Each of the monuments we examined has, as we sought to show, a special, unique specificity. The mythological and ideological ideas that underlay the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain canons, respectively, are different, the principles of their composition are dissimilar, and the stylistic accents are placed differently. However, at the same time, one cannot help but notice that they all have certain General characteristics, which, in accordance with chronological criteria, definitely indicate that they belong to one, namely the early period of the development of ancient Indian literature.

First of all, as evidenced comparative history literatures of Antiquity, the formation of these literatures usually begins with the appearance of religious codes and epics. The first works of Chinese literature are considered to be “Shujing”, “Shijing” and “Iijing”, included in the Confucian “Pentateuch”; the history of Iranian literature opens with the Avesta, Jewish - the Bible, Greek - “Iliad” and “Odyssey”. Among the most ancient monuments of Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, Hittite and Egyptian literature, fragments of mythological epic and ritual texts predominate. From this point of view, it seems logical that the beginning of the development of Indian literature was marked by the creation of precisely those four literary complexes (Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and epic) that were discussed.

Further, the Vedas, the Tipitaka, and the epic developed as a whole over many centuries, and they developed in line with the oral, rather than written, tradition. We know that the letter was already known to the population of the Indus Valley in the 3rd-2nd millennium BC. e., then his skills were lost, and writing in India was revived only around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. However, initially it was apparently used mainly only for administrative and economic purposes. Although the Rig Veda already existed by 1000 BC. e., Vedic literature in general - by 500 BC. e., and the early versions of the epic and the first Buddhist and Jain texts - by 400-200 BC. Don. e., they were not recorded immediately and, at least until the turn of our era, functioned as oral monuments. This led to several important consequences for all Indian literature of the ancient period.

Since her works were not fixed, we often deal with not one, but several texts (editions) of the same monument, and in this case it is useless to find its original or archetype. Oral existence also explains such features of the style of the Vedas, epics, “Tipitaka”, as the abundance in them of clichéd phraseological units (so-called “formulas”), repetitions, refrains, etc. Formulas and repetitions are often seen as a heritage inherent, for example, in hymns Vedas of magical functions, but first of all they were a necessary condition for the creation of any kind of text in oral form and its subsequent reproduction “from memory” by new performers. Oral origin finally determines some of the basic methods of constructing the most ancient Indian monuments (in the form of a sermon, dialogue, address, panegyric, etc.), as well as a number of their names that have come down to us by tradition (shruti, upanishads, etc.).

Partly related to the oral nature of the works we have considered is the fact that we have already noted that they are not distinguished as strictly literary works. It would, of course, be wrong to say that every ancient Indian text pursued only practical - religious or didactic - goals, but in general aesthetic goals have not yet come to the fore. And although we are dealing with works whose artistic merits are unique in their own way, it is no coincidence that most of them were part of religious codes, and the Sanskrit epic, and above all the Mahabharata, is highly characterized by ethical and philosophical coloring.

Lack of artistic self-awareness in Indian culture of the 1st millennium BC. e. It also reveals itself in the fact that the idea of ​​the creator of the work has not yet crystallized into the concept of the poet. The hymns of the Rigveda were composed, as legend says, by the legendary prophets-rishis, the Brahman prose and dialogues of the Upanishads - by holy sages, Buddhist and Jain texts - by religious teachers Buddha and Mahavira and their associates.

At the same time, literature remained mostly anonymous, the name of the author did not so much indicate the real creator of this or that monument, but rather asserted its significance, and the literary work belonged, in fact, to the entire society or at least one of its social or religious stratum in in general.

And therefore - perhaps, with the only exception of the Ramayana, which is already on the threshold of a new stage in the development of literature - it would be futile to look for signs of individual style, themes, and means of expression in ancient Indian literature.

Naturally, when literature is not yet aware of its autonomy, literary theory cannot take shape, although the unlimited possibilities of the word as such were more than once praised by the creators of Vedic chants. And since there was no literary theory, it is impossible to speak in connection with ancient Indian literature and about a clear differentiation of genres in it. When in the Vedic Samhitas we distinguish epic, dramatic and even lyrical hymns, in the Brahmanas we separate theological instructions from narrative episodes, in the Upanishads we isolate philosophical dialogues, and in the Tipitaka - fables, parables, biographies, etc., we are in some kind of In this way, we introduce the genre classification of later literature into monuments that are syncretic in their essence. In Indian literature of the Ancient period, a work existed as an indivisible whole, subject to special laws, and this literature must be assessed, first of all, in accordance with the norms and principles put forward by it.

However, this does not mean that already in the literature of the 1st millennium BC. e. new genres and forms were not maturing, albeit still in a diffuse, mixed state. These genres and forms were adopted, developed and refined in stable outlines, by the subsequent literary tradition. Together with them, she inherited everything that turned out to be viable in the ideological concepts, themes and visual means of the Vedas, epics, Buddhist and Jain texts. And these monuments, although they remain valuable and unique in their appearance and artistic achievements, at the same time can be considered as a prologue to the entire further development of Indian literature.

History of world literature: in 9 volumes / Edited by I.S. Braginsky and others - M., 1983-1984.

Periodization of the history of Ancient India. Indian civilization, its culture. Types and source of Indian worldview. Fundamentals of Brahmanism and Hinduism. Buddhism and its influence on the formation of the spiritual culture of the Indian people. Religion and Law, "Laws of Manu" and "Arthashastra". Yoga, its essence and varieties. Science and art. The connection between art and religion.

India gave the world one of the most developed ancient civilizations, and its richest literary sources, originally transmitted orally, provide insight into the consciousness of people who lived at least more than 4,000 years ago. Having been formed in ancient times, the spiritual culture of this country has not had any fundamental changes throughout its historical development; it has always been considered the most spiritual culture of the East. And today the mystery of her spirituality is not revealed to everyone; it seems especially incomprehensible to the technical consciousness of Western man.

Archaeological and literary sources indicate that the culture of India dates back about 5 thousand years. Chronologically, it highlights:

Harappan civilization (2500-1700 BC);

Vedic period (1700-600 BC);

Pre-Maurian period (600-320 BC);

Mauryan era (320-185 BC);

Kushana era (78-200 BC);

Gupta Empire (320-510 BC).

Medieval Muslim period of development (Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire).

Back in the 3rd millennium BC. e. On the territory of India, a highly developed Indus civilization developed, the decline of which came under still unclear circumstances in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Its centers were the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. They were distinguished by the purposeful planning of urban structures compared to the haphazard construction of Mesopotamian settlements. The buildings consisted of three floors. In addition, the Indian population used bricks that were fired in a special way for construction, and not bricks dried in the sun, as in Babylon. City residents built complex sewers and, in addition to residential buildings, built public buildings and granaries. During the excavations, a public bath was discovered - an unusual hydraulic structure, possibly for ritual ablutions, a meeting hall, and a school.

Based on this, we can say that Indian architecture reached high level development. Items found during excavations indicate that weaving, spinning, weaponry, sculpture, jewelry and decorative arts were developed to perfection. Threads were spun from wool and cotton tree fibers. Thin multi-colored fabrics were woven from them. Tools and weapons were made of copper and bronze. The statues were created from stone and sandstone, and they reflected the high skill of conveying the movements of the human body. “Miniature reliefs of lions, bulls, and mountain goats are distinguished by their clarity of silhouette and perfect surface treatment.” *

* History of the arts from antiquity to the Middle Ages / Ch. ed. and compiled by S. Ismailova. M., 1996. P.109.
Harappan culture in the Indus Valley. Archaeological complex. III-II millennium BC e.

