Primitive society. Primitive man and the formation of primitive society

1. Approachesto the periodization of the prehistoric period.

2.

3. Neolithic revolution.

4. Formation of nations.

Approaches to the periodization of the prehistoric period.

The entire period of the past of humanity is usually divided into two uneven periods. The first - the largest - is called prehistoric(or prehistory), the second is historical (civilization).

The oldest form of organization of human life was the primitive communal system (ca. 2.5 million - 6 thousand years BC). It was the longest era in the history of mankind, the reason for which was the slow pace of development of society in its first stages. All stages of the primitive communal system are united by the collective nature of people’s lives, which is apparently due to great difficulties of survival.

It is generally accepted to divide primitive society into periods according to the main materials that were used to make tools (Fig. 1):

This periodization, naturally, does not mean that tools were not made from wood and bone in the Stone Age, and from stone in the Bronze Age. We are talking about the predominance of one material or another. In the Stone Age, which is usually identified with the primitive communal system, three eras are distinguished:

- paleolithic(Greek – paleolit ​​- ancient stone) – up to 12 thousand years ago;

- Mesolithic(Greek – mesolit middle stone) – up to 9 thousand years ago;

- Neolithic(Greek – neolit ​​new stone) – up to 6 thousand years ago.

Epochs are divided into periods - early (lower), middle and late (upper), as well as into cultures characterized by a uniform set of objects of life.

The creator of the Lower Paleolithic cultures was a man of the type Pithecanthropa Middle Paleolithic – Neanderthal, Upper Paleolithic – Cro-Magnon. This definition is based on archaeological research in Western Europe and cannot be fully extended to other regions. About 70 sites of the Lower and Middle Paleolithic and about 300 sites of the Upper Paleolithic have been studied on the territory of Russia.

During the Paleolithic period, people initially made rough hand axes from flint, which were standardized tools. Then the production of specialized tools begins - these are knives, piercings, scrapers, composite tools, for example a stone ax

The Mesolithic is dominated by microliths - tools made of thin stone plates, which were inserted into a bone or wooden frame. It was then that the bow and arrows were invented.

The Neolithic is characterized by the manufacture of tools from soft stones - jade, slate, slate. Learn more advanced and complex techniques for sawing and drilling holes in stone, and grinding stone.

The Stone Age is replaced by a short period Chalcolithic, i.e., the existence of cultures with copper-stone implements. Respectively. First, the technology for manufacturing copper tools is based on a processing method such as cold forging, and then casting.

The Bronze Age began in Europe in the 20th century. BC e. At this time, the first states emerged in many regions of the planet, civilizations developed - Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Mediterranean, Mexican in America. The first iron products appeared in Russia around the 7th century. BC e.

Another periodization system based on comprehensive characteristics of material and spiritual cultures, suggested by an American scientist Lewis Morgan. In accordance with this system, primitive society is divided into three periods:

Civilization.

Period savagery- This is the time of the early tribal system (Paleolithic and Mesolithic), it ends with the invention of the bow and arrow. During the period barbarism ceramic products appeared, agriculture and livestock husbandry appeared. For civilization Characterized by the emergence of bronze metallurgy, writing and states.

Finally in the 20th century. scientists proposed systems of periodization of primitive society, the criteria of which were evolution of ownership forms. In general terms, such periodization can be represented as follows:

The era of the primitive herd;

The era of the tribal system;

The era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property).

Anthropogenesis and features of the transition to the clan system.

The Early Paleolithic is the time of human formation (anthropogenesis). This process is extremely lengthy and complex. It is still far from being fully studied; science has accumulated more questions on this problem than answers. The first human ancestors to embark on the path of anthropogenesis were Australopithecus(about 2.5 million years ago), already walking on their hind limbs, which freed up their front limbs and thereby created the prerequisites for labor activity.

The most ancient people(archanthropes) were traditionally considered Pithecanthropa(ape-man) and Sinanthropa(a species of Pithecanthropus discovered in China), which appeared about 1 year ago. In science, this human ancestor is called homo habilis - a skillful person.

Early Paleolithic- the time of the primitive human herd. During the Early Paleolithic, there were several major glacier advances - glaciations, accompanied by a sharp cooling. For archanthropes, it was possible to exist only in a warm climate, which did not require either clothing or shelter. Neanderthals spread much more widely. At the end of the Early Paleolithic, primitive dwellings and clothing made from skins appeared. The Paleolithic economy was consuming (appropriating). It was based on hunting large animals. Plant food was obtained by collecting edible plants and digging roots from the ground. The archanthropes already used ready-made fire and kept fires going. Fire gave people protection from the cold and from wild animals, and reduced their dependence on the climate. A hearth appeared - a symbol of human habitation. People have the opportunity to use fried foods, which are better absorbed by the body. Even greater were the long-term consequences of mastering fire: without it, neither ceramics nor metallurgy would be possible.

At the end of the Early Paleolithic, about 100 thousand years ago, Neanderthal man, or Neanderthal . Neanderthals are already considered to be the next stage of human development - to ancient people(to paleoanthropists). They stand much closer to modern people than archanthropes. Neanderthals probably already learned how to make fire. The Neanderthals apparently already had the first rudiments of religion.

The transition from the Early Paleolithic to the Late (40-35 thousand years ago) was marked by the appearance of man modern look- homo sapiens - a reasonable person. With its emergence, the biological evolution of man ended; this was the second major leap in anthropogenesis: from “prehumans,” archanthropes and paleoanthropes to humans.

In the Late Paleolithic there appears tribal system. The main unit of human society became the clan community with common ownership of the main means of production. The products of hunting, fishing and gathering were distributed equally among all members of the clan. The authority of the clan elders was based not on coercion, but on tradition, respect for experience and skills.

Late Paleolithic people significantly improved the technique of making stone tools: they became more diverse, sometimes miniature. A throwing spear and a predecessor of the bow, the spear thrower, appeared, which greatly increased the efficiency of hunting. Fishing arose: harpoons and remains of fish were repeatedly found at sites of this era. Bone items, including needles, are widespread, indicating the appearance of embroidered clothing. If at the end of the Early Paleolithic the first primitive dwellings appeared, then now people were already building dugouts, and sometimes entire villages consisting of several dwellings. Man has learned to adapt to nature not biologically, but socially, to protect himself from the cold with the help of housing and clothing. These achievements allowed people to significantly expand the limits of the habitable part of the globe. This was also facilitated by warming caused by the retreat of the glacier.

