Archaeological monuments of the Paleolithic era according to archaeological data, the most ancient archaeological monument of Primorye, dated by radiocarbon - the cave of society - has an age of 32570 ± 1510 years ago. at this time the composition of the vegetation of Primorye was dominated by broadleaf forests in the lower mountain belt, cedar-broad-leaved forests in the middle mountains, dark coniferous taiga in the upper mountain belt. Siberian pine-broad-leaved forests dominated in the northern coastal region. The commercial fauna, identified from excavation materials, is represented mainly by ungulates - sika deer, wapiti, roe deer, bison, horse, goral. Among the predators, man hunted wolves, brown bears, hyenas, and tigers. other monuments of this era belong to the Osinovka culture - sites near the village of Osinovka, on Ilyushkina Hill, a site near the village. Astrakhanka, on the shore b. expedition. Crude pebble tools—choppers, flakes, and split pebbles—were discovered at these sites. the next period - maximum cooling - Upper Paleolithic– represented by the Ustinov culture and dated by radiocarbon from 18170±150 to 10780±50 years ago. From the beginning of the cooling to its maximum, the nature of vegetation changed. At this time, monotonous landscapes of birch and deciduous woodlands were widespread throughout most of the coastal territory. The upper and middle tiers of the mountains were occupied by char and mountain tundra. In the highest mountain ranges of the central and northern Sikhote-Alin, small karst glaciers existed. In the south of Primorye, islands of dark coniferous forests remained; in the basin of Lake Khanka there were extensive swamps framed by birch and birch-larch forests. During this era, people inhabited mainly mountain-taiga and forest-steppe areas of the inland part of the coastal region. The ecosystem of birch-deciduous forests had a fairly high productivity, which allowed people to provide themselves with food resources, mainly by hunting and gathering. human impact on environment was insignificant and amounted to burning and trampling of vegetation near settlements and sites. monuments of the Ustinov type are characterized by a more advanced (lamellar) technique of stone processing; the following fairly definite traces of human habitation date back to the period of the Pleistocene-Early Holocene boundary (12-10 thousand years ago; at this time the climate was drier and 3-4 degrees colder than the modern one. then some warming occurs (9.3 - 8.0 years ago). The climate was slightly warmer than the modern one by 1-2 degrees. The settlements of this time can mainly be traced along the edges of small valleys, near small tributaries of medium-sized rivers, streams and springs. The population of Primorye at this time develops technological traditions formed in the previous era. The following monuments belong to this time: Ustinovka (upper horizon), Oleniy 1 (lower horizon), etc. According to traceological analysis, several groups of tools can be distinguished for specialized operations - for cutting and processing hunting and fishing products. , trees. The economy of the population of that time, in a slightly more severe climate, was complex in nature - hunting, seasonal fishing, and collecting wild plants. paleolandscape analysis indicates the presence of different types of settlements - seasonal fishing sites, relatively permanent sites (associated with the presence of several species natural resources in a favorable location), parking lots, and sources of easily accessible raw materials for the production of stone tools.
As a result of studying this chapter, the student should:
know
- specifics of the use of works fiction as a historical source;
- features of the transmission of oral tradition;
- modern methodological principles of source research of folklore sources;
be able to
- determine whether a folklore source belongs to a specific genre;
- highlight the pseudo-folklore component in the corpus of sources;
- characterize the features of modern urban folklore;
own
Tools and methods for analyzing works of individual and collective creativity.
Key terms and concepts: fiction, folklore, folklore genres, oral sources.
Fiction as a historical source
TO fiction include written works that have social significance, aesthetically express and form public consciousness.
It is generally accepted that a person’s historical ideas are not formed under the influence of the works of professional historians, but are based on works of fiction and folklore sources. According to S. O. Schmidt, “the influence of the science of history on society is determined to a greater extent not by the direct research (or educational) works of historians (designed, as a rule, for a narrow circle of readers - mainly specialists), but by their journalistic writings or their concepts, conclusions and observations expressed in the writings of other publicists and masters of fiction."