Harappan settlement. Plan.

Jewelry made from gold, silver, all kinds of precious and semi-precious stones - rings, bracelets, necklaces, beaded belts, seal-amulets - was worn by both men and women. In addition, men decorated themselves with feathers, cut their hair, tied it in a bun, and combed it back. “Everyone had the same costume. But some wore jewelry made of gold and silver, ivory and precious stones, others - copper and tin, shells and simple bone. Some are woven belts made of beads, which were made from expensive stones with gilded ends, others are belts with beads made of baked clay.” *

* Ancient East / Under. Ed. Academician V.V. Struve. M., 1951. S. S. 206.

Decorative and applied art is reflected in the perfection of unique tableware. Clay objects were painted with patterns and ornaments of various colors. “But perhaps the most beautiful vessels with a pour-over glaze are opaline-cream in color with a dark purple pattern. Nowhere in the world in the 4th millennium BC. e. “We haven’t yet been able to make such dishes.” *

* Ibid. P. 206.

However, the worldview and ideas of the people of this era remain a mystery to us due to the mystery of their writing. Only from the next stage in the history of India, the beginning of which almost coincides with the death of the Harappan culture, has a rich religious and philosophical heritage reached us through hundreds of generations, allowing us to judge the culture of the country. This stage is associated with the arrival of the Aryans in India and received the name Vedic - from the Vedas, the oldest written monuments.

Citadel of Mohenjo-Daro. Plan III-II millennium BC e.

The first sources of emerging philosophical thought in India, as in other countries, were sacred texts. They laid the foundations of religion and ethics. The sources of this period were called “shruti” in India, that is, heard through divine revelation. In contrast to shruti more late literature, which is of a narrower and more specialized nature (treatises on certain sets of issues, in particular legal ones), is called “smiriti,” that is, what is remembered, attributed to specific individuals. In the first case, we are talking about “sacred knowledge” sent down by the gods, in the second - about the judgments of wise people.

Bust of a priest. From the excavations of Harappa.

Letters of the early Brahmi alphabet (Indian syllabary).

Modern Indian script (Devanagari).

The entire cultural history of Ancient India is characterized by the unclear chronology of Vedic sources, most of which were passed down for a long time from generation to generation orally. The Vedas are collections of religious and ritual texts (samhitas) various contents and purposes. They reveal the Indian worldview, attitude to life, views on the essence of man. During the Vedic period, the principles that determined the development of the spiritual culture of Ancient India were formed. Their starting point is the deification of the world order and ideas about it. Idea of ​​divine creation social order becomes the basis of views on spiritual and secular power. At the same time, these ideas themselves are also declared to be divine revelation. Social division is predetermined and is a law from above for the Hindu.

In ancient times, the first philosophical schools appeared in India: “Lokayata” - the doctrine of sensory knowledge of the world, “Vaisheshika” - the atomistic doctrine, the school of Nagarajuna with the theory

“universal relativity”, “yoga” - psychological school, founded by Patanjali. Two major religions have influenced the culture and art of India: Hinduism and Buddhism. The basis of Hinduism is the Vedas and Upanishads. Veda (Skt.“knowledge”) are a collection of texts reflecting the ancient religious and mythological beliefs of the population of the Ganges Valley. The Vedas consist of four collections: Rigved, Yajurved, Samaved and Atharvaved.

Rigveda* (Skt."book of hymns") is the most ancient part of the Vedas. It was passed down orally from generation to generation. The hymns of the Rig Veda sing praises to many gods. The most ancient basis of the Vedic religion was the cult of nature and its phenomena. Samaveda is a collection of chants. Yajurveda (Sakstrian - “book of prayers”) a collection of prayers under which sacrifices were made at musical accompaniment. At-harvaveda (Skt."book of spells") contained a collection of spells and magical formulas. The Vedas served as the basis for the creation of two grandiose literary epics of India: the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. **

* Rigveda/Ans. ed. P. Grinzer. M., 1974.

** Mahabharata. Ramayana. M., 1974.

Upanishads* (Skt.“sitting below at the feet of the teacher”) is a secret philosophical and religious teaching that arose on the basis of the Vedas, expanding the Vedic teaching. Its central concept is Trimurti - the trinity of the Upanishads. It consisted of three main gods: Brahma (Atman), Vishnu and Shiva.

* Upanishads. In 3 books. M., 1992.

Brahma is the creator of the Universe and the world. Vishnu is the guardian of cosmic order and peace. He incarnated nine times into other beings in order to restore cosmic order and save the Earth in their guise. Shiva, who has 1008 names, is the bearer of cosmic energy, creative and destructive at the same time. He embodies the good and evil principles, he is omnipotent, and can exist in visible and invisible guises.

The basis of the teachings of the Upanishads are the teachings of atman, maya, karma, samsara and moksha. Atman (Sanskrit “I”) is the universal mental principle of the Universe, the soul of the world, as well as the individual principle of man. This is both the human soul and the world soul. Atman-Brahma is the embodiment of the one and the many, the individual and the universal, God and man. According to the Vedas, originally Atman, having created itself through its of one's own will, took the form of the gigantic first man Purusha (Sanskrit “person”). It served as material for the social structure of society, division into varnas: from the mouth of Purusha came brahmins- priests (the highest caste of India), from the hands - kshatriyas- warriors, from the hips - vaishyas- artisans and farmers, from the feet - Shudras- slaves and prisoners of war (untouchables). The transition from varna to varna was impossible; belonging to a varna was passed on from generation to generation.

Vishnu, Brahma. Lakshmi on the snake Shesha. Medieval drawing.

The king is naked.

Shiva, Parvati and Ganesha.

An important concept in Vedic literature is "maya". Mayan (Skt. the root “matr” - to measure, to form, to build) is the doctrine of human errors. Man’s desire to explain reality is maya, that is, delusion, obscurity. Maya leads to distortion of the Self, and distortion of the Self leads to suffering. Therefore, the cause of human suffering is Maya.

Karma (Skt.“action and its result”) is generated by maya, i.e. behavior, delusion. Actions can be beneficial, neutral or harmful. Accumulated deeds form a person’s bad or good karma, which determines a person’s existence in the past, present and future, and influences his future births.

Samsara (Skt.“wandering, cycle”) - the so-called continuous cycle of lives and deaths - is determined by a person’s karma. Samsara is beginningless, but as a result of right actions it can have a completion, which is called moksha.

Vayu, god of the wind.

Moksha (Skt."liberation"), or atma-jana(“self-awareness”), atma-bodha ("self-awakening") is achieved as a result of liberation from maya, i.e. delusion.

Hinduism became the official religion of India after the fall of the Gupta Empire and the weakening of Buddhism in the 7th-8th centuries. By this time, Hinduism had developed the main directions: Shaivism with the cult of Shiva and his wife Parvati; Vaishnavism, Shaktism with the cult of the mother goddess Shakti - the embodiment of omnipotent feminine energy; Krishnaism, which emerged a little later, but quickly gained great recognition.

