If you turn to literary dictionaries, then a “poem” can be defined as a poetic lyric-epic work that reflects certain life or historical events that are presented to the reader through the perception of the narrator.
" " are greatest monument world literature, which were created by Nikolai Gogol for more than one year. In his work, the author managed to show us life Russian state in the mid-19th century with its soulless bureaucratic machine, serfdom and spiritual decay of the human personality.
Masterfully took advantage of Pushkin’s “gift”. While working on “Dead Souls,” Nikolai Vasilyevich decided to develop the idea and create three whole volumes of the poem. In them he was going to show us all the facets of the life of the Russian state. The main idea of the second and third volumes, according to the author, was to be the spiritual rebirth of the main character. However, initially Dead Souls"was conceived by Gogol as a novel, but later, in one of his letters to Zhukovsky, he calls his work a poem. In my opinion, it was the breadth of the events described, the abundance of lyrical digressions that prompted Nikolai Vasilyevich to think about the name “ Dead souls"poem.
According to Gogol's plan, the poem "Dead Souls" was supposed to be on a par with Homer's "Odyssey" and Dante's "Divine Comedy". “Dead Souls” were supposed to reveal to us the “hell”, “purgatory” and “paradise” of the Russia of that time. Gogol tried not only to draw our attention to the problems of the Russian state, but also to offer a way to solve them.
The composition of the poem is quite simple. All structural elements The works are interconnected by the personality of the main character - Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov and his desire to get rich. Even plug-in design works - “The Tale of Captain Kopeikin” - does not stand out from the general content.
In addition, “Dead Souls” has one more characteristic element, which is inherent specifically in the poem. These are lyrical digressions in which Gogol gives his assessment of the events taking place. It is lyrical digressions that give us the opportunity to feel the author, find out his thoughts, and feel his emotions. In his lyrical digressions, Gogol raises two topics - the topic of Russia and the topic of roads. The author firmly believes that times will come and Russia will be reborn, that people will cease to be cruel and selfish, and their souls will be filled with love and happiness.
Although the concept of genre is constantly changing and becoming more complex, genre can be understood as a historically developing type literary work, which has certain characteristics. From these features, the main idea of the work becomes clear, and we roughly guess its content: from the definition of “novel” we expect a description of a long period in the life of the heroes, from comedy - dynamic action and an unusual denouement; a lyric poem should immerse us in the depth of feelings and experiences. But when these features inherent different genres, mix with each other, creating a kind of unique combination - such a work initially leads the reader to bewilderment. Thus, one of the greatest, but at the same time mysterious, works of the XIX century - Gogol's poem "Dead Souls".
The genre definition of “poem,” which then unambiguously meant a lyric-epic work written in poetic form and predominantly romantic, was accepted differently by Gogol’s contemporaries. Some found it mocking. Reactionary criticism simply mocked the author's definition of the genre of the work. But opinions differed, and others saw hidden irony in this definition.
Why did Gogol choose this particular genre to embody his ideas? Is the poem really so capacious as to give scope to all of Gogol’s thoughts and spiritual experiences? After all, “Dead Souls” embodied both irony and artistic sermon. Of course, this is where Gogol’s skill lies. He managed to mix the features inherent in different genres and harmoniously combine them under one genre definition of “poem”.
What new did Gogol introduce? Which features of the poem, whose roots go back to antiquity, did he leave behind to reveal his creative concept? First of all, we are reminded of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. On this basis, a controversy developed between Belinsky and Aksakov, who believed that “Dead Souls” was written exactly on the model of the “Iliad” and “Odyssey.” “In Gogol’s poem that ancient Homeric epic appears to us, in it its important character, its dignity and wide-ranging size appear again,” wrote Aksakov.
Indeed, the similarities with Homer’s poem are obvious; they play a big role in defining the genre and revealing the author’s intention. Already from the title, the analogy with the wanderings of Odysseus is obvious. To the fierce protests of censorship against such a somewhat strange title - "Dead Souls" - Gogol responded by adding another one to the main title - "The Adventures of Chichikov." But the adventures, travels, wanderings of Odysseus were described by the great Homer.