In traditional source studies, only the most ancient literary texts were considered as historical sources. One of the reasons for the lack of attention on the part of professional historians of modern and contemporary times to fiction lies in the belief that the latter is extremely subjective, often biased, and therefore distorted picture life that does not meet the source study criteria for reliability.
Supporters of the so-called “new intellectual history,” a movement that emerged in the 1970s. in foreign historiography, they questioned the usual understanding of historical truth, suggesting that the historian will create a text in the same way as a poet or writer. In their opinion, the historian's text is a narrative discourse, a narrative, subject to the same rules of rhetoric that are present in fiction. E. S. Senyavskaya also rightly notes that not a single historian, like a writer, is able to completely recreate the past (even following the principle of “getting used to” it), since he is inevitably pressed by the burden of knowledge and ideas of his time.
In Russian historiography, the question of the possibilities of using fiction as a historical source has been raised before. Back in 1899, V. O. Klyuchevsky, in a speech on the occasion of the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow, called everything written by the great poet a “historical document”: “Without Pushkin, one cannot imagine the eras of the 20s and 30s, as it is impossible to write the history of the first half of our century without his works." In his opinion, incidents alone cannot serve as factual material for a historian: “...ideas, views, feelings, impressions of people of a certain time are the same facts and very important...”
The author of one of the first Soviet textbooks on source studies, G. P. Saar, included fiction and poetry among historical sources, but gave preference to " social novels", created by contemporaries of the events described. In subsequent years, the prevailing point of view was that works of art can be used in studying public relations only those historical eras, from which not enough other evidence has survived.
During the discussions that took place in 1962–1963. on the pages of the magazines "New and recent history" and "Questions in the History of the CPSU", a variety of opinions were expressed regarding the source study perspective of fiction: from categorical objections to a call not to neglect sources that reflect "the multifaceted activities of the party and the ideological life of society."
Typically, for a historian, fiction as a source was of interest if it contained unique information that was not reflected in other documents; if the author of the work of art was a direct witness to the events described; if the reliability of the information contained in the work could be verified, i.e. confirmed by other sources. N. I. Mironets noted in an article in 1976 that fiction is primarily a source of history cultural life countries.
L. N. Gumilyov formulated a fundamentally different approach to the problem, expressing the opinion that “every great and even small work of literature can be a historical source, but not in the sense of a literal perception of its plot, but in itself, as a fact signifying ideas and motives era".
Today, more and more historians recognize that works of fiction and art are an important source for understanding the spirit of the times, knowledge of the circumstances surrounding certain historical events. Particularly promising is the use of fiction in interdisciplinary research at the intersection of history, philosophy, psychology, linguistics, as well as in works on social history and the history of everyday life. Moreover, each literary work as a source must be studied taking into account its historical conditionality, mass consciousness contemporary society, the author's worldview, stylistic and linguistic features presentation.
According to A.K. Sokolov, literature and art have the ability to “grope” reality, to record emerging existence, anticipating what will only later be reflected in historiography. Thus, V. Dunham put forward the concept of the “grand bargain” in the mid-1930s. the Stalinist regime and the middle class of Soviet society. Today this concept is considered generally accepted in social history, although the main work of V. Dunham ("In Stalin's Time: Middleclass in Soviet Fiction") is based on the analysis industrial novels era of industrialization.
A work of fiction can serve as an impetus for historical research, search and verification of the facts presented by the author. It is known, for example, about the circumstances of A. A. Fadeev’s writing of the novel “The Young Guard”. The writer had to create an epoch-making work in a short time. After a devastating review in Pravda, which spoke about the unacceptably weak reflection in the novel of the leading role of the party in the creation of an underground organization and the unacceptably colorful description of the retreat of Soviet troops, the author was forced to prepare a second version of the novel (as he complained to the writer L. B. Libedinskaya - remake the “young guard into the old”). Relatives of many Young Guards turned to A. A. Fadeev and I. V. Stalin with complaints about the “incorrect coverage” of the activities of the youth underground, some participants of which were “canonized” as heroes, others were branded with shame as traitors. A. A. Fadeev himself admitted in one of his letters that in “The Young Guard,” as in any “novel on historical topic", fiction and history are so intertwined that it is difficult to separate one from the other. However, for most contemporaries there was no need to identify this relationship between truth and fiction. The novel received recognition because it spoke of a great victory, true heroes and universal human problems. In this sense, the work was a document of the era. Even today, not all archival materials have been declassified, and the debate among researchers about “The Young Guard” continues to this day. The very history of the appearance of A. A. Fadeev’s novel is extremely revealing in terms of the mechanism of creation of the myth.