The well-known four Vedas also go back to the provisions rooted in Indian thought and practice about the divine establishment of the class-caste system.

India Vedic period, as it appears in the hymns of the Rig Veda, was a society with a desire for the possession of cattle, grain and other wealth, with acute social and lithical conflicts. The explanation of the structure of society was the theory of the divine creation of the four classes of "varnas", first expressed in the hymn about Purusha in the last book of the Rig Veda, reproduced in the Atharva Veda and in many subsequent sources and received full development in the Yajur Veda and the Brahmanas. The Vedas declared the formation of the estate-caste system to be the original institution established by God. As already mentioned, numerous closed castes (jatis) with clearly defined occupations (professionally various groups) were distributed among four estates (varnas). The dominant position was occupied by the varnas of brahmanas and kshatriyas, who divided among themselves, respectively, spiritual and temporal power. The religious and philosophical system of the Vedic period was created by the Varna priests and was called “Brahmanism”.

Soma.

Brahmins substantiated moral standards and were responsible for educating all people in the spirit of the Vedas.

Indian philosophy explained human birth in various social layers, with different abilities and different appearances using the doctrine of transmigration of souls (the theory of incarnation). According to this teaching, there is a universal spirit working throughout the world, it condenses cosmic matter, manifests itself in it with varying strength and with increasing energy, which then manifests itself as spiritual.

The famous iron pillar in Delhi. IV-VI centuries

As consciousness is ignited in matter, the soul becomes more and more independent of the body, more and more capable of leading a free existence. The unpolarized soul of minerals and plants is associated with the earth elements. She, strongly attracted by the earthly fire, remains in it for some time, and then returns to the surface of the globe to again be embodied in her form, never leaving the lower layers of space. Only one human soul comes from heaven and returns there after death. But at what epoch of its long cosmic existence did the elementary soul become human? What ethereal fire did she go through for this? Transformation was possible, according to the Vedas, only with the help of already fully formed human souls, who developed its spiritual principle in the elementary soul and imposed on it their divine prototype. However, how many incarnations, how many cycles must go through for the soul to become the person we know him to be? There is no clear answer to this question. However, every person goes through many rebirths, and the next one depends on his karma, and karma depends on his consciousness and actions.

Brahmins protected the Vedic spiritual traditions and restrained the manifestation of free-thinking. However, despite the efforts of the Brahmins, distinctive feature pre-Mauri stage was a violation of the unity that marked the thought of the Vedic period. Free-thinking religious teachers challenged Brahmanism regarding the varna system and tribalism, and in the 6th century. In an environment conducive to the emergence of heretical teachings, two powerful movements were formed that had many followers and seriously shook the monopoly of Brahmanism on public consciousness. These were Buddhism and Jainism. However, in essence they differed little from Brahmanism and did not prevent the development of spiritual traditions.

IN world culture India entered with its philosophy, religion, and mythology.

In ancient Indian mythology, deities were divided into three groups, corresponding to the three spheres of the universe. The most important of them was considered not the highest (sky), but the intermediate one (airspace), symbolizing the connection between the earthly and heavenly worlds. Some Rigvedic hymns mention the names of only three gods, but sometimes 3339 deities - a number that goes back to the same original threefold structure. Subsequently, the “model of the Universe” was transformed. The concept of three realms is firmly established in Indian religious thought: three lokas (three worlds) are listed in various Hindu texts, even later ones.

On the basis of the Vedas, Hinduism develops a complex, detailed cosmological system. The principle of order in the world is the trench. This concept is revealed as the fundamental principle of the world and the laws operating in it. Thanks to Rita, the Sun moves along the ecliptic, the seasons change, the dawn dispels the darkness of the night. It is sometimes drawn in the form of a chariot driven by the gods. The most common definition of it is “The Path of the Sun.”

In the Vedic concept of the Universe, the movement of the luminaries is the most important regulating principle of the world order. The sun - the first among them - is especially revered and is mentioned extremely often in hymns. In some texts he is called “the face of Rita, pure and beautiful.”

Rita embodies not only light, but also the creative power of nature, which in Northern India was associated with the beneficial monsoon rains that replaced the all-drying sun and heat.

The Vedic worldview was permeated by the idea of ​​an inextricable connection between processes in nature and the cycle of sacrificial actions. The cult practice of the priests, creators and performers of the hymns of the Rigveda, is considered an organic part of the world process. It ensured the victory of Rita as a universal organizing principle, order over the chaos threatening all living things. Rita means universal law and morality. It turns into principles that equally regulate the movement of luminaries and the events and states of human life - birth and death, happiness and unhappiness. This naturally led to the identity moral idea with the absolute and most universal laws of development and existence of the world.

Tree of life and knowledge.

In the middle of the trunk is a wheel, the source and keeper of everything new.

Bronze. XIV-XVI centuries

Although in the Rig Veda rita remains an impersonal principle, its bearer and protector is one of the leading deities of the pantheon - Varuna. He is endowed with colossal power, unlimited power, the Vedic Indians saw him as the personification of strength, ruling the world, creator and preserver of nature.

Varuna is depicted as the overseer of cosmic order. Varuna's cosmogonic role is intertwined with his role as a moral judge. Appeals to him are imbued with a spirit of repentance and a thirst for forgiveness.

Characteristic of the Vedic worldview is the combination of the idea of ​​a cosmic world order with ritual practice priests were forced to associate adherence to moral commandments with regular sacrifice. Later Rita began to be identified with satya- truth, honesty, which also includes principles of behavior.

The power of Rita also extends to the gods; fulfilling its norms is mandatory for them. Varuna and his constant companion Mitra protect all living things with the help of law (dharma), which is associated with rita.

The equal subordination of people to a single universal impersonal force is the cardinal idea of ​​the Rigvedic worldview. It passes into the later Indian religious systems - Hinduism and Buddhism. The place of rita is taken here by the “law of karma,” which asserts the dependence of every being (both man and god) on previously committed actions.

Rita and karma can be compared with the fate of the ancient Greeks, but the latter was not correlated with cult practice. The “world order” of Vedism is supported by sacrifice and is associated with it. The idea of ​​fate in ancient society is colored by the spirit of pessimism, because nothing can be done with it, it dictates what must happen. This theme was central to Greek drama; Rita, on the contrary, is the source of the triumph of the principle of righteous behavior, a symbol of universal order and harmony. Both rita and karma leave room for a person to improve his destiny. To do this, you need to work on yourself, your consciousness. Subsequently formed yoga as a system of principles of working on oneself, on the body and consciousness.

The Vedas cover in detail the topic of the creation of the world. “Deities create elements, elements and things. From the union of the masculine and feminine principles the world is born. Then an idea is formed of a certain “abstract deity” who creates all things. He is called differently (Vishvakarman, Prajalati, Dhatar), he is endowed with supreme power and stands above the gods.” *

* Bongard-Levin G.M. Ancient Indian civilization. Philosophy, science, religion. M., 1980. P. 41.

Vishwakarman is called the “father of the eye,” vision, knowledge. The Sun is associated with it; in Vedic cosmology it was considered one of the foundations of all things. Vishwakarman is the bearer and source of wisdom.

Many ideas are associated in Samhita with the concept of the “first embryo” - the golden egg (brahmaida), which arises in the primordial ocean, and in it are contained the gods and prototypes of all creatures. The image of the “primordial” egg residing in the waters is found in the cosmogonic myths of various peoples.

