation of the Alps was fourfold, the continental glaciation was threefold.
FOREIGN EUROPE EXPERIENCED THREE GLACIES IN THE PLEISTOCENE: MINDEL, RISK AND WÜRM.
The activity of cover and mountain glaciers of the Middle Pleistocene (Ries) and Upper Pleistocene (Würm) glaciations had the greatest geomorphological significance. During the Rissky (maximum) glaciation, a continuous cover of glaciers reached the mouth of the Rhine, the Hercynids of Central Europe, and the northern foothills of the Carpathians. The Würm glaciation was much smaller in size than the Ris glaciation. It occupied only the eastern part of the Jutland Peninsula, the northeast of the Central European Plain and all of Finland.
Pleistocene glaciations had a diverse impact on nature. The centers of glaciation were predominantly areas of glacial drift. In the marginal areas, the glacier has formed accumulative and fluvio-glacial structures; the activity of mountain glaciers manifested itself in the creation of mountain-glacial relief forms. Under the influence of glaciers, a restructuring of the hydrographic network took place. Over vast areas, glaciers destroyed flora and fauna and created new soil-forming rocks. Outside the glaciation period, the number of heat-loving species decreased.
The geological structures of Foreign Europe correspond to certain mineral complexes.
Inexhaustible resources of building stone are concentrated on the territory of the Baltic Shield and the Scandinavian Mountains; Iron ore deposits are located in the contact zones of the Scandinavian mountains. Oil and gas fields are relatively small and, as a rule, are confined to Paleozoic and Mesozoic sediments (Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain, adjacent areas of the North Sea), as well as to Neogene sediments of piedmont and intermountain troughs of the Alpine folding (Poland, Romania).
The Hercynides zone is home to a variety of mineral resources. These are coals from the Upper Silesian, Ruhr, Saar-Lorraine basins, as well as from the basins of central Belgium, central England, Wales, Decazville (France), and Asturias (Spain). Large reserves of iron oolitic ores are located in Lorraine and Luxembourg. There are deposits of non-ferrous metals in the mid-altitude mountains of Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Spain (Asturias, Sierra Morena), and bauxite deposits in Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Bulgaria. The Permian-Triassic deposits of the mid-altitude Hercynian Mountains zone include deposits of potassium salts (western Germany, Poland, France).
The complexity of the geological structure of Foreign Europe led to the diversity of its relief, in the formation of which exogenous factors played a significant role, along with endogenous ones. The nature and degree of their manifestation largely depended on the paleogeographic conditions of the development of the territory and its lithological structure.
NORTHERN EUROPE is elevated and mountainous. It is composed of crystalline and metamorphic rocks of the Baltic Shield and Caledonides. Tectonic movements determined the fragmentation of its surface. Pleistocene glaciers and water erosion played a significant role in the creation of the relief.
The largest uplifts of FENNOSCANDIA are the Scandinavian Mountains - a gigantic elongated arch, steeply plunging towards the ocean and gently sloping to the east. The tops of the mountains are smoothed, most often these are high plateaus (fields), above which individual peaks rise ( highest point- Galkhepiggen, 2469 m). In sharp contrast to the fjelds are the mountain slopes, in the formation of which faults played a major role. The western slopes are especially steep, dissected by systems of deep fjords and river valleys.
PLAIN FENNOSCANDIA occupies the east of the Baltic Shield - part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Finland. Its relief is modeled by Pleistocene glaciers. The highest position is occupied by the Norland Plateau (600-800 m), while most of the plains lie at an altitude of less than 200 m. Low ridges and ridges correspond to tectonic shafts and arches in the relief (Manselka, Småland). On the plains of Fennoscandia, glacial landforms are classically represented (eskes, drumlins, moraines).
The formation of the island of ICELAND is associated with the development of the underwater North Atlantic Ridge. Most of the island consists of basalt plateaus, above which rise dome-shaped volcanic peaks covered with glaciers (the highest point is Hvannadalshnukur, 2119 m). Region of modern volcanism.
The mountains of the northern part of the BRITISH ISLANDS, tectonically and morphologically, can be considered a continuation of the Scandinavian mountains, although they are much lower (the highest point is Ben Nevis, 1343 m). Dissected by tectonic valleys that continue into bays, the mountains are replete with glacial landforms, as well as ancient volcanic nappes that created the lava plateaus of Northern Ireland and Scotland.
The south-east of Great Britain and the south-west of Ireland are classified as Hercynides.
The CENTRAL EUROPEAN PLAIN is located in a zone of syneclises of Precambrian and Caledonian structures. The overlapping of the basement by a thick, undisturbed layer of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments is the main factor in the formation of the flat relief. A major role in the formation of the flat relief was played by exogenous processes of the Quaternary period, in particular, glaciers, which left accumulative forms - terminal moraine ridges and outwash. They are best preserved in the east of the lowlands, which were subject to the Rissian and Würm glaciations.
The relief of Hercynian EUROPE is characterized by the alternation of mid-altitude folded-block massifs and ridges with lowlands and basins. The mosaic nature of the relief is determined by blocky and domed post-Hercynian movements, accompanied in some places by lava outpourings. Mountains created by arch movements belong to the massif type (Massif Central). Some of them (Vosges, Black Forest) are complicated by grabens. The horst mountains (Harz, Sudetes) have rather steep slopes, but relatively low heights.
The flat areas within Hercynian Europe are confined to syneclises of the folded foundation, made by a thick sequence of the Meso-Cenozoic (Paris, London, Thuringian, Swabian-Franconian basins) - stratified plains. They are characterized by a cuesta topography.
ALPINE EUROPE includes both high mountain systems and large lowland foothill and intermountain plains. In terms of structure and relief, mountains belong to two types: young folded formations of Alpine age and folded-block formations, secondarily uplifted as a result of Alpine and neotectonic movements.
YOUNG FOLDED MOUNTAINS (Alps, Carpathians, Stara Planina, Pyrenees, Apennines, Dinara) are distinguished by lithological heterogeneity, alternating crystalline, limestone, flysch and molasse belts. The degree of development of the belts is not the same everywhere, which determines a unique combination of relief forms in each mountainous country. Thus, in the Alps and Pyrenees, Paleozoic crystalline massifs are clearly represented, in the Carpathians there is a well-defined strip of flysch deposits, and in the Dinaric Mountains - limestone ones.
FOLDED-BLOCK AND BLOCK MOUNTAINS (Rila, Rhodopes) are plateau-type massifs. Their significant modern height is associated with neotectonic movements. River valleys (Vardar, Struma) are confined to the lines of tectonic faults.
ACCUMULATIVE PLAINS of Alpine Europe - the Middle Danube, Lower Danube and others correspond to foothill troughs or are laid on the site of subsided middle massifs of the Alpine geosyncline. They have a predominantly gently undulating topography, only occasionally complicated by small uplifts, which are protrusions of the folded foundation.
The relief of SOUTH EUROPE, which includes three large peninsulas (Iberian, Apennine, Balkan), is very diverse. For example, in the Iberian Peninsula there are ALLUVIAL LOWS (Andalusian), YOUNG ALPINE MOUNTAINS (Pyrenees) and HIGHLANDS. The relief is varied and geological structure Balkan Peninsula. Here, along with young folded formations, ancient Hercynian massifs are found.
Thus, the relief of Foreign Europe is to a large extent a reflection of its structural structure.
Related information.