The subject of independent historical research can be not only the works of fiction themselves, but also their social existence, the popularity of literary genres and the demand for authors, which reflects the tastes of the readership and the moral climate in society as a whole.
Value fiction (which is understood as literature with a fictional character, fictional circumstances that are perceived by the reader as such) as a source lies in the ability to reflect the mentality of its time, to contribute to the reconstruction of certain historical types of behavior, thinking, perception, i.e. reproduce subjective aspects of social reality. This makes works of fiction similar to memoirs and folklore sources.
There are two points of view on the relationship between fiction and folklore. According to the first, fiction (art) is opposed to folklore (a form of spiritual activity of the people that serves as a subject of study for ethnographers). According to the definition of the outstanding folklorist V. Ya. Propp, folklore is the “prehistory of literature.”
The other extreme is the identification of folklore and literature due to the recognition of a single " creative act"in both cases. Proponents of this approach highlighted the same art styles, as in the literature, including socialist realism. Since folklore was considered the art of the uneducated (mostly rural) population, it was argued that it would be replaced by literature as literacy spread and storytellers turned into writers. This does not happen, since literature and folklore are related art systems, but they are based different ways imaginative thinking– individual and collective.
Works of fiction are similar to folklore sources in that they convey to us not so much reliable information about the past, but certain matrices of social consciousness.
Both literature and folklore perform the functions of a symbolic regulator of social and cultural practices, assigning to certain texts both a certain audience and forms of social communication that serve as the experience of socialization of the subject, i.e. transform an individual into a member of a given cultural and historical community. The study of such experience, coupled with the study of readers and listeners (as consumers of texts) can significantly enrich historical knowledge.
Literary sources are works that, based on the plot, tell about historical events and personalities. Features of the study literary sources:
2. Availability in the source fiction– invented events and heroes.
When working with these sources, you need to separate fact from fiction, artistic descriptions from objects of reality. It also needs to be taken into account that individual genres(primarily hagiography) are built according to rigid canons, departure from which is not possible, as a result of which various invented events appear. Literary works do not so much record facts as reflect the author’s thoughts, feelings, and author’s thoughts about events and phenomena. These sources are very valuable for studying the history of culture and ideology.
52. Main features literary works XI – XIII centuries. “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” as a source on the history of Belarus.
The works of this period have two main points:
1. religious literature predominates
2. journalistic nature of secular literature
In the XI-XIII centuries. On the lands of Rus', works of Christian content predominated, the authors of which were Russian bishops and monks. The main genres and traditions of religious literature were adopted from Byzantium at the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th centuries. due to the adoption of Christianity. Already in 1055, the first original work of the Russian metropolitan appeared in 1051-1055. Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace", in which Prince Yaroslav the Wise was glorified. At the end of the 11th century, the monk Nestor created the first lives in Rus' - “The Life of Theodosius of Pechersk” and “The Life of Boris and Gleb”.
A good example literature that is difficult to separate from journalism is the work of Kirill Turovsky. From him we have received more than 40 works: legends, teachings on the Gospel, writings of the prophets, prayers and a canon of repentance, stories. Behind the religious form of his works are real facts life contemporary writer society, a tough struggle of social and cultural trends. Therefore, the literary and journalistic heritage of K. Turovsky is an important source not only for studying the writer’s activities, but also the spiritual atmosphere of that era.