In general, Vedic cosmology is not unified and offers a variety of answers to the cardinal question: how was the world created? The All-Creator appears alongside an abstract deity - a personified image of the process of creation itself, the first embryo resting in the waters and the sacrificed primal being - as well as the “cosmic heat” (tapas).

The basis of being is declared to be something impersonal, there is no division into the existing and the non-existent (later the Upanishads transform this principle into the concept of the origin of being from non-existence, asserting at the same time that above both principles there was something third, not reducible to either of them), there is no atmosphere, no firmament. Water, like the abyss, precedes the other elements.

Not only death, but also immortality is impossible in that indescribable state that preceded creation. There was “One Something”, which had a single attribute - integrity, indivisibility. The globe was seen as a kingdom of differences arising from the division of the original whole into two parts (being-non-existent, death-immortality, day-night).

Tapas (cosmic heat) is the embodiment of the original impersonal energy that stimulates all life processes. From tapas comes desire (Kama), called the seed of thought (buddhi).

The peculiar pantheistic tendency of the Vedas was preserved and developed later in Hinduism (sacrifice, in comparison with sacred actions of another nature, is given a special place, it is directly associated with the process of peacemaking); cosmological ideas and ritual, although they have undergone significant changes, largely go back to initial stage orthodox tradition.

The religious and philosophical idea of ​​the Upanishads, to a greater extent than other parts of the general Vedic heritage, was reflected in Buddhism, but it also adopted a number of early Vedic concepts (the trinity of the world, many mythological images). The creators of the new religious system especially strongly opposed the complex of religious views, ritual rules and social regulations that had developed towards the end of the Vedic era, called “Brahmanism”.

The Upanishads are actually the result of a long-term understanding of the central principles and provisions of the religious system of Brahmanism, which later passed into the system of Hinduism.

Major places associated with the emergence and history of Buddhism in India.

Buddhism arose in India in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and is the first world religion at the time of its emergence.

The emergence of Buddhism is associated with the life and preaching activities of Siddhartha Gautama. His father protected him from suffering; the boy did not know grief, did not see illness or death. But one day, during one day, Gautama, quite by chance, met a beggar, a leper, and saw a corpse. He decided to leave his father’s house in order to independently answer the question about the meaning of human life, about the causes of human suffering. For 7 long years Gautama remained a rishi (forest man) and a saman (ascetic). One day, while sitting under a bo tree, he saw a morning star flash in the sky, which evoked in him an instant understanding of the causes of human suffering and the way to overcome them. So Siddhartha Gautama became Buddha (Sanskrit “enlightened one”).

Buddha decided to announce his discovery to people. For 40 years he walked along the Ganges valley, preaching his teachings and performing miracles. Very soon Buddhism became so popular that King Ashoka (268-232 BC), the third ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, recognized this teaching as the official religion of India. The popularity of Buddhism lay in its teachings of liberation. According to the new teachings of the Buddha, all living beings suffer, have karma, rotate in samsara, regardless of caste or nationality, and any person can achieve liberation and become a Buddha during his lifetime, that is, the liberation of any person depends only on himself. The basis of the teachings of Buddhism are the “Four Noble Truths”: duhkha, trishna, nirvana, sadhana.

The first noble truth, duhkha (Sanskrit for “suffering”), states that the life a person leads is suffering. A person sees suffering around him and suffers himself, and naturally asks himself questions: why is this, what is the cause of suffering?

The second noble truth is Trishna(Sanskrit “grasping”, “clinging”) is the doctrine of the causes of suffering. Trishna is the desire to possess reality. A person becomes attached to various circumstances, thereby connecting with the Mayan world. Ignorance or false knowledge of a person about the world and himself gives rise to trishna, i.e. grasping or clinging to real world as something unchanging and eternal. Trishna, in turn, gives rise to human actions, both harmful and beneficial; actions form karma and samsara - the cycle of birth and death. True peace in human consciousness, purification of consciousness can become human joy, which gives the state nirvana. Therefore, the third noble truth of the Buddha is the doctrine of nirvana. The goal of nirvana coincides with the goal of yoga - stopping the “rotation” of the mind, liberation from false knowledge, that is, from thoughts with the help of which the human mind tries to grasp the world and itself as something eternal and unchanging. Nirvana is that state of a person when his consciousness is freed from the chaos of thoughts, immersed in a state of peace, this is the connection of “I” and “nothing”. To do this, a person must pacify all existing feelings and thoughts and focus on a static picture. This is necessary in order to further establish control over your own consciousness, guide it, or make a conscious choice between positive and negative thoughts.

The Fourth Noble Truth of the Buddha is sadhana- the eightfold noble path of liberation from suffering and achievement of nirvana. This path is open to everyone and contains the main features of Buddhist morality: do not kill living things, do not eat meat food, condoning the killing of living things, do not cause suffering to others, fulfill the requirements of castes, work on your positive consciousness, improving your karma. The effect of the law of karma is explained by the following circumstances. The spiritual center of a person from the point of view of Indian culture is in the “I”. It has as an integral basis consciousness, which produces thoughts. “I” controls them, thus guiding my consciousness. But thoughts are also generated by someone else’s consciousness, transmitted through space by sound, word, vibration. Therefore, they can be one’s own and others’, positive and negative, and determine a person’s actions. “I” chooses thoughts, thoughts determine actions. In some cases, the “I” may act unconsciously and not control its consciousness. To determine your actions, you need to control your thoughts and make conscious choices. Since “I” chooses, a person is responsible for all his actions, he chooses his karma himself, determines it.

It seems to us that all thoughts belong to us or they exist only in consciousness, that consciousness itself is thinking, although in spoken language There are phrases that reflect something else. We say: “A terrible thought came to me” or “A brilliant thought came to me”, “An idea came to my mind”, “This thought is already in the air.” All these phrases mean that it goes without saying that thoughts “walk” in space, they come and go. It is also assumed that there are thoughts that belong to me, my “I”. These are those that are developed, assimilated by my consciousness, those that I consciously choose or produce myself. We say: “I lost my thought,” “The thought is gone,” thereby believing that this is my thought, which means I created it, it belongs to me. Thus, there are my own thoughts, which are produced by my consciousness, and there are strangers, those that were once produced by another consciousness. Thoughts exist in space in various forms: through written speech- in books, through thought forms - in space, through vibrations - in the air, through sound - in speech. A person chooses, he makes a choice when he controls his consciousness, makes a conscious choice; if he doesn’t own it, he’s unconscious. In the first case, it controls the choice. In the second we say: “I didn’t do it consciously,” “I didn’t think.” The task of sadhana is to learn to control and produce positive consciousness.

Thus, Buddhism’s main goal is the idea of ​​human self-improvement. Achieving nirvana is impossible without morality; virtue and wisdom are inseparable in Buddhism. Therefore, many researchers consider Buddhism not a religion, but a system of moral and philosophical views.