Late Paleolithic- time of occurrence art. At many sites, female figurines are found. They testify to the cult of the woman-mother, the ancestor of the clan. In the Late Paleolithic there undoubtedly already existed religion, a clear funeral rite can be traced. Sometimes some things that the deceased used during his lifetime were placed in the grave. This is evidence of the emergence of the idea of ​​an afterlife.

Thus, by the end of the Paleolithic, man learned not only to make fire and eat thermally processed food, to make complex stone and bone tools, to sew clothes, to build dwellings, to hunt and fish, but also to live in a social system with social consciousness and its important forms - art and religion. However, man did not yet know either ceramics, or metal, or the wheel, or agriculture, or cattle breeding.

The most important achievement of the next stage of the Stone Age - the Mesolithic - was the invention of the bow and arrow, which dramatically increased hunting productivity. Now, along with round-up hunting, individual hunting has also emerged, not only for large herd animals, but also for small ones. It became possible to create food reserves.

During the Mesolithic era, man took the first steps in the direction of cattle breeding. The domestication, and possibly the domestication, of animals began. So, in the Mesolithic, dogs, the first domestic animals, already appeared. It is possible that at the end of the Mesolithic in some areas pigs, goats, and sheep were domesticated.

The transition to the Neolithic and its duration in different regions of Eurasia differed significantly from each other. It began first in Central Asia (about 6 - 4 thousand years BC). In the forest zone of Russia, the Neolithic lasted about two thousand more years, until 2 thousand years BC. e. This was reflected in the uneven development of different regions, associated primarily with natural conditions: a warm climate and fertile soil created favorable conditions for economic development.

During the Neolithic era the transition to producing economy. It was then that pastoralism and agriculture began, although hunting and gathering were still the main sources of subsistence in most Neolithic communities.

Neolithic revolution.

The changes that occurred at the end of the Stone Age (Neolithic) (about 8-6 thousand) are usually called Neolithic revolution. Its main content is a radical transition from the primitive economy of hunters and gatherers to productive agriculture based on farming and animal husbandry.

Major changes are taking place in the area technologies production of tools and studying the properties of materials. Man has achieved virtuoso art in the processing of stone and bone. The following processing operations were opened: grinding And drilling. The tools acquired new properties, became complex, composite, and miniature.

4. the emergence of the first social restrictions and laws;

5. the emergence of new knowledge systems transmitted from generation to generation (through writing).

With the progress of changes associated with the Neolithic revolution, agricultural communities began to fill the Earth, as hunters had previously filled it. The importance of men's labor increased markedly - clearing land, cultivating the soil, etc. - all this required physical strength. An important element public organization became men's unions. The male part of the community chose leader. At first, such people were influential due to their personal qualities, and then the power of the leaders began to be transferred by inheritance. The result of these processes was the emergence privileged sections of society- leaders, priests.

People lived at this timetribal system.Tribal communities were united and united. All people worked together. Property was also shared. The tools of labor, the large hut of the clan, all the land, and livestock were communal property. No one could arbitrarily dispose of the community's property alone. But soon the so-called first division of labor occurred (farming was separated from cattle breeding). A tangible surplus product began to appear, and tribal communities began to be divided into families.

Each family could work independently and feed itself. Families demanded that everything be divided communal ownership of parts, between families ( private property- from the word “part”). At first, tools, livestock, and household items became private property. Instead of one large hut for a whole clan, each family began to build a separate home for itself. Housing also became the private property of the family. Later, the land also became private property.

Private property does not belong to the entire group, but only to one owner. Usually such a master was the head big family. After the death of the head of the family, his eldest son became the owner. Private property awakens people's interest in work. Each family understood that a good and well-fed life depended only on the hard work of family members. If the family worked hard, the entire harvest was theirs. Therefore, people sought to better cultivate arable land and care for livestock more carefully. Sometimes you can hear the statement that private property arises due to human greed. However, in fact, private property arose only when the economy began to develop and when reserves of surplus product appeared. Clan communities gradually died out. Instead they appeared neighboring communities.

Rice. Diagram of the organization of labor activity in the tribal (left) and neighboring (right) communities (try to formulate the difference).

In the neighboring community, people gradually forgot about their once common kinship. This was not considered important. Now, as a rule, they did not work as a single team, although they still worked voluntarily and without coercion. Each family privately owned a hut with a vegetable garden, a plot of arable land, livestock, and tools. But communal property remained. For example, rivers and lakes. Everyone could fish. Any community member did this on his own. The boat and net were his private property, so the catch also became private property. The forest was communal property, but animals killed during the hunt, mushrooms, berries and brushwood collected became private property. They used the pasture together, driving cattle out to it every morning. But in the evening, each family drove their cows and sheep into the barn. But the neighboring community still continued to unite people.

Gradually, from the complex of such relations regarding the production and ownership of surplus product, property rights arose inequality. Leaders and other categories of influential members of the community began to demand offerings from ordinary members. Captives captured in wars between tribes became slaves.

Some researchers believe that tribes of hunters who did not adopt an agrarian way of life began to “hunt” rural communities, taking away food and property. This is how a system of producing rural communities and squads of hunters robbing them developed. The hunter leaders gradually moved from robbery to regular exactions (tribute). For self-defense and to protect subjects from attacks by competitors, fortified cities were built. The last stage of pre-state development of society was the so-called military democracy.

began to arise chiefdoms- political entities (prototypes of states), including several villages or communities united under the permanent authority of the supreme leader. Tribes began to unite into tribal unions, which gradually began to transform into nationalities. Most likely, this is how the first states arose in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Ancient India at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC.

The real revolution in the history of mankind was the development metal. The transition to it was long, difficult and not simultaneous. The development of metal became possible only on the basis of an already established production economy, in the presence of some, at least minimal, surpluses of food, so that part of the time could be devoted to the manufacture of metal products. That is why ancient blacksmithing and metallurgy originated primarily in the southern regions, where, thanks to good natural conditions, agriculture had previously developed.

The first metal used by man was copper. At first, tools and jewelry were made from it using cold forging, which this relatively soft metal easily lends itself to. Of course, this copper was not chemically pure: in natural deposits, copper, as a rule, contains certain impurities - arsenic, antimony, etc. But these are not yet artificial alloys, the development of which was a matter of the future.

The appearance of copper tools intensified the exchange between tribes, since copper deposits are very unevenly distributed around the globe. Many tribes that used metal lived far from its sources. Constant exchange led to significant shifts in relationships.