One of the most striking analogies with Homer’s poem is the appearance of Chichikov at Korobochka. If Chichikov is Odysseus, wandering around the world, then Korobochka appears before us, albeit in such an unusual form, as the nymph Calypso or the sorceress Circe: “Oh, sir, father, you, like a hog, have your whole back and side covered in mud. Where did you deign to get so dirty?" With these words Korobochka greets Chichikov, and so, only after turning them into real pigs, does he meet the companions of Odysseus Circe. After staying with Korobochka for about a day, Chichikov himself turns into a hog, devouring pies and other dishes. It should be noted that Korobochka (by the way, the only woman among the landowners) lived in her remote estate, reminiscent of the abandoned island of Calypso, and kept Chichikov with her longer than all the landowners. Korobochka reveals the secret of Chichikov's box. Some researchers believe that this is Chichikov's wife. This clearly shows mysticism and mystery. Gogol's work, it partly begins to resemble lyric poem with an exciting mystical plot. The title "Dead Souls" and the skulls drawn by Gogol himself on title page, only confirm this idea.
Another reminder of Homer’s poem can be the image of Sobakevich. One has only to look at him, and we recognize him as the Cyclops Polyphemus - a powerful, formidable giant who lives in the same huge dens. Sobakevich's house is not at all distinguished by its beauty and grace, but we are talking about such a building - a cyclopean structure, meaning its shape and the complete absence of any logic in its construction. And Sobakevich himself is contradictory: his “half” - Feodulia Ivanovna, skinny as a pole, is the complete opposite of her husband.
But it is not only in the descriptions of the landowners that we find similarities with Homer’s poem. The episode at customs is also interesting, not inferior in its cunning to the ingenuity of Odysseus. The transportation of lace on rams was clearly adopted from the ancient hero, who saved his life and the lives of his comrades by tying people under the sheep.
There are analogies in the composition - an exposition about Chichikov’s past affairs is given at the end of the work, just as Odysseus tells Alcinous about his disasters, already being almost close to his native Ithaca. This rearrangement of introductions, conclusions and the main part is also facilitated by one more interesting fact: both Odysseus and Chichikov travel as if against their own will - they are both gradually drawn in by the elements, which control the heroes as they want. The similarity of these elements is noteworthy: in one case it is formidable nature, in the other it is the vicious nature of man.
So, we see that the composition is directly related to the genre of the poem, and Homeric analogies are of great importance here. They play a big role in genre definition and expand the poem to the size of a “small kind of epic.” This is directly indicated by unusual compositional techniques, allowing you to cover a significant period of time, and inserted stories that complicate storyline works.
But it would be wrong to talk about the direct influence of the ancient epic on Gogol’s poem. Since ancient times, many genres have undergone a complex evolution. To think that in our time it is possible ancient epic, this is as absurd as believing that humanity can become a child again. V. Belinsky wrote about this, arguing with K. Aksakov. But Gogol's poem, of course, is much more philosophical, and some critics find the influence of another great work, albeit from the Renaissance - Dante's Divine Comedy.
In the very structure of the poem, some similarities are visible: firstly, the three-part principle of the composition of the work is indicated, and the first volume of “Dead Souls,” conceived as a three-volume set, is, relatively speaking, the Hell of Dante’s comedy. Individual chapters represent circles of hell: 1st circle - Limbo - Manilov's estate, where sinless pagans are located - Manilov with his wife and their children. The voluptuaries Korobochka and Nozdryov inhabit the second circle of hell, followed by Sobakevich and Plyushkin, possessed by Plutos, the god of wealth and stinginess.
City of Dit - provincial town, and even the guard at the gate, whose mustache appears on his forehead and thus resembles the horns of the devil, already tells us about the similarity of these vicious cities with his appearance. At the time when Chichikov leaves the city, the coffin of the late prosecutor is carried into it - these are the devils dragging his soul to hell. Through this kingdom of shadow and darkness only one ray of light peeks through, the governor’s daughter Beatrice (or the heroine of the 2nd volume of “Dead Souls” Ulenka Betrishcheva).
Compositional and textual analogies with Dante's comedy indicate the comprehensive nature of Gogol's work. With one comparison of Russia to hell in the first volume, Gogol helps us understand that Russia must perk up and go from hell to purgatory, and then to heaven. Such somewhat utopian and grotesque ideas of Gogol, his all-destroying and truly Homeric comparisons could only be expressed in a poem as mystical and unusual in its plot as Dante’s.
The fact that Gogol failed to realize his creative plan, which was to create purgatory and paradise (the two subsequent volumes), is Gogol’s aesthetic tragedy. He was too aware of the fall of Russia, and in his poem the vulgar Russian reality found its philosophically complete reflection. It turned out to be a parody, an exposure of the vices of Russian reality.