Around the 2nd century. BC e. refers to the most famous work of ancient Indian legal literature - “Manusmriti”, or “Manavadharmashastra”, the name of which is usually translated as “Laws of Manu”. * But it would be more accurate to talk about “Instructions of Manu in Dharma”. The collection is attributed to the mythical progenitor of people Manu, who conveyed to the sages the injunction of the Self-Existent. For almost two millennia, the “Laws of Manu” existed as a valid set of rules. The collection belongs to the genre of dharmashastra, which arose on the basis of the drachma sutras and differs from the latter in a clearer systematization of the material. By design, this is a comprehensive code of the world and social life of Ancient India. It regulates all aspects of the life of a devout Hindu and contains all the information he needs. In the literature of Ancient India, philosophy, religion, mythology, and law are often combined.

* Laws of Manu. M., 1992.

The Laws of Manu tell briefly about the origin of the world and society, the creation of varnas, the sources of dharma, the Holy Scriptures and the study of the Vedas, the stages of life, the first ashram - discipleship and marriage in the life of a twice-born as the head of a family and the owner of a house, the causes of death, rules cleansing and eating, the dharma of women, the third stage of life - hermitage, the dharma of kings. This subject was specially treated in the Arthashastra. * It outlined the basics of politics and management in war and peace, the goals of royal power, the qualities that a ruler should have, his daily routine, etc.

*Arthashastra, or the science of politics. M., 1993.

The religious and ethical principles that permeate the instructions of Manu are of great importance for understanding the worldview of the ancient Hindus. The era of the revival of Brahmanism, in which the “Laws of Manu” was mainly formed, was reflected in the content of this document. Manu not only notes the superiority of the Brahmins, but also emphasizes their power, their involvement in supernatural forces and, symbolically, constantly keeps in view the provision of their existence, privileges and material interests. The Laws of Manu expresses an extremely contemptuous attitude towards the Shudras and attempts to preserve the institution of slavery in classical purity. For a slave there is no right except the extreme cruelty of punishment.

The Laws of Manu repeat the traditional provisions on royal power. At the same time, the idea of ​​​​the divine nature of the king’s functions was developed with special care. The entire body of teachings is imbued with the idea of ​​the perfection of the order originally created by the self-existent Brahma. Threatening earthly and heavenly punishments, Manu calls for keeping him intact

Ruler in a ceremonial chair. From an ancient relief.

resolutely suppresses any attempts to change the eternal dharma.

“The Laws of Manu” is one of the six main and oldest ethical and philosophical collections that have come down to us, traced back by tradition to the ancient sages (smriti).

In Buddhism and Hinduism, in parallel with the study of “ outside world”, the external environment, the study of the “inner world”, the internal environment - the human body, given to him in internal perception and traditionally called the “subtle body” (in contrast to the “gross”, physical body, accessible to the five “external” sense organs) was initially carried out.

The results of the study of various worlds boiled down to the following: in the “body diagram”, in a place corresponding to the spinal cord, there are a number of “centers” or chakras (also called “lotuses”), concentrations of forces that rule both the body and the world. There are seven chakras in total: muladhara, svadhisthana, manipura, anahata, vishuddha, arjna, sahashara. Muladhara chakra is located at the lower point of the body. Svadhisthana is located in the lower abdomen. Manipura corresponds to the solar plexus. Anahata - approximately in the center of the chest. Vishuddha - under the Adam's apple. Arjna - between the eyebrows. Sahashara corresponds to the parietal part of the head. In the lower of the centers sleeps the Coiled-Ring-Force that created the world, Kundalini Shakti, which in the process of “manifestation of the Universe” consistently “singled out” these centers of forces. It is believed that Kundalini "creates and maintains both the world and the body" and that it "liberates the yogis and binds the ignorant." Awakened through special yogic techniques, Kundalini ascends from center to center, “dissolving” them in itself. Thus, a person is “freed from the chains of the manifest world” and finds his true nature.

Tantras- common name a wide range of works of religious, philosophical, yogic and magical content. There are Hindu and Buddhist tantras. The term “tantra” is “secret text” (tan + tra). Tantric texts reflect only the concrete result of centuries-old analysis of such a phenomenon as the chakra system. Yoga is not a theoretical discipline, it consists of experienced practical knowledge. This is a system of models of certain practical techniques. Methods for raising Kundalini are outlined in detail in tantric texts.

The theory of chakras received its rebirth within the framework of the theosophical tradition, which introduced into its sphere all the baggage of ideas about man accumulated before end of the 19th century V. European science.

Currently, there are many varieties of yoga taking place in India: hatha yoga, sahaja yoga, raja yoga, bhakti yoga, jani yoga, kundalini yoga etc. Their methods are aimed at making a person realize what power and strength are hidden in his spiritual essence. Awareness of oneself as a spiritual being leads to the understanding that the state of lower forms of existence, material and physical, depend on human will, consciousness, and soul. Yoga convinces that the highest form - spiritual - controls the lower - material and physical, guides them, if it is not in the power of illusion - Maya. Human consciousness must free itself from the opposite influence, from the materialistic attitude towards the life of all beings and master the techniques of awakening the strength of spirit, self-awareness, and power over oneself. Indian yoga techniques show how to detect the influence not of your own, but of other people's ideas over yourself. They are the ones who force you to do unconscious things. Yoga teaches how to become the master of thoughts and actions, learn to control them and constantly be in the realm of spirituality.

In Indian philosophy, it has been known since ancient times that human consciousness needs to free itself from chaotic thinking as the “lower mind.” Yoga through meditation brings the mind to complete silence, emptiness, peace. In the process of freeing itself from chaotic thoughts, the mind learns to control them. Free place a calm mind may take higher intelligence, able to control his thinking and work only with the necessary thoughts, systematize and see the connection within the mental material. Such intelligence is Manas (wisdom), which corresponds to our self-awareness and forms abstract thinking.

The spiritual tradition convinces that it depends on the person himself whether he is happy or dissatisfied, joyful or pessimistic. If a person’s consciousness belongs to himself, if he controls his consciousness, and not something painful has taken possession of him, then nothing can prevent him from being spiritual, bright and joyful. Awareness of one’s spiritual essence determines a person’s happiness, since it is his inner state. External reasons can only be an incentive; they are secondary in nature. The root cause, according to Indian tradition, is inside a person, therefore true happiness can never be found if you look for it in external things and bodily pleasures. Satisfaction with them can only be temporary, since there is no absolute external limit to them. Thus, happiness does not depend on external choice: on the place of being, on society, on parents, on children, etc. Indian yogis are convinced that it depends only on our self-determination: whether to promote good or evil in ourselves sanskar(habits, character traits), spiritual consciousness dependent on the possession of external things.

Spirituality in Indian culture itself is the highest value and the main tradition of the Indian people, which has never been interrupted, but has been developed and cultivated for almost four thousand years. This is the peculiarity of the country and its people. The Hindu's self-awareness is highly developed; he is always and everywhere aware that, first of all, man is a spiritual being - a soul. Today, Western European civilized people, experiencing a lack of spirituality, oppressed by rationality and spiritual pessimism, go to India in search of high spiritual uplift. Modern Indian yogis are indeed of interest to Westerners depressed by material problems. They know the “method” of achieving nirvana, clairvoyance, telepathy, resurrection; they are subject to the spiritual at the sensory-psychological level.

India's achievements in the development of arts and sciences are great. Here the brilliant guess about the rotation of the Earth around the Sun was first born, and the decimal number system was created here. Mathematicians of ancient India knew the meaning of the number P and solved linear equations. “Root”, “sine”, “digit” - all these terms originated in India.