Formation of nations

Linguistic classification formed the basis of the ethnic picture of the world. All languages ​​are divided into large families related common origin and subdivided into groups of related languages. Branches are sometimes distinguished within groups, but some languages ​​are not included in groups. For example, the Indo-European language family.

Indo-European language family

Slavic group:

Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian.

Baltic group:

Latvian, Lithuanian.

German group:

German, English, Flemish, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish.

Roman group:

Italian, Spanish, Moldovan, Portuguese, Romanian, French.

Iranian group:

Afghan, Iranian, Ossetian, Tajik.

Although we do not have reliable data to determine the ethnic groups of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, we were able to obtain some information through the analysis of geographical names. On the territory of the Volga-Oka interfluve they settled Finno-Ugric and Samoyed peoples. Apparently, in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age they colonized Eastern Siberia. Already in the Neolithic, Finno-Ugric tribes occupied the Eastern Baltic, and in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. spread throughout the entire forest belt of the Volga region and the Volga-Oka interfluve.

Most of Eastern Europe has long been inhabited Indo-Europeans. In the Baltics, along with the Finno-Ugric tribes, tribes have long appeared Balts

Iranian-speaking tribes lived in Southern Siberia until the beginning of our era. The heirs of the tribes of this culture were Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians.

ancestral home Turkic peoples are the steppes of Central Asia. At the end of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, they begin to penetrate north, into Siberia and west, to the Urals, Central Asia and the Caucasus.

Questions for self-control:

1. List the main approaches to periodization of the prehistoric period.

2. List the main stages of anthropogenesis with the chronology of their occurrence.

3. Describethe concept of “tribal system” and the dynamics of its development.

4. In whatIs the essence of the Neolithic revolution revealed?

5. What important consequences of the Neolithic Revolution can you name?

6. Tell us about the process of formation of peoples in the European-Asian region.

Questions for discussion (discussion on the forum):

1. What influence did the period of prehistory have on the development process??

2. Is the process of anthropogenesis completed?

Complete the answers to the assignments in a MS Office Word document, save them under the name “Name_History as a Science” and send by email: ae. *****@***ru

Glossary:

The basic social unit of the prehistoric era of mankind is archaeological culture. All terms and periodizations of this era, such as Neanderthal or Iron Age, are retrospective and largely arbitrary, and their precise definition is a matter of debate.

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Subtitles

Terminology

A synonym for "prehistoric period" is the term " prehistory”, which is used less often in Russian-language literature than similar terms in foreign literature (English prehistory, German Urgeschichte).

To designate the final stage of the prehistoric era of any culture, when it itself had not yet created its own writing, but is already mentioned in written monuments other peoples, the term “protohistory” (English protohistory, German Frühgeschichte) is often used in foreign literature. To replace the term primitive communal system, characterizing the social structure before the emergence of power, some historians use the terms “savagery”, “anarchy”, “primitive communism”, “pre-civilization period” and others. IN Russian literature the term “protohistory” did not catch on.

Non-classical historians deny the very existence of communities and primitive communal system, relationship, identity of power [ ] .

From the following stages of social development primitive communal system was distinguished by the absence of private property, classes and the state. Modern studies of primitive society, according to neo-historians who deny the traditional periodization of the development of human society, refute the existence of such a social structure and the existence of communities, communal property under the primitive communal system, and further, as a natural result of the non-existence of the primitive communal system - the non-existence of communal agricultural land ownership right up to the end XVIII century in most countries of the world, including Russia, at least since the Neolithic.

Periods of development of primitive society

At different times, different periodizations of the development of human society have been proposed. Thus, A. Ferguson and then Morgan used a periodization of history that included three stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization, and the first two stages were divided by Morgan into three stages (lower, middle and highest) each. At the stage of savagery, human activity was dominated by hunting, fishing and gathering, there was no private property, and equality existed. At the stage of barbarism, agriculture and cattle breeding appear, private property and social hierarchy arise. The third stage - civilization - is associated with the emergence of the state, class society, cities, writing, etc.

Morgan considered the earliest stage of development of human society to be the lowest stage of savagery, which began with the formation of articulate speech; the middle stage of savagery, according to his classification, begins with the use of fire and the appearance of fish food in the diet, and the highest stage of savagery - with the invention of the onion. The lowest stage of barbarism, according to his classification, begins with the advent of pottery, the middle stage of barbarism with the transition to agriculture and cattle breeding, and the highest stage of barbarism with the beginning of the use of iron.

The most developed periodization is archaeological, which is based on a comparison of human-made tools, their materials, forms of dwellings, burials, etc. According to this principle, the history of mankind is mainly divided into the early ancient Stone Age, the middle ancient Stone Age, and the late ancient Stone Age. age, middle stone age, new stone age, late new stone age (not among all nations), copper age (not among all nations), bronze age and iron age.

In the 40s of the 20th century, Soviet scientists P. P. Efimenko, M. O. Kosven, A. I. Pershits and others proposed systems for the periodization of primitive society, the criterion of which was the evolution of forms of ownership, the degree of division of labor, family relationships, etc. d. In generalized form, such periodization can be represented as follows:

1. the era of the primitive herd;
2. era of tribal system;
3. the era of the decomposition of the communal-tribal system (the emergence of cattle breeding, plow farming and metal processing, the emergence of elements of exploitation and private property - the late Mesolithic and Neolithic according to the modern classification).

All periodization systems are imperfect in their own way. There are many examples when stone tools of Paleolithic or Mesolithic form were used by the peoples of the Far East in the 16th-17th centuries, while they had a tribal society and developed forms of religion and family. It is currently believed that the universal periodization of the primitive system ends with the Mesolithic, when cultural development accelerated sharply and proceeded at different nations at different paces. Below is the currently generally accepted archaeological periodization of the main stages of the development of primitive society. Moreover, cultures that existed simultaneously may be at different stages of development, and therefore, for example, Neolithic cultures may be adjacent to Chalcolithic or Bronze Age cultures.

Stone Age

The Stone Age is the oldest period in human history, when the main tools and weapons were made mainly of stone, but wood and bone were also used. At the end of the Stone Age, the use of clay spread (dishes, brick buildings, sculpture).

Periodization of the Stone Age:

• Paleolithic:
  • Lower Paleolithic - the period of the appearance of the most ancient species of people and widespread Homo erectus .
  • The Middle Paleolithic is the period when erecti were replaced by evolutionarily more advanced species of people, including modern humans. Neanderthals dominated Europe throughout the Middle Paleolithic.
  • The Upper Paleolithic is the period of dominance of the modern species of people throughout the globe during the era of the last glaciation.
• Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic; the terminology depends on the extent to which the region has been affected by the loss of megafauna as a result of glacier melting. The period is characterized by the development of technology for the production of stone tools and general human culture. There is no ceramics.
• Neolithic - the era of the emergence of agriculture. Tools and weapons are still made of stone, but their production is being brought to perfection, and ceramics are widely distributed.