The revival of Chichikov conceived by Gogol carries within it a shade of a certain quixoticism. Another possible prototype of Gogol’s poem opens before us - a travestyed chivalric romance (which is Cervantes’ “Don Quixote”). At the heart of the travestied chivalric novel, or otherwise picaresque, is also the genre of adventures.
Chichikov travels around Russia, engaging in scams and dubious enterprises, but through the search for treasures, the search for spiritual perfection is visible - Gogol gradually leads Chichikov to the straight path, which would be the beginning long journey revival in the second and third volumes of Dead Souls. Travesting a genre, such as, for example, travestying a chivalric romance into a picaresque novel, sometimes leads to the fact that folklore elements. Their influence on the formation of the genre identity of “Dead Souls” is quite great. Moreover, the work of Gogol, who was a Ukrainophile, was directly influenced by Ukrainian motifs, especially since travesties turned out to be the most widespread in Ukraine (for example, Kotlyarevsky’s poem “The Aeneid”). V. Bakhtin finds in Gogol’s poem “forms of a cheerful carnival procession through the underworld.”
So, they appear before us ordinary heroes folklore genres - heroes, depicted by Gogol as if in an inverted form (in the form of anti-heroes without souls). These are Gogol's landowners and officials, for example, Sobakevich, who, according to Nabokov, is perhaps Gogol's most poetic hero. The image of the people also plays a large role in the poem, but not the pathetic Selifan and Petrushka, who, in fact, are also internally dead, but the idealized people of lyrical digressions. He not only points out such folk genre like lyrical folk song, but seems to bring us to the deepest in artistic and ideological sense genre - artistic sermon.
Gogol himself thought of himself as a hero who, directly pointing out its shortcomings, would educate Russia and keep it from further decline. He thought that, by showing the “metaphysical nature of evil” (Berdyaev), he would revive the fallen “dead souls” and with his work, as a lever, would turn their development towards revival. This is indicated by one fact: Gogol wanted his poem to be published together with Ivanov’s painting “The Appearance of Christ to the People.” Gogol presented his work with the same ray that promotes insight.
This is Gogol’s special intention: the combination of features of different genres gives his work the comprehensive didactic character of a parable or teaching. The first part of the planned trilogy was written brilliantly; only Gogol was able to show the ugly Russian reality so clearly. But later the writer suffered an aesthetic and creative tragedy; the artistic sermon embodied only its first part - censure, but did not have an end - repentance and resurrection. A hint of repentance is contained in the genre definition itself. It is the lyrical digressions, with which the real poem should be filled, that point to it, although they remain, perhaps, the only feature of a real lyric epic work. They give the whole work an inner sadness and highlight irony. Gogol himself said that the 1st volume of “Dead Souls” is just “a porch to a vast building”, the 2nd and 3rd volumes are purgatory and rebirth.
The writer thought of regenerating people through direct instruction, but he could not: he never saw the ideal “resurrected” people. But his literary endeavor was continued in Russian literature. Dostoevsky and Tolstoy were able to show the rebirth of man, his resurrection and the reality that Gogol so vividly depicted.
“Novel”, “story”, “poem” - this is what N.V. himself called “Dead Souls”. Gogol, working on this work. The writer was probably well aware of the unusual genre of his creation: “The thing I’m sitting and working on now... doesn’t look like a story or a novel,” wrote N.V. Gogol.
It seems to me that what prompted the author to call “Dead Souls” a poem was the combination of a subjective element in the work, a high lyrical mood, and a strong author’s “voice.” And at the same time, Dead Souls contains the most important features of a realistic novel. This work reveals deeply public relations, different types of people are displayed. In general, everything speaks about the uniqueness of the Dead Souls genre.
Reflecting on the question “Why N.V. Gogol called his work “Dead Souls” a poem?”, one might assume, because this work combined the features of an epic and a novel.
“Dead Souls” is directly related to the “universality” of the epic noted by Gogol, its ability to embrace “not just some features, but the entire era of time” (N.V. Gogol), to show “the whole people.” At the same time, “Dead Souls” reflected such features of the novel as a strictly structured plot, revelation of destinies different heroes and their need for the development of the main idea of the work, as well as the drama of all “Dead Souls”.
As a result of a combination of features of various genres and artistic traditions In Gogol's poem, the fates of individual heroes are connected with the fate of the entire nation, all of Russia. “Dead Souls” presents a “picture of morals” with a broad philosophical and moral sense. Gogol's poem combines an objective, narrative, raelistic beginning and lyrical statements. And sometimes Gogol combines a high poetic note with merciless prose, a “living flow” of life with a clearly manifested author’s purpose.