One “Epistle to Presbyter Thomas” has survived, written by Clement Smolyatich, who in the 12th century “was a scribe and philosopher, the likes of which had never existed in Rus'.”
An interesting source of educational content (but, of course, of a secular nature) is the “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh”, written in 1117, but erroneously included in the Laurentian list of PVL in 1097. The author gives instructions to the younger generation, shares the experience of his eventful life life. Grand Duke, sharing his memories, talks about his relations with the Polotsk princes and his campaigns on the Belarusian lands.
One of the first secular literary sources on the lands of Rus' was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” written in 1185–1187. Chernigov boyar Pyotr Borislavich (attribution to B. Rybakov). The source is dated by the mention of the living Galician prince Yaroslav Osmomysl, who died in 1187. The “Lay” tells about the campaign of Prince Novgorod-Seversk Igor Svyatoslavovich in April-May 1185 against the Polovtsians. The dating of the campaign is established by solar eclipse, which caught Igor’s troops in the bend of the Don on May 1, 1185.
The “Tale of Igor’s Campaign” mentions the activities of the Polotsk prince Vseslav Bryachislavovich (1044–1101). While he was in Kyiv (in the cuttings in 1068, and then as a prince in 1069), he heard the ringing of the Polotsk Sophia, which indirectly indicates the construction of this temple in the 50-60s. XI century Vseslav, having turned into a wolf, ran the distance from Kyiv to Tmutarakan (Tamatarkha on the shore of the Kerch Strait) overnight (“before the chickens”), crossing the path of the Iranian solar deity Khorsu. This prince’s campaign against Tmutarakan is not reflected in the chronicles. “The Word” emphasizes the prince’s witchcraft abilities and the speed of his movements. The “Tale” colorfully describes the battle on the Nyamiga River on March 3, 1067, which is compared with a bloody harvest and threshing with “haraluzhny” (steel) caps.
Mentioned in the “Tale” is the struggle of Prince Izyaslav Vasilkovich against the “filthy” (pagan) Lithuanians, who were located in the swamps along the (Western) Dvina.
The list of “Words” was found by Musin-Pushkin in the Yaroslavl monastery. Then a copy was made from this list for Catherine II. In 1800, “The Lay” was published with parallel text in Old Russian and Russian. The list of “The Word”, which was in the Musin-Pushkin library, was lost during the fire of Moscow in 1812.
Hagiographic literature as a source on the history of Belarus.
The first “pasions” (passions) and martyrias (testimonies), which narrated the martyrdom of the first Christians, arose at the beginning of the 3rd century (pasion Perepetui and Felicites during the anti-Christian persecution of Septimius Severus 203-210).2 The first East Slavic hagiographic work was description in the “Tale of Bygone Years” of the sacrifice by pagans on July 12, 983 of a Varangian father and son in Kyiv (in later tradition they were called Theodore John).
The peculiarity of the Lives is that the author strictly followed the canon (as when writing an icon), used entire expressions and scenes from other Lives. For example, in the life of Euphrosyne of Polotsk there are many similarities with the life of Euphrosyne of Alexandria. Ephraim, the author of the life of Avramius of Smolensk, deliberately adopted the writing style of Ephraim the Syrian, creator of the life of John Chrysostom. Lives usually lack dating, and all events are usually indicated by the year of the saint’s life.
In the lives according to literary task biographical facts are only forms for determining ideal image saint Indeed, the pathos of the entire life and activity of an ascetic is based on the acceptance of the ideal image of behavior of an ancient saint, martyr, apostle, and, ultimately, Christ. Only those facts that correspond to the task are taken from the biography. Selected traits of the “ideal saint” suppress the individual personality. The hagiographer sets the task of finding a reflection of the ideal in the character, and not describing her as real historical character. Klyuchevsky said that the difference between a life and a biography is the same as between an icon and a portrait.