Copper Age

Copper Age, Copper-Stone Age, Chalcolithic (Greek. χαλκός "copper" + Greek λίθος “stone”) or Chalcolithic (Latin aeneus “copper” + Greek. λίθος “stone”)) is a period in the history of primitive society, the transition period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age. Approximately covers the period 4-3 thousand BC. e., but in some territories it exists longer, and in some it is absent altogether. Most often, the Chalcolithic is included in the Bronze Age, but is sometimes considered a separate period. During the Eneolithic, copper tools were common, but stone ones still predominated.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the leading role of bronze products, which was associated with the improvement of the processing of metals such as copper and tin obtained from ore deposits, and the subsequent production of bronze from them. The Bronze Age is the second, later phase of the Early Metal Age, which replaced the Copper Age and preceded the Iron Age. Generally, chronological framework Bronze Age: 35/33 - 13/11 centuries. BC e., but they differ among different cultures. In the Eastern Mediterranean, the end of the Bronze Age is associated with the almost synchronous destruction of all local civilizations at the turn of the 13th-12th centuries. BC e., known as the Bronze Collapse, while in western Europe the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age dragged on for several more centuries and ended with the emergence of the first cultures of antiquity - ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Bronze Age periods:

1. Early Bronze Age
2. Middle Bronze Age
3. Late Bronze Age

Iron Age

The Iron Age is a period in the history of primitive society, characterized by the spread of iron metallurgy and the manufacture of iron tools. Bronze Age civilizations go beyond the history of primitive society; other peoples' civilization takes shape during the Iron Age.

The term “Iron Age” is usually applied to the “barbarian” cultures of Europe that existed simultaneously with the great civilizations of antiquity (Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, Parthia). The “barbarians” were distinguished from ancient cultures by the absence or rare use of writing, and therefore information about them has reached us either from archaeological data or from mentions in ancient sources. On the territory of Europe during the Iron Age, M. B. Shchukin identified six “barbarian worlds”:

• Celts (La Tène culture);
• Proto-Germans (mainly Jastorf culture + southern Scandinavia);
• mostly Proto-Baltic cultures of the forest zone (possibly including Proto-Slavs);
• proto-Finno-Ugric and proto-Sami cultures of the northern forest zone (mainly along rivers and lakes);
• steppe Iranian-speaking cultures (Scythians, Sarmatians, etc.);
• pastoral-agricultural cultures of the Thracians, Dacians and Getae.

History of the development of public relations

The first tools of human labor were a chipped stone and a stick. People earned their livelihood by hunting, which they did together, and gathering. Communities of people were small, they led a nomadic lifestyle, moving around in search of food. But some communities of people who lived in the most favorable conditions began to move towards partial settlement.

The most important stage in human development was the emergence of language. Instead of the signal language of animals, which facilitates their coordination during the hunt, people were able to express in language the abstract concepts of “stone in general”, “beast in general”. This use of language led to the opportunity to teach offspring with words, and not just by example, to plan actions before the hunt, and not during it, etc.

Any spoils were divided among the entire group of people. Tools, household utensils, and jewelry were in the use of individual people, but the owner of the thing was obliged to share it, and in addition, anyone could take someone else’s thing and use it without asking (remnants of this are still found among some peoples).

A person’s natural breadwinner was his mother - at first she fed him with her milk, then generally took upon herself the responsibility of providing him with food and everything necessary for life. This food had to be hunted by men - the mother's brothers who belonged to her clan. Thus, cells began to form, consisting of several brothers, several sisters and the children of the latter (see also the article Guest marriage). They lived in communal dwellings.

Experts currently generally believe that during the Paleolithic and Neolithic times - 50-20 thousand years ago - social status women and men were equal, although previously it was believed that at first matriarchy dominated, which, as noted above, in conditions of promiscuity and polyandry was necessary to track family ties.

With the invention of the bow, hunting improved; the dog was tamed and became man's assistant in the hunt.

Gradually, hunting led to the domestication of animals - primitive animal husbandry appeared. Agriculture grew from gathering: seeds of wild plants, collected by people and not completely used, could sprout near dwellings. It is believed that agriculture first originated in Western Asia. This transition was called the Neolithic revolution (X-III millennium BC). The result of the fact that livelihoods became more secure was a significant increase in the total population: at the turn of the 5th-4th millennia BC. e. About 80 million people already lived on Earth. Later people mastered the smelting of metals (first copper, then iron), which made it possible to create more advanced metal tools.

The change in the economy from a purely appropriating to a producing one also led to a change in society. Among agricultural tribes, the type of settlement became a village in which one community lived, which turned from a tribal community into a neighboring one. Large communal houses became a thing of the past, and one patriarchal family now lived in each house. Land ownership was collective - within the collective, individuals or families owned plots of land that could be cultivated, but could not be transferred to someone else for use. In some communities, land plots were redistributed annually, in others, redistribution occurred once every few years, in others, perhaps, plots were distributed for lifelong land use. Tools, housing, household utensils, clothing, jewelry, and household equipment were privately owned, but vestiges of communal use have survived to this day.

The primitive communal system is the first stage in the history of mankind, which began with the separation of man from the animal world and ended with the emergence of early states.

Chronology. The lower chronological limit, that is, the beginning of the history of primitive society, is not precisely defined, it is mobile, and, as the early history of mankind is studied, it moves back into the depths of millennia.

Currently, some scientists believe that ancient man(and thus primitive society) arose 1.5 - 1 million years ago, others attribute its appearance to 2.6 million years ago. The upper chronological limit, that is, the end time of the history of primitive society, is different in different regions. In Asia and Northeast Africa, the first early states emerged at the end of the 4th - beginning of the 3rd millennium BC, in Europe - in the 1st millennium BC.

Periodization. The history of primitive society is divided into periods. Researchers use several periodizations, but the archaeological one is considered the most common. It is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools.

According to archaeological periodization, human history is divided into the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages. The history of primitive society dates back to the Stone Age. The Stone Age is divided into Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic.