And yet this work is a poem in which the image of the future of Russia was not clear at first. The writer did not know where the Rus' Troika was rushing. And here it is very important to emphasize romantic traits“Dead Souls”: a stream of lyrical digressions flows into the epic narrative of the poem. The main background seems to begin to brighten, and there is a sense of ease of movement in the narrative.
The writer prepares the reader for the lyrical flow with a peculiar introduction: “Meanwhile, the ladies left, the pretty head with thin features and a slender figure disappeared, like something similar to a vision, and again there was a road, a chaise, three horses familiar to the reader, Selifan, Chichikov , the smooth surface and emptiness of the surrounding fields. Everywhere in life, whether among the callous, rough-pale and unpleasantly moldy low ranks of it or among the monotonously cold and boringly neat upper classes, everywhere at least once a person will encounter a phenomenon that is not similar to everything that has happened him to see until then..."
It is interesting that between the lyrical part and the depiction of reality in “Dead Souls” we see a far from smooth transition. On the contrary, we find a contrast, and quite a sharp one at that. This is a kind of push that is felt when moving from a dream to reality. Often, Gogol’s lyrical movement suddenly ends: “...And a mighty space threateningly embraces me, with terrible force reflected in my depths; My eyes lit up with unnatural power: oh! What a sparkling, wonderful, unknown distance to the earth! Rus'!.. - Hold it, hold it, fool! - Chichikov shouted to Selifan.”
The lyrical beginning of “Dead Souls” (and this is also genre sign poems) are distinguished by leisurely, thorough descriptions. It’s as if Gogol is looking down on not only Russia, but his entire life: “Rus! Rus! I see you from another wonderful, beautiful distance..."
Such lyrical digressions carry an important semantic load in the poem. Sometimes permeated with a mood of sadness, these episodes become the expression of some kind of prophecy: “And yet, full of bewilderment, I stand motionless, and a menacing cloud, heavy with the coming rains, has already overshadowed my head, and my thoughts are numb in front of your space.”
In the lyrical digressions of Dead Souls, diversity, even richness, is revealed with full force. It is in the lyrical digressions of the poem that Gogol’s longing for the ideal, and the sad charm of his memories of irrevocable youth, and the feeling of the greatness of nature are contained.
“Dead Souls” N.V. Gogol is a realistic work, but the romantic current that lives in it does not allow us to call it anything other than a poem.
In May 1842, the first volume of Gogol's Dead Souls was published. The work was conceived by the author while he was working on The Inspector General. In Dead Souls, Gogol addresses the main theme of his work: the ruling classes of Russian society. The writer himself said: “My creation is huge and great, and its end will not come soon.” Indeed, “Dead Souls” is an outstanding phenomenon in the history of Russian and world satire.
"Dead Souls" - a satire on serfdom
“Dead Souls” is a work. In this, Gogol is the successor of Pushkin’s prose. He himself speaks about this on the pages of the poem in a lyrical digression about two types of writers (Chapter VII).
Here the peculiarity of Gogol's realism is revealed: the ability to expose and show close-up all the flaws human nature, which are not always obvious. “Dead Souls” reflected the basic principles of realism:
- Historicism. The work is written about modern writer time - the turn of the 20-30s of the 19th century - then serfdom experienced a serious crisis.
- Typical character and circumstances. Landowners and officials are depicted satirically with a pronounced critical focus, and the main social types are shown. Special attention Gogol pays attention to details.
- Satirical typification. It is achieved author's description characters, comic situations, reference to the past of heroes, hyperbolization, use of proverbs in speech.
Meaning of the name: literal and metaphorical
Gogol planned to write a work in three volumes. He took Dante Alighieri’s “The Divine Comedy” as a basis. Likewise, Dead Souls was supposed to consist of three parts. Even the title of the poem refers the reader to Christian principles.
Why "Dead Souls"? The name itself is an oxymoron, a juxtaposition of the incomparable. The soul is a substance that is inherent in the living, but not in the dead. Using this technique, Gogol gives hope that not all is lost, that the positive principle in the crippled souls of landowners and officials can be reborn. This is what the second volume should have been about.