India is the birthplace of chess. Playing chess symbolizes military action,

Indian carved chair depicting mythological characters. From an ancient relief.

in which troops participate. The ancient Indian army presented a picture in the center of which is the king - the main military leader, in front are foot soldiers (pawns), next to the king are elephants, behind them are cavalry, and at the edges are palms (rooks).

During the period of development of Brahmanism in Ancient India, flourished wooden architecture, but his works for natural reasons have not survived. Therefore, the achievements of Indian architects can only be judged by literary works. The Mahabharata describes the palaces of the rulers - with pearl nets on the windows, graceful staircases, floors lined with precious stones, hundreds of rooms. *

* History of art from antiquity to the Middle Ages / Ch. ed. and compiled by S. Ismailova. M., 1996. P. 109.

Due to the fact that the worldview of the ancient Indians was permeated with high spirituality, the main element of which was the connection between man and the cosmos, architecture reflected this feature. The plan of the village and the city, the residential building and the temple was based on a magical diagram representing a model of the cosmos. Any settlement had two streets intersecting at right angles, which ended with gates, symbolizing the exit to the Universe in the four cardinal directions.

Since ancient times, the temple was designed by architects-priests, based on sacred knowledge about the laws of harmony of the world. Its geometry includes relationships in the “golden ratio” mode. “The image of the completion of the world is symbolized by the rectangular shape of the temple, in contrast to the round shape of the world, governed by cosmic movements. While the sphericity of the sky is indefinite and inaccessible to any measurement, the rectangular or cubic form of the sacred building expresses a definite and unchangeable law. That is why all sacred architecture, no matter what tradition it belongs to, can be considered as a development of the main theme of turning a circle into a square. In the emergence of the Hindu temple, the development of this theme with all the richness of its metaphysical and spiritual content can be seen especially clearly.” *

* Burkhardt T Sacred art of East and West. M., 1999. pp. 19-20 .

From the descriptions of the Greek Megasthenes, the wooden multi-story palace of King Ashoka is known for its splendor. The interior of the palace was decorated with granite columns, sculpture and carvings. Under Ashoka, Buddhism became state religion, but the king continued to prohibit the construction of buildings made of stone. Civil buildings, like temples, were built of wood, and they have not survived. Their main types were mortar(memorial structure containing the remains of Buddha), stambha(a column placed at the site of the Buddha's virtuous deeds) and chaitya(rock temple - a symbol of the hermit life of Buddha).

The stupa reflected the model of the universe; it was characterized by majestic simplicity and perfection of forms. The most famous and beautiful is the stupa in Sanchi. Folded

Stupa in Sanchi. III century BC e.

Gate of an Indian temple.

The top crossbar of the gate shows the worship of elephants to the sacred fig tree, under which Buddha delivered his first sermon, the second crossbar represents the worship of Buddhist

Buddha from Sarnath.

symbols. The third is Gautama’s meeting with the hermit, who opened his eyes to human sorrows and suffering.

The gate also depicts fertility spirits - Yakshini girls, in whose image

Minaret near Delhi. XIII century

the ideal of female beauty: a young woman with a thin waist, high lush breasts, arms decorated with bracelets, strong legs, massive hips.

The construction of stone buildings resumed in the 4th century. BC e. during the formation of a unified Indian kingdom. In the 3rd century. BC e. A huge temple was built, emphasizing the power of the king of the Indian state. This temple had columns on both sides, carved from huge blocks of stone. On one of them stood four stone lions, looking at the four cardinal directions and as if protecting the borders of the state (the lion is a symbol of Buddha). Some temples of ancient India were carved into rocks. They also had stone columns polished to a mirror effect along the walls. Windows were cut down only in the front wall of the temple. The side walls were decorated with sculptures of people and animals.

During the Mauryan period they built viharas- monasteries in which sciences and arts developed. In monasteries, many images of bodhisattvas were created - eternally young beings who had reached the highest level of holiness, devoting their lives to people trying to find the path to salvation.

The sculptures in the temples depicted Buddha in perfect form wonderful person. The pinnacle of mastery was the reflection of a state of deep peace. It was achieved with the help of complex, strictly established visual techniques. The main features of Buddhist art developed in Gandhara.

Gandhara images of Buddha are filled with deep spiritual content; they draw a person’s attention to his own inner world. Originating during the Kushan period, this skill was perfected during the Gupta period. At this time, Buddhist temples turn into museums in which monumental painting reaches its true flowering.

The art of the Gupta era created classical ideals of beauty, which were adhered to by the masters of subsequent generations.

Related information.

India is a country of extremes like no other country in the world. The country has different religions, languages, beliefs and traditions. The historical sites in India reflect a variety of ancient architectural styles and cultures. This photo strip contains 10 amazing historical monuments India that is worth visiting at least once in your life.

Hawa Mahal

Hawa Mahal, also known as the Palace of the Winds, is one of the most beautiful attractions of the city of Jaipur. This beautiful palace was built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh in 1799. The pink sandstone palace is believed to have been built in the shape of Lord Krishna's crown. Hawa Mahal is a perfect realization of Rajputana architecture. The pyramidal shape and 953 beautiful windows make this place so unique that the palace is unconditionally recognized as the main attraction of the city. The interior of Hawa Mahal is dominated by long passages and many windows. There are no stairs in this palace, and the different floors are connected by special slopes. The palace's 953 windows were reserved for royal women, who never appeared in public. These windows allowed them to observe people's lives, offering an excellent view of the city.

Cellular prison

Cellular Jail, also known as kala pani, is located in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This complex has been preserved as a mute testimony to the torture faced by Indian independence supporters. Today the Cellular Prison is one of the main historical monuments of the country. Every piece of land here tells the story of resistance, sacrifice and suffering of Indian activists. Famous freedom fighters like Barindra Kumar Ghosh, Upendranath Banerjee, Ullaskar Dutta and many others were imprisoned in Cellular Jail. The prison has a total of 696 solitary cells, which is why it is called a cell cell.

Arch

India Gate is Mumbai's most famous landmark. Construction of the India Gate ended in 1924, 13 years after it began. The arch was built in the style of Indo-Saracenic architecture. The main purpose of building this colossal structure was to commemorate the arrival of King George V and Queen Mary in Mumbai, which took place in 1911. India Gate is a symbol of British India and the British Emperor. Visitors will also find here a statue of Maharaja Kathrapati Sivaiya, a 17th-century Indian warrior king. The country's most popular palace, the Taj Mahal, is located very close to the India Gate, as are many hotels where you can stay overnight. You can learn about this, as well as other attractions in India, in a separate article on LifeGlobe.

Charminar

Charminar is to the city of Hyderabad what the Taj Mahal is to Agra. This structure was built in 1591 by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qatb Shah to celebrate the retreat of the plague from his region. The Charminar is built in the Indo-Islamic architectural style using granite and covered with marble. Four 56-meter minarets of graceful shape are lined up at the corners of the building with a double balcony. A staircase of 149 winding steps leads to the top floor of the complex, created specifically for prayer. There is also a wonderful underground tunnel that connects Charminar to Golconda.