The Paleolithic (ancient Stone Age) is divided into the Early Paleolithic (ends 100 thousand years ago), Middle Paleolithic (ends 40 thousand years ago) and Late Paleolithic (ends 10 thousand years ago). The Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) begins in the 9th millennium BC. and ends in the 7th millennium BC. Neolithic (New Stone Age) begins in the 6th millennium BC. and ends at the end of the 3rd millennium BC, when in certain regions of Western Asia people learned to obtain bronze. The Bronze Age lasted until the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, when the Iron Age began.

The place of man in the animal world. Modern man belongs to the order Primates (like living apes), the family Hominid (or anthropomorphic), the genus Homo and the species sapiens. The major human fossil species today include Homo habilis (Homo habilis), Homo erectus (Homo erectus), and Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthal man).

Differences between humans and other primates. Humans, as a biological species, are distinguished from other primates by upright posture, free upper limbs with a mobile hand capable of fine manipulation, and a developed brain (in modern humans it ranges on average from 1000 to 1800 cm.kb.). Main social distinction a person's ability to work is considered. Consequently, the basic criterion for identifying human remains among the skeletons of other primates is considered to be the tools found nearby.

Driving forces of anthropogenesis. Anthropogenesis is the process of the emergence of man and his development as a biological species. It is in this section of the science of primitive society that discussions and fierce debates have been ongoing for two hundred years. In particular, it is not completely clear how “human” characteristics appeared in our distant ancestors, that is, what the driving forces of the process of anthropogenesis were. Charles Darwin attached the greatest importance to sexual selection. According to his theory, the peculiar physical organization of man was formed as a result of the selection by women of individuals who were distinguished by certain advantages. As a result, during the process of reproduction, such men left the most numerous offspring, exerting a decisive influence on the development of the human race. However, it was no longer clear to Darwin why exactly those and not other characteristics were subject to the action of natural selection, why the volume of the brain, the hand, the proportions of the body, etc., changed.

Friedrich Engels formulated the labor theory of anthropogenesis. Labor activity, according to F. Engels, was a powerful stimulus that transformed the appearance of a person: it led to upright posture and developed the hand; joint work gave rise to speech. However, as it turned out at the end of the 20th century, these factors are greatly separated in time: movement on the hind limbs appeared in primates more than 5 million years ago, that is, when their brain was very primitive and there was no speech at all.

At the end of the 20th century, the “mutation theory” gained great popularity. The change in the physical organization of human ancestors is explained by the influence of ionizing radiation and the intense geomagnetic field of the Earth. The conditions for this arose in eastern Africa, where 20-10 million years ago the East African Rift formed, uranium mines were exposed, and mountain ranges isolated local primates.

At the same time, a cooling and drying climate occurred in eastern Africa, which led to a reduction in the area of ​​tropical forests and the spread of savannas. Some of the large great apes, being forced into open areas, were forced to stand on their hind limbs and use their front limbs to carry food, young, and also for protection from predators.

It is possible that the change in human hereditary properties was caused by the influence of inversion - a change in the magnetic poles of the Earth. In any case, researchers notice a certain correlation between the next inversion and a certain stage in human biological evolution. Despite the variety of theories, none of them can be considered the only correct one, explaining the complex process of anthropogenesis in the Early and Middle Paleolithic.

Stages of anthropogenesis. Primates evolved from mammals about 60 million years ago. About 30 million years ago, higher primates appeared.

It is possible that the distant ancestors of modern humans were australopithecine monkeys. The first Australopithecus (translated as “southern monkey”) was discovered in 1924 in southern Africa in a limestone quarry by Australian explorer Raymond Dart. The main finds of australopithecines are still being made in Tanzania, in the Olduvei Gorge, which, in turn, is a site of the Great African Rift. They had a flat face, massive jaws, strongly pronounced brow ridges and sloping foreheads. Australopithecines are related to humans by upright walking and the absence of a diastema - the gap between the fangs and incisors. Australopithecines lived from 4 to 1 million years ago.

Australopithecines traditionally include Homo habilis (“homo habilis”), who lived 2.4-1.7 million years ago and had a brain volume of 600-680 cm KB. The skeletons of the first “homo habilis” were found in 1960 in the Olduvey Gorge. The first tools were discovered there, made from pieces of lava and quartz pebbles and dating back to 2 million 600 thousand years. For this reason, many paleoanthropologists consider Homo habilis to be the first human. Their opponents are confident that the found artifacts cannot be considered tools, since sharp working parts were obtained in the simplest way: by breaking a stone against a rock, or by splitting it with another stone. The activity of Homo habilis, they continue, was based not on will and consciousness (as in humans), but on innate instincts. For this reason, the activity of a “skilled person” can not be considered labor, but only ancestral, and he himself cannot be considered a person in our understanding.

Australopithecines were replaced by Archanthropus (ancient people), represented by Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus. At the 1962 International Conference they were classified as Homo erectus (“upright man”).

Pithecanthropus is the first creature that accurately made tools, which means it can confidently be considered a human being. The first Pithecanthropus was found in late XIX city ​​on the island Java by the Dutch doctor Eugene Dubois. Pithecanthropus lived in the period from 1 million 800 thousand years to 1 million years ago. Compared to Australopithecines, the brain volume of Pithecanthropus increased significantly and averaged 900 cm KB. Pithecanthropus had a sloping forehead with prominent brow ridges and an angular nape. But sweat glands already appear on his body and his hair disappears.

Sinanthropus was discovered in 1929 in China by the English anatomist Davidson Black. In a cave 50 km from Beijing, Black's expedition unearthed the skeletons of more than 40 individuals - an entire camp of ancient hunters. Sinanthropus lived 350-400 thousand years ago, its brain volume was, on average, 1000 kb. see Sinanthropus had permanent habitats and, judging by the bones found, collectively hunted large animals - deer, gazelles, wild horses, buffalos and rhinoceroses. It is possible that Sinanthropus had articulate speech and, importantly, made extensive use of fire: a layer of compressed ash up to 7 meters thick was preserved in the cave.

A site of archanthropes was also found in Altai - in the valley of the river. Anuy, Ust-Kansky district (Karama site).

Archanthropes widely used stone tools - hand axes, pointed points and scrapers. They led an appropriative economy: they were engaged in gathering and collective hunting. They lived in caves, and in open areas - in light dwellings made of tree branches.