The Life of Euphrosyne of Polotsk (1130 - 1173 according to V. Orlov or 1105 - 1167 according to A. Melnikov) was written at the end of the 12th century. and was preserved in later revisions of the 16th – 18th centuries. More than 100 lists of lives can be divided into 6 editions: Collections, Degree Book, Makaryevsky great Chetyev Miney, two Prologues and the edition of the “Book of Lives of Saints” by Dmitry Rostov. The author of the life was a man close to the servant Michael, with whom Euphrosyne made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. This pilgrimage is described in detail in the life.
At the end of the 12th-13th centuries, a prologue life-memory of Cyril of Turov was created. Archimandrite Leonid attributed the time of writing the life to the time of the life of the Tver bishop Simeon (died in 1289). Preserved in lists starting from the 16th century, although N. Nikolsky published a list of the 14th-15th centuries in 1907.
During the period of the XII-XIII centuries. Ageographic works such as:
1. A word about the Turov monk Martin, who lived in the first half of the 12th century. The word has been preserved in Prologues since the 15th century.
2. Life of Avramius of Smolensk (died no later than 1219), created by his follower Ephraim after the Mongol invasion in 1237;
3. The Life of Mercury, Martyr of Smolensk, written after the Mongol invasion in 1237. Preserved in 80 copies of the 16th–18th centuries. Many researchers consider him not a real figure, but a product folk art, copied from the great martyr Mercury of Caesarea.
Literary sources- written sources of the past, created not to satisfy aesthetic needs. Each source has 4 layers: literal, symbolic, allegorical and moral. Old Russian literature includes Christian literature, folklore, and folk beliefs. There is a division into secular and spiritual literature. There is a close connection between literature and Christianity, the original text is a translation from Greek language. Since the 11th century, national literature has been developing. Difficulty of studying: it is difficult to understand the text without a linguist, the problem of comparing the translation with the original, understanding the semantic set of words.
Semantics (from Old Greekσημαντικός - denoting) - section linguistics, literary studies, studying meaninglanguage units, terms and concepts in their historical development.
Types of works:
Canonical and Apocryphal (secret and renounced)
Canon- “measure of length”, hence the Greek. kanes, lat. canna - “reed, reed, stick.” A stick that served as a ruler (elbow), a plumb line - a thread with a weight to determine the vertical. This is a rule, a norm, a law, a model, generally accepted, sanctified. The canon is a model, a criterion for evaluating works created according to its model.
Apocrypha(from ancient Greek ἀπόκρῠφος - hidden, secret, secret) - spiritual works that are not included in the canon and do not correspond to the model, often prohibited for use. Gnosticism...
Canonical works have genres:
Scriptural – Old and New Testament
Liturgical – liturgical (books of hours, menaions, breviaries, breviaries)
Books of Hours- a liturgical book containing the texts of unchangeable prayers of the daily liturgical circle. It gets its name from the clock service it contains.
Menaia or chety-minaia, (that is, intended for reading, and not for worship) books of the lives of saints Orthodox Church, and these stories are presented in order of the months and days of each month...
Breviary- a liturgical book containing the rites of the Sacraments and other sacred rites performed by the church
Paremeyniki- a book of passages from the Holy Scriptures (quotation book).
This includes translations of the Bible, Psalter, Gospel, etc.
Doctrinal genre - symbols and statements of faith, catechetical teachings (catechisms), polemical works, interpretations. Example - “Belief or Word about the right faith of John of Damascus,” Ladder of John Climacus.
Preaching genre - sermons. Treatises of Methodius of Patarsky, Collection of Svyatoslav 1703, Izmaragda.
Hagiographic genre - lives, biographies, words of praise to saints and tales of miracles.
Patericon is a collection of stories about ascetic monks.
Menaion - hagiographic stories by month, abridged edition.
Translations of gossip columns.
Byzantine chronicles are the basis of Russian chronicles. Through the chronicles there was an acquaintance with ancient literature. “The Tale of Akira the Wise”, “The Tale of Varlaam and Josaphai”.
Original ancient Russian literature.
Teachings and messages. “A Sermon on Law and Grace”, “Teaching to the Brethren”, “Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh”, “Prayer” by Daniil Zatochnik.