Ajanta Caves

Ajanta Caves is the most popular Buddhist monument in India, located in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. 30 mountain caves have been carved into the rock since the 2nd century BC. Among them there are both halls with monuments and monastic cells. Ajanta is a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its historical significance and ancient paintings and sculptures. The Ajanta Caves are one of the most popular attractions in India. The rock art, unique in its essence, depicts various events from the life of Buddha and is the rarest example of its kind.

Sanchi Stupa

Sanchi Stupa is the oldest stone structure in India and also one of the popular Buddhist monuments in the country. Built in the 3rd century BC. Emperor Ashoka Stupa is located in Raisan, Madhya Pradesh. The original structure was built of brick in the shape of a hemisphere, but in subsequent years it was repeatedly completed and eventually acquired the appearance that has survived to this day. Many sculptures and images of the stupa are dedicated to the life of the Buddha, symbolizing certain moments in his life. The stonework of the Sanchi Stupa contains the remains of Buddha, which is why the place is considered one of the most sacred in India. Initially, the fence around the stupa was made of wood, but was later replaced by stone. Gates were built in the direction of the 4 cardinal directions.

Mysore Palace

The Mysore Palace is located in the city of Mysore in the state of Karnataka. This structure was built by various emperors at different periods of time - this is the main reason for the mixture of architectural styles of the Mysore Palace, combining Indo-Saracenic style along with a combination of Hindu, Muslim, Rajput and gothic styles. During construction, beautiful gray granite and pink marble were used, harmoniously combined into a single whole. The darbar and royal wedding hall in the palace is a major attraction for visitors. The armory room, containing 14th-century weapons, is used by the royal family, and the palace itself remains the residence of the Wodeyars to this day.

Qutub Minar

Qutub Minar is the second tallest minaret in the country, located in Delhi. This UNESCO World Heritage Site was founded by Singh Bahadur in 1192, and the process of building the graceful tower took over 75 years, spanning several generations. Qutub Minar is also surrounded by many other ancient sites. The 70-meter-tall ancient Islamic monument is made of red brick and marble. The minaret consists of 5 tiers, each of which is separated by beautifully decorated balconies. On the lower levels, the interior is decorated with beautiful Islamic carvings depicting important periods in the history of the Qutub Minar.

Red Fort

The Red Fort is one of the most iconic symbols of India, located in Delhi and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The fort was home to the Mughal emperors for over 200 years. The Red Fort was built by Emperor Shah Jahan from 1648, taking its name from the large red sandstones. The majestic building unites architectural styles Mughal, Hindu, Islamic, Persian and Timurid cultures. The complex covers an area of ​​254 acres and has an octagonal shape. Persian, European and Indian artists were employed to decorate its interiors. beauty artwork accentuated by inlay of precious stones. On every Indian Independence Day since 1947, the country's Prime Minister has hoisted the national flag at the main gate of the fort. The Prime Minister also delivers all important speeches from the Red Fort. The outstanding fortress attracts visitors from various parts of the world traveling along

A significant part of the primary sources on the history of ancient India has perished irretrievably. Many works of ancient Indian literature were written on birch bark or palm leaves and did not withstand the unfavorable conditions of a climate more humid than in Egypt (where such fragile material as papyrus could be preserved). On the other hand, fires, which could not destroy collections of clay books in Western Asia, turned out to be destructive for the archives of ancient India. Only those texts that were carved on stone survived in the original, and relatively few of them were discovered. Fortunately, Sanskrit, unlike most ancient Eastern languages, was never forgotten; the literary tradition was not interrupted for thousands of years. Those works that were considered valuable were systematically rewritten and came to us in later copies with additions and distortions.

The situation is worse with the ancient chronicles. Almost nothing remains of them, except for fragments included in later medieval chronicles.

The largest in volume and most abundant in content are poetic works: the Vedas (extensive collections of hymns, chants, magic spells and ritual formulas - Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda), Mahabharata (the epic poem about the great war of the descendants of Bharata) and Ramayana (the tale of the deeds of Prince Rama).

Besides the mythical and epic works, the collection “Laws of Manu” has also been preserved, the chronological fixation of which also presents great difficulties (c. 3rd century BC - c. 3rd century AD). This is a typical monument of sacred law, in which civil and criminal regulations are closely intertwined with ritual regulations and prohibitions.

A unique written monument is the Arthashastra, the composition of which is attributed to the outstanding dignitary, contemporary of Alexander the Great, Kautilya. This remarkable treatise on government contains a whole series of advice and instructions reflecting the conditions of the era when centralization and bureaucratization were established in the country.

For the study of early Buddhism, the main source is the collection of legends and sayings of the Tipitaka.

The edicts of King Ashoka (III century BC), carved on rocks, are most accurately dated. They report on the warriors and religious policies of this king.

Among the ancient authors, along with Herodotus, who gave a description of western India of his time (5th century BC), Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century, should be especially noted. AD In his “Anabasis of Alexander” he described the campaign of this king to India, in a special work - “India” - he gave a detailed geographical outline of the country11 Bongard-Levin T.M. “Ancient Indian civilization”, M., 1993.

The history of ancient Indian literature is usually divided into several stages: Vedic, epic, and the period of classical Sanskrit literature. The first two stages are characterized by the predominance of the oral tradition of text transmission. The true encyclopedias of Indian life are the two great epic poems of Ancient India, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They depict all aspects of the life of ancient Indians. The epic absorbed material that, emerging from the oral poetic tradition, acquired a didactic character and included religious and philosophical works and ideas. In subsequent eras, many prominent Indian artists, including the famous Kalidas, drew their inspiration from these treasures of wisdom of their people.

In the era of classical Sanskrit literature, the collection of stories and parables “Panchatantra”, based on folklore, gained particular popularity. It was translated into many languages, and they became acquainted with it quite early in Russia.

Among the literature attributed to the Buddhist tradition, the work of the poet and playwright Pshvaghosh (1-2 century AD) stands out clearly. The poem “Buddhacharita” written by him was the first artificial epic to appear in Indian literature. The Gupta era was the time of development of ancient Indian theater. Even special treatises on dramaturgy appeared. The tasks of the theater and the technique of acting were determined. The Indian theatrical tradition preceded the Greek one.

The theory of literary creativity, including poetry, reached a high level in Ancient India. The rules of versification and treatises on the theory of metrics and poetics were developed in detail. Several schools of “poetic science” are emerging, and there are debates about genres, the purpose of literature, and artistic language.

The concept of the divine character of speech influenced the development of the science of language. It was believed that speech lies at the basis of the sciences and arts. In Panini’s grammar “The Eight Books” the analysis of linguistic material is carried out so deeply and thoroughly that modern scientists find similarities between the theory of the ancient Indians and modern linguistics.

The first monument of the thought of the ancient Indians was the “VEDAS”, literally meaning “knowledge, knowledge” when translated from Sanskrit. The VEDAS, having emerged between the second and first millennium BC, played a huge, decisive role in the development of the spiritual culture of ancient Indian society, including the development of philosophical thought.