Neanderthal. Neanderthals (paleoanthropes, Homo neanderthalensis) appeared approximately 130 thousand years ago. The first Neanderthal was discovered in 1856 in the Neanderthal Valley in Western Germany. The Neanderthal lived during the Würm glaciation and many of his physical features were formed under the influence of difficult living conditions. Neanderthal morphology is characterized by strength adaptation: a massive skeleton and skull were complemented by large muscle mass. Along with this, he had a completely modern brain with an average volume of 1200-1600 kb. see with developed frontal lobes responsible for logical thinking. Without a doubt, the Neanderthal also had articulate speech. Thanks to this, Homo neanderthalensis spread over a vast territory. Its sites were found in tropical Africa and in Japan, China, India, Afghanistan, Iraq and Iran, Turkey and in Western Europe, the Caucasus, Central Asia, Mongolia and southern Siberia. In Altai, Neanderthals lived in the Ust-Kanskaya and Denisovaya caves, traces of his activity were found at Ulalinka.

Economic activities of Neanderthals. Neanderthals still were engaged in appropriative farming: gathering, driven hunting and, to a limited extent, fishing. The main object of hunting becomes one type of animal. They make extensive use of flint, with flint flakes being broken off from disc-shaped cores. Nucleus is a specially prepared piece of stone of a certain shape, from which plates were chipped or pressed to make tools. Neanderthals also used composite tools - throwing spears with inserted flint tips. In addition to stone and wood, Neanderthals used a new material - bone. They lived in caves and artificial structures. The caves are now being landscaped: the floor has been covered with pebbles to protect against dampness, and a windproof wall is being built inside the cave. It has been fully proven that in a cold climate, Neanderthals learned to make fire and make clothing from animal skins. Burials with traces of ritual suggest that Neanderthals had primitive religious ideas.

Neanderthal problem. It is difficult to say whether modern man is a descendant of Neanderthal man, or whether he arose through the hybridization of various species: Neanderthal man, Yongxiang man, Sinanthropus man, etc.

Until the beginning of the 80s. XX century It was generally accepted that modern humans (Cro-Magnons) appeared 40-35 thousand years ago. But since the end of the 20th century. paleoanthropologists began to make sensational discoveries in Africa. It turned out that south of the Sahara, people morphologically close to modern sapiens appeared at least 100 thousand years ago. The penetration of small groups of modern humans (Homo sapiens) beyond Africa into South-West Asia begins 60-50 thousand years ago. This first group of sapiens interbred with Neanderthals, and for this reason modern humans have 2.5% Neanderthal genes (data from 2011 research). Homo sapiens appeared en masse in Asia about 45 thousand years ago, and 35-40 thousand years ago they began to populate Europe. With the advent of modern humans, anthropogenesis ended.

Denisovans. Paleoanthropological finds in the Denisova Cave of the Altai Mountains make it possible to identify, in addition to sapiens and Neanderthals, another human population - the “Denisovans”. DNA analysis conducted in 2010 shows that Denisovans were slightly closer to Neanderthals than we are, and are the ancestors of modern Melanesians (the inhabitants of New Guinea and the islands to the east of it).

Sociogenesis. Community-tribal system. Sociogenesis implies the formation and development of primitive society. Archanthropes and paleoanthropes united into ancestral communities - primitive human herds. The period of the ancestral community was the longest in human history. The emergence of ancestral communities is explained by living conditions under which the solitary existence of an individual was excluded in principle. Indeed, gathering provided low-calorie food and took a lot of time, and round-up hunting for large animals or fast herd animals was possible only as part of a relatively large and close-knit group. This team consisted of about 20 people. Separately, the ancestral Neanderthal community is distinguished - more united and numerous.

With the advent of modern humans (Late Paleolithic times), the era of the communal-tribal system begins. It is divided into the periods of the early primitive community (late Paleolithic-Mesolithic) and the late primitive community (Neolithic), and ends with the decomposition of primitive society and the emergence of early states. The reasons for the emergence of the communal clan system are usually considered to be the same round-up hunt, as well as new conditions of economic life. In particular, the emergence of complex tools and the accumulation of rich experience required not episodic, as before, but constant communication between different generations of relatives. The prerequisites for the formation of a communal clan system were the emergence of more communicative Homo sapiens, as well as his transition to a relatively sedentary lifestyle.

The communal-tribal system implies the existence of a clan - a collective of blood relatives who have realized their kinship along one line - male or female. The clan was considered the owner of the fishing territory - hunting grounds and rivers, and later - arable land and pastures. A clan community is understood as an economic organization consisting of one or more clans and foreigners. Foreigners more often became husbands, spouses who settled in the clan, or outsiders.

The clan was governed on the basis of the principles of tribal democracy. Supreme body management was a meeting of all adult relatives. At the meeting, the main issues of economic and religious life were decided, leaders were chosen from authoritative and experienced people.

There was no division of power into economic, military, or judicial power, nor was there a coercive apparatus: if necessary, the offender was punished by the collective itself.

During the period of the late primitive community, tribes arose. A tribe is a large socio-territorial unit uniting several communities. It is characterized by common territory, language, cultural and sacred life.

Maternal clan community. Early primitive communities of the late Paleolithic-Mesolithic were, as a rule, maternal clan communities and had a maternal kinship account.

The reasons for matriarchy lie in the peculiarities of economic life and marriage relations. In the economy of the early natal community, women's labor was of great importance. She was engaged in gathering, which provided (unlike hunting) guaranteed food, looked after housing, hearth and children, stored and processed food. At the stage of early agriculture, a woman’s position in the community was further strengthened: by engaging in hoe farming, she became the main supplier of grain, an essential product.

Family and marriage relations in an early primitive community. The priority of women in family and marital relations was even more convincing. With the emergence of the communal clan system, exogamous group marriage spread. It implies a prohibition of marriage relations within the clan (agamy) and permission to enter into marriage relations with representatives of another specific clan. Two clans, united by marriage at the beginning, formed a tribe. At the same time economic activity Even within the tribe, such clans were conducted separately. Marital relations at the stage of exogamous group marriage, as a rule, were episodic, and the born child remained with the mother. For this reason, group marriage implied group kinship: all men of a neighboring clan of a certain age were called fathers, and all women of their clan belonging to the age class of the biological mother were called mothers.

With the transition to pair marriage, families arise. Since the property of the clan was essentially female, the husband passed into the clan community to the wife. The couple's family was fragile: spouses often worked separately, had no family property (each used the property of their own family), children belonged to the mother's family and were raised by all her relatives. Exogamous group and pair marriages strengthened the primacy of women in the early primitive community.

The early primitive tribal community was characterized by collectivism. It manifested itself in the form of property (land, hunting grounds, fishing dams, homes, boats, etc. belonged to the women of the clan), in production activities (compulsory collective labor was practiced) and in collective consumption. Reciprocal exchange was practiced: each community member contributed as much as he could into the “common pot” and received as much as he was entitled to. The difference between what was contributed and what was received was compensated by an increase or decrease in personal prestige.