The meaning of the title of the poem “Dead Souls” lies on several levels. On the very surface there is a literal meaning, because it is dead souls dead peasants were named in bureaucratic documents. Actually, this is the essence of Chichikov’s machinations: to buy up dead serfs and take money as collateral. The main characters are shown in the circumstances of the sale of peasants. “Dead souls” are the landowners and officials themselves that Chichikov encounters, because there is nothing human or living left in them. They are ruled by the thirst for profit (officials), feeble-mindedness (Korobochka), cruelty (Nozdryov) and rudeness (Sobakevich).
The deep meaning of the name
All new aspects are revealed as you read the poem “Dead Souls”. The meaning of the title, hidden in the depths of the work, makes us think about the fact that any person, a simple layman, can eventually turn into Manilov or Nozdryov. It is enough for one small passion to settle in his heart. And he will not notice how vice will grow there. To this end, in Chapter XI, Gogol calls on the reader to look deep into his soul and check: “Is there some part of Chichikov in me too?”
Gogol laid down in the poem “Dead Souls” a multifaceted meaning of the title, which is revealed to the reader not immediately, but in the process of comprehending the work.
Genre originality
When analyzing “Dead Souls,” another question arises: “Why does Gogol position the work as a poem?” Really, genre originality creations are unique. In the process of working on the work, Gogol shared his creative discoveries with friends in letters, calling “Dead Souls” both a poem and a novel.
About the second volume of "Dead Souls"
In a state of deep creative crisis, Gogol wrote the second volume of Dead Souls for ten years. In correspondence, he often complains to friends that things are going very slowly and are not particularly satisfying.
Gogol turns to the harmonious, positive image landowner Kostanzhoglo: judicious, responsible, using scientific knowledge in the structure of the estate. Under its influence, Chichikov reconsiders his attitude to reality and changes for the better.
Seeing “life’s lies” in the poem, Gogol burned the second volume of “Dead Souls.”
The work “Dead Souls”, which Gogol wrote, today remains one of the most brilliant creations not only of this writer, but in Russian literature in general. This work can safely be called the pinnacle of Nikolai Vasilyevich’s talent, who was able to very accurately portray contemporary Russia, show the life of all segments of the population, the failure of the bureaucratic apparatus and squalor. No one doubts the genius of the work, only for many decades now both fans of creativity and critics have not can they understand why Gogol called “Dead Souls” a poem?
According to the writer himself, the idea to write this creation was given to him by Pushkin, who all the time admired the manner of writing Gogol’s works and his ability to revive his heroes by describing just a few character traits. Alexander Sergeevich himself had an idea to write a similar poem, but he decided to give it to his friend. Many believe that this is the answer to the question of why Gogol called “Dead Souls” a poem, because the work was originally conceived in exactly this form.
Nikolai Vasilyevich only took the idea from Pushkin, because when writing the work he began to go deeper and describe in more detail not only the character of the heroes, but also their fate, the life of the entire country at that time. IN different periods the writer called his creation a novel, an essay, a story, but why Gogol called “Dead Souls” a poem, focusing on this particular genre, remains a mystery. There is an assumption that he did this after seeing all the richness and breadth of the lyrical elements.
The poem is constructed very clearly and clearly, main character Chichikov travels all over Russia to become the owner large funds, buying up dead souls. Manilov, Nozdrev, Sobakevich, Korobochka, Plyushkin are not just the names of the landowners whom he visited, they are the way of life, thinking and feelings of people of this class. Nikolai Vasilyevich wanted to write not one volume, but three, which would take the heroes to another level, where they could be morally reborn.
Gogol's poem "Dead Souls" should take pride of place next to such world works as Homer's "Odyssey" and " The Divine Comedy» Dante. The first work describes the life of the ancient Greeks, the second medieval feudalism, and Gogol described life in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. He also wanted his heroes to go through hell, purgatory and heaven, to show the moral decline of society, which is exciting, but that among all this disorder and rot there was a clearing - the path to spiritual rebirth.
After getting acquainted with this work, it becomes clear that it was written in an unconventional form and has no analogues in the whole world. Perhaps this is precisely the answer to the question of why Gogol called “Dead Souls” a poem. In the structure of the work, a significant role is given to lyrical digressions, which is typical for this genre. It is in the digressions that the thoughts of the writer can be traced, who shares with the reader his experiences about the situation in his native country. Gogol completed his first volume, leaving the assumption that the state awaits the revival and enlightenment of the souls of the entire people. The writer wanted to recreate an ideal world, so he called his creation a lyric-epic poem.