Everyday literature
The earliest is considered to be “Service to the holy martyrs Boris and Gleb” (about 1021), “Life of Prince Vladimir”, Kiev-Pechersk Patericon (about the first monks of the monastery), “Life of Anthony the Roman”, Hagiographic stories about Stephen of Perm, Sergius of Radonezh, Dmitry Prilutsky, Metropolitan of Alexia.
Klyuchevsky V. Old Russian about the lives of saints as historical sources.
...life is not a biography of secular persons, this is a special form cast in the consciousness of the people for expressing the ideal image of a holy man as a model (example) to follow. There are names that stepped out of the boundaries of the time when their bearers lived. This is because the work done by such a person, in its significance, went so far beyond the boundaries of his century, with its beneficial effect it so deeply captured the life of subsequent generations that from the person who did it, in the consciousness of these generations, everything temporary and local gradually fell away. it turned from a historical figure into a popular idea, and the matter itself, from a historical fact, became a practical commandment, a covenant, what we are accustomed to calling an ideal. ... This is the name of St. Sergius [of Radonezh]: this is not only an edifying, joyful page in our history, but also a bright feature of our moral national content.”
Walking- descriptions of pilgrimage to the Holy Land. The earliest is the Walk to Jerusalem of Abbot Daniel (1115). Walking beyond three seas by Afanasy Nikitin.
Military stories stood out from the chronicles. A word about Igor's Campaign. The story of the destruction of Ryazan by Batu in the 14th century. Zadonshchina. The legend of the Massacre of Mamayev.
Fiction as a historical source
Fiction includes written works that have social significance, aesthetically express and shape public consciousness.
It is generally accepted that a person’s historical ideas are not formed under the influence of the works of professional historians, but are based on works of fiction and folklore sources. According to S. O. Schmidt, “the influence of the science of history on society is determined to a greater extent not by the direct research (or educational) works of historians (designed, as a rule, for a narrow circle of readers - mainly specialists), but by their journalistic writings or their concepts, conclusions and observations expressed in the writings of other publicists and masters of fiction."
In traditional source studies, only the most ancient literary texts were considered as historical sources. One of the reasons for the lack of attention on the part of professional historians of modern and contemporary times to fiction lies in the belief that the latter represents an extremely subjective, often biased, and therefore distorted picture of life that does not meet the source study criteria of reliability.
Supporters of the so-called “new intellectual history,” a movement that emerged in the 1970s. in foreign historiography, they questioned the usual understanding of historical truth, suggesting that the historian will create a text in the same way as a poet or writer. In their opinion, the historian's text is a narrative discourse, a narrative, subject to the same rules of rhetoric that are present in fiction. E. S. Senyavskaya also rightly notes that not a single historian, like a writer, is able to completely recreate the past (even following the principle of “getting used to” it), since he is inevitably pressed by the burden of knowledge and ideas of his time.
In Russian historiography, the question of the possibilities of using fiction as a historical source has been raised before. Back in 1899, V. O. Klyuchevsky, in a speech on the occasion of the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow, called everything written by the great poet a “historical document”: “Without Pushkin, one cannot imagine the eras of the 20s and 30s, as it is impossible to write the history of the first half of our century without his works." In his opinion, incidents alone cannot serve as factual material for a historian: “...ideas, views, feelings, impressions of people of a certain time are the same facts and very important...”
The author of one of the first Soviet textbooks on source studies, G. P. Saar, included fiction and poetry among historical sources, but gave preference to “social novels” created by contemporaries of the events described. In subsequent years, the prevailing point of view was that works of art can be used in the study of social relations only in those historical eras from which a sufficient amount of other evidence has not survived.
During the discussions that took place in 1962–1963. On the pages of the magazines "New and Contemporary History" and "Questions of the History of the CPSU", a variety of opinions were expressed regarding the source study perspective of fiction: from categorical objections to a call not to neglect sources that reflect "the multifaceted activities of the party and the ideological life of society."