Development of productive forces in an early primitive community. During the Late Paleolithic period, stone processing techniques became more complicated: flint plates were now broken off from prismatic cores. Composite tools - a spear with a flint tip and a knife with a handle - are widespread. Specialized tools appear: a harpoon and fishhooks made of bone, a sling and a boomerang. The man learned to sew clothes and make shoes. Hunting, especially round-up hunting, has become highly effective. At sites of this time, archaeologists find huge accumulations of bones of large animals: at the Amvrosievskaya site alone, about 1 thousand bison were found, driven into a ravine and destroyed there. The growth of labor productivity contributed to the growth of the population, and the extermination of game animals caused its migration to the north of Eurasia, to America, to the Japanese Islands.

At the beginning of the Mesolithic in the Northern Hemisphere, the Ice Age ends and the modern climate is established. The flora and fauna are changing, hunting resources are becoming depleted: instead of large animals, relatively small and non-herd animals - elk, wild boar, roe deer and others - began to inhabit vast territories. Under these conditions, man's invention of the bow, the first mechanical weapon, was of utmost importance. A fast-firing and long-range bow made it possible to hunt small, fast animals, as well as birds, and increased a person’s chances of survival.

Knife-shaped plates are now cleaved from pencil-shaped cores, the size and shape of which are similar to a pencil. The edges of such plates, surprisingly smooth, were from 0.5 to 1.5 cm wide. Microliths are widespread - processed flint chips 1-2 cm long, which are used as parts of composite tools - inserts for knives and sickles. Macrolites are widely used - stone axe, adze and chisel. During the Mesolithic period, man learned to make one-tree boats, nets with floats, sleighs, skis and spoons.

Late primitive community. During the Neolithic period, man learned to drill, polish and grind stone. He invents ceramic production, spinning and weaving, and opens copper smelting. New means of transportation appear - wheeled vehicles and sailboats.

Transition to a producing economy. At this time, a person transitions to a productive economy - to agriculture and animal husbandry (domestication). The reasons for domestication are usually seen in the desire of a person to provide himself with a guaranteed product, reducing his dependence on blind chance and the vagaries of nature. The transition to livestock farming in a number of regions is explained by a drop in the number of wild animals due to the high efficiency of appropriating farming or the drying out climate.

Stages of formation and development of agriculture.

First stage. Highly organized gathering. At this stage, people only helped nature by caring for wild plants: they irrigated wild grains, replanted fruit plants closer to their homes, cut off dry branches, cut down bushes that were in the way, and so on.

Second stage. Hoe farming. The main tool of labor at this stage becomes a hoe, later equipped with a metal working part. Hoe farming was usually done by a woman who had a traditional connection with plants and a knowledge of them. For this reason, the position of women in the clan community at the stage of hoe farming became significantly stronger.

Third stage. Arable (plough) farming. The main tool of labor at this stage becomes a plow drawn by draft animals. Plow farming was universally practiced by men who had long associated their lives with animals.

The peoples of Western Asia began to switch to agriculture from the 8th millennium BC, Mesoamerica and the Peruvian Andes - from the 4th millennium BC.

Human domestication of animals. The first domestic bulls, apparently, appeared on the territory of modern Iran and Iraq in the 4th millennium BC, goats and sheep - in Western Asia in the 6th millennium BC. The domestication of the horse (descended from the wild tarpan) took place in the territory from the Dnieper to the Urals in the 4th millennium BC. - much earlier than in Western Europe. However, some researchers (P.A. Lazarev and others) suggest the existence of an independent center of horse breeding in Yakutia.

Consequences of man's transition to a productive economy. Thanks to humanity's transition to agriculture and animal husbandry, the supply of food has stabilized, and this has increased life expectancy and the size of the Earth's population. Farmers finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle, began to build cities and create the first civilizations. The productive economy made it possible to obtain regular surplus and then surplus product, and this, in turn, led to the formation of early states.

Family and marriage relations in a late primitive community. Domestication caused changes in family and marital relations that were fateful for humanity. With the development of arable farming and animal husbandry in the Late Neolithic, the role of male labor increased. Moreover, all the main means of production (livestock, pastures, arable land, agricultural and craft tools) are used exclusively by men, become male property and could be transferred within the clan community only by male line. Since the clan community was interested in preserving its men, there is a transition from matrilocal to patrilocal settlement of spouses: now it is not the husband, but the wife who is forever sent to the spouse’s community. The process of transition to patrilocal settlement was long and gave rise to intermediate forms of compromise. With the emergence of family property (and it was originally the property of men), a transition occurs from a paired marriage to an incomparably more durable monogamous marriage. Monogamous marriage in primitive society excluded extramarital affairs for a woman and provided for divorce on the initiative of a woman only in exceptional cases.

A large patriarchal family emerged, which included several generations of male relatives, their wives and children. At the head of the patriarchal family was the eldest man (patriarch), who had the broadest power over the household. Later, slaves began to be included in the patriarchal family, occupying the position of junior family members.

The development of the productive economy (agriculture and animal husbandry) led to the first and second social division of labor.

The first social division of labor. It consists of separating pastoral and agricultural tribes from complex farms.

The reasons for the first social division of labor are usually seen in population growth (demographic theory) or in the drying out of the climate (climatic theory). In the first case, the surplus population, forced into natural zones unsuitable for farming, switched to cattle breeding. In the second case, tribes that had previously been involved in complex farming were forced to become pastoralists. The emergence of cattle breeding was also facilitated by technical advances, primarily the load-lifting wheeled cart with a metal axle and a collapsible dwelling (yurt).

Second social division of labor. It consists in the separation of crafts from agriculture, that is, in the emergence of professional artisans.

The reason for the second social division of labor was the complication technological process in metalworking, pottery, leather and weaving. Now practicing a craft required a lot of time, money and extensive experience from the community member and did not allow him to provide himself with food in in full. The first professional artisans, apparently, were gunsmiths and jewelers.

Consequences of the first and second social division of labor. Regular economic exchange arises between communities (a consequence of the first division of labor) and within communities (a consequence of the second division of labor). Economic exchange led to the emergence of the first measures of value and to the improvement of means of communication - roads, wheeled and water transport. The deepening of professional specialization caused an increase in labor productivity and product quality. And finally, regular economic exchange caused an increase in property inequality and contributed to the beginning of the process of politogenesis.