The VEDAS consist of hymns, prayers, spells, chants, sacrificial formulas, and so on. They are the first to attempt a philosophical interpretation of the human environment. Although they contain a semi-superstitious, semi-mythical, semi-religious explanation of the world around man, nevertheless, they are considered as philosophical, or rather pre-philosophical, pre-philosophical sources. Actually, the first literary works in which attempts are made to philosophize, i.e. interpretations of the world around a person could not be different in content. The figurative language of the Vedas expresses a very ancient religious worldview, the first philosophical idea of ​​the world, man, and moral life. The VEDAS are divided into four groups (or parts). The oldest of them is Samhitas (hymns). The Samhitas, in turn, consist of four collections. The earliest of them is the Rig Veda, a collection of religious hymns (about one and a half thousand years BC). The second part of the Vedas - Brahmanas (collection of ritual texts). The religion of Brahmanism, which dominated before the emergence of Buddhism, relied on them. The third part of the VED is the Aranyakas ("forest books", rules of conduct for hermits). The fourth part of the VEDAS is the Upanishads, the actual philosophical part, which arose about a thousand years BC.

Already at this time, the first elements of philosophical consciousness arose, the formation of the first philosophical teachings (both religious-idealistic and materialistic) began.

Upanishads (“to sit near”, i.e. at the feet of the teacher, receiving instructions; or - “secret, intimate knowledge”) - philosophical texts that appeared about one thousand years BC and in form, as a rule, represented the dialogue of a sage - a teacher with his student or with a person seeking the truth and subsequently becoming his student. In total, about a hundred Upanishads are known. They are dominated by the problem of the root cause, the first principle of being, with the help of which the origin of all natural and human phenomena is explained. The dominant place in the Upanishads is occupied by teachings that believe that the spiritual principle - Brahman, or Atman - is the primary cause and fundamental principle of existence. Brahman and Atman are usually used as synonyms, although Brahman is more often used to designate God, the omnipresent spirit, and Atman - the soul. Starting from the Upanishads, Brahman and Atman become the central concepts of all Indian philosophy (and above all Vedanta). In some Upanishads, Brahman and Atman are identified with the material root cause of the world - food, breath, material elements (water, air, earth, fire), or with the whole world as a whole. In most Upanishad texts, Brahman and Atman are interpreted as the spiritual absolute, the incorporeal root cause of nature and man.

A common thread running through all the Upanishads is the idea of ​​the identity of the spiritual essence of the subject (man) and the object (nature), which is reflected in the famous saying: “Tat tvam asi” (“You are that”, or “You are one with that”) .

The Upanishads and the ideas expressed in them do not contain a logically consistent and holistic concept. With a general predominance of the explanation of the world as spiritual and incorporeal, they also present other judgments and ideas and, in particular, attempts are made to provide a natural philosophical explanation of the root cause and fundamental basis of the phenomena of the world and the essence of man. Thus, in some texts there is a desire to explain the external and internal world as consisting of four or even five material elements. Sometimes the world is presented as an undifferentiated being, and its development as the sequential passage of certain states by this being: fire, water, earth, or gaseous, liquid, solid. This is precisely what explains all the diversity that is inherent in the world, including human society.

Cognition and acquired knowledge are divided into two levels in the Upanishads: lower and higher. At the lowest level one can only know surrounding reality. This knowledge cannot be true, since its content is fragmentary and incomplete. The highest is the knowledge of truth, i.e. spiritual absolute, this perception of being in its integrity, can be acquired only with the help of mystical intuition, the latter in turn being formed to a large extent thanks to yogic exercises. It is the highest knowledge that gives power over the world.

One of the most important problems in the Upanishads is the study of the essence of man, his psyche, emotional disturbances and forms of behavior. The thinkers of Ancient India noted the complexity of the structure of the human psyche and identified in it such elements as consciousness, will, memory, breathing, irritation, calm, etc. their interrelation and mutual influence are emphasized. An undoubted achievement should be considered the characteristics of various states of the human psyche and, in particular, the waking state, light sleep, deep sleep, and the dependence of these states on the external elements and primary elements of the external world.

In the field of ethics, the Upanishads predominantly preach a passive-contemplative attitude towards the world: the deliverance of the soul from all worldly attachments and worries is proclaimed to be the highest happiness. The Upanishads make a distinction between material and spiritual values, between goodness, as a calm state of the soul, and the base pursuit of sensual pleasures. By the way, it was in the Upanishads that the concept of transmigration of souls (samsara) and retribution for past actions (karma) was first expressed. Here the desire is expressed to determine the cause-and-effect relationship in the chain of human actions. An attempt is also made, with the help of moral principles (dharma), to correct human behavior at every stage of his existence. The Upanishads are essentially the foundation for all or almost all subsequent philosophical movements that appeared in India, since they presented or developed ideas that “nourished” for a long time philosophical thought in India.

Speaking about the philosophy of Ancient India, one cannot fail to mention the extensive epic poem Mahabharata, consisting of eighteen books. The main source of philosophical thought of the later - epic period is the extensive epic poem "Mahabharata", which consists of 18 books telling about the struggle for power between two clans - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. Along with the narration of this struggle in various books The Mahabharata also contains texts of philosophical content. Of greatest interest from this point of view are “Bhagavad-Gita”, “Mokshadharma”, “Anugita” and some others (VII century BC - II century AD).

In their content and orientation, most of the philosophical ideas of the Mahabharata represent a continuation and development of the views dominant in the Upanishads about Brahman-Atman or Purusha as a spiritual absolute and about its comprehension as a means of salvation and deliverance from the shackles of karma and samsara. However, unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented primarily in the form of individual statements and positions with unsettled, sometimes amorphous terminology, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear in the Mahabharata, giving a more or less unified interpretation of the main ideological problems, ranging from ontological to ethical and sociological, and having a more strictly fixed and more unambiguous conceptual apparatus.

Among these concepts, the teaching of Samkhya and closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned already in the Upanishads, acquires the main importance among these concepts in the epic. True, these teachings are presented differently in different parts of the Mahabharata, but everywhere they are based on the position of prakriti, or pradhana (matter, nature), as the source of all existing existence (including the psyche and consciousness) and independent of it and the pure spirit unaffected by its modifications - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman).

Greatest interest with philosophical point view is represented by one of the books - Bhagavad Gita ( divine song). Unlike the Upanishads, where philosophy is presented in the form of individual statements and provisions, already developed and integral philosophical concepts appear here, giving an interpretation of worldview problems. Of primary importance among these concepts is the teaching of Samkhya and the closely related yoga, which were occasionally mentioned in the Upanishads. The basis of the concept is the position of prakrit (matter, nature), as the source of all existence (including the psyche, consciousness) and the pure spirit independent of it - Purusha (also called Brahman, Atman). Thus, the worldview is dualistic, based on the recognition of two principles.

The main content of the Bhagavad Gita consists of the teachings of the god Krishna. God Krishna, according to Indian mythology, is the eighth avatar (incarnation) of the god Vishnu. God Krishna speaks of the need for every person to fulfill his social (varna) functions and duties, to be indifferent to the fruits of worldly activity, and to devote all his thoughts to God. Bhagavad Gita contains important ideas of ancient Indian philosophy: about the mystery of birth and death; about the relationship between prakriti and human nature; about genes (three material principles born of nature: tamas - an inert inert principle, rajas - a passionate, active, exciting principle, sattva - an uplifting, enlightened, conscious principle). Their symbols are respectively black, red and white, the colors that define people’s lives; about the moral law (dharma) of fulfilling one's duty; about the path of a yogi (a person who has devoted himself to yoga - the improvement of consciousness); about genuine and inauthentic knowledge. The main virtues of a person are called balance, detachment from passions and desires, and detachment from earthly things.