Political genesis in a late primitive community. In the late primitive community, a conflict arose between the growth of labor productivity and traditional communal psychology. The fact is that the excess product, the ability and desire to receive it, caused discontent and persecution of relatives. The community, trying to maintain property equality, introduced a number of restrictions. In particular, a maximum of personal property was established, and the resulting excess product was periodically destroyed or donated to neighbors. This is how a prestigious economy arises - prestigious feasts and gift exchanges between relatives and friendly communities. In this way, the contradiction between the growth of productive forces and the primitive mentality was resolved within the framework of the traditional worldview.

In the late primitive community, a significant part of the surplus product began to be concentrated in the hands of leaders and clan nobility. The clan nobility kept the surplus product, accumulating it for prestigious feasts and disposing of it in the interests of their relatives. For the performance of judicial, priestly and peacekeeping affairs, she received voluntary offerings of food and handicrafts.

The surplus product in late primitive society was obtained through intercommunity and intracommunity exploitation. Chronologically, the earliest intercommunal exploitation was carried out in the form of predatory wars, collection of tribute and indemnity. At the same time, not only the excess product was confiscated from weak tribes, but also part of the product they needed.

Predatory wars increased the stratification of property within the tribe, accelerated the process of formation of private property and made significant changes in psychology. War and military robbery began to be considered an occupation worthy of men, a kind of work that brought a fair income. In the warring tribes, groups of professional warriors are distinguished, led by military leaders. Enjoying great authority in the tribe, they influence the decisions of the national assembly and, in the struggle for power, oppose the traditional clan nobility. At the same time, the power of the military leader is based not so much on the authority of traditions, but on the strength of the squad, on personal wealth and on the dependence of the community members on it. This is a military version of politogenesis - the formation of a new type of power and control, culminating in the emergence of an early state. The struggle between the new aristocracy and the tribal traditional nobility usually ended in the victory of the new aristocracy led by the military leader, or in a compromise beneficial to it. The military version of politogenesis involves, first of all, intercommunal exploitation.

The aristocratic version of politogenesis is based on strengthening the positions of the traditional clan nobility (elders and priests), which removes ordinary community members from power. Since the power of the traditional aristocracy is sanctified by religion and tradition, they receive the right to life and death of their relatives. Military leaders were chosen only when necessary from the clan nobility and did not have a significant influence on the life of the clan community. The aristocratic version of politogenesis provides for the spread of intra-community exploitation.

Forms of intra-community exploitation during the period of decomposition of primitive society were debt slavery, labor and sharecropping. Debt slavery was initially non-inheritable and temporary, until the debt was worked off. The debtor, bound by work, worked off his debt on the creditor's farm. Sharecropping involves the debtor working on his farm and paying part of the product received to the lender to pay off the debt.

The process of politogenesis lasted for hundreds of years and ended with the formation of early states in the ancient East.

According to scientific data, primitive people appeared about 4 million years ago. Over the course of many millennia, they evolved, that is, they improved not only in terms of development but also in appearance. Historical anthropology divides primitive people into several species, which successively replaced each other. What are the anatomical features of each type of primitive people, and in what period of time did they exist? Read about all this below.

Primitive people - who are they?

The most ancient people lived in Africa more than 2 million years ago. This is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. However, it is known for certain that for the first time humanoid creatures moving confidently on their hind limbs (and this is the most important feature in defining a primitive person) appeared much earlier - 4 million years ago. This characteristic of ancient people, such as upright walking, was first identified in creatures to which scientists gave the name “australopithecus.”

As a result of centuries of evolution, they were replaced by the more advanced Homo habls, also known as “homo habilis.” He was replaced by humanoid creatures, whose representatives were called Homo erectus, which translated from Latin means “upright man.” And only after almost one and a half million years a more perfect type of primitive man appeared, which most closely resembled the modern intelligent population of the Earth - Homo sapiens or “reasonable man.” As can be seen from all of the above, primitive people slowly, but at the same time very effectively developed, mastering new opportunities. Let us consider in more detail what all these human ancestors were, what their activities were and what they looked like.

Australopithecus: external features and lifestyle

Historical anthropology classifies Australopithecus as one of the very first apes to walk on their hind limbs. The origin of this kind of primitive people began in East Africa more than 4 million years ago. For almost 2 million years, these creatures spread across the continent. The oldest man, whose height averaged 135 cm, weighed no more than 55 kg. Unlike monkeys, australopithecines had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, but the structure of the canines in male and female individuals was almost the same. The skull of this species was relatively small and had a volume of no more than 600 cm3. The main activity of Australopithecus was practically no different from that practiced by modern apes, and boiled down to obtaining food and protecting against natural enemies.

A skilled person: features of anatomy and lifestyle

(translated from Latin as “skillful man”) appeared as a separate independent species of anthropoids 2 million years ago on the African continent. This ancient man, whose height often reached 160 cm, had a more developed brain than that of Australopithecus - about 700 cm 3. The teeth and fingers of the upper limbs of Homo habilis were almost completely similar to those of humans, but the large brow ridges and jaws made it look like monkeys. In addition to gathering, a skilled person hunted using stone blocks, and knew how to use processed tracing paper to cut up animal carcasses. This suggests that Homo habilis is the first humanoid creature with labor skills.

Homo erectus: appearance

The anatomical characteristic of the ancient humans known as Homo erectus was a marked increase in the volume of the skull, which allowed scientists to claim that their brains were comparable in size to the brains of modern humans. and the jaws of Homo habilis remained massive, but were not as pronounced as those of their predecessors. The physique was almost the same as that of a modern person. Judging by archaeological finds, Homo erectus led and knew how to make fire. Representatives of this species lived in fairly large groups in caves. The main occupation of skilled man was gathering (mainly for women and children), hunting and fishing, clothing production. Homo erectus was one of the first to realize the need to create food reserves.

appearance and lifestyle

Neanderthals appeared much later than their predecessors - about 250 thousand years ago. What was this ancient man like? His height reached 170 cm, and his skull volume was 1200 cm 3. In addition to Africa and Asia, these also settled in Europe. Maximum quantity Neanderthals in one group reached 100 people. Unlike their predecessors, they had rudimentary forms of speech, which allowed their fellow tribesmen to exchange information and interact more harmoniously with each other. The main occupation of this human ancestor was hunting. Their success in obtaining food was ensured by a variety of tools: spears, long pointed fragments of stones that were used as knives, and traps dug in the ground with stakes. Neanderthals used the resulting materials (hides, skins) to make clothing and shoes.

Cro-Magnons: the final stage of the evolution of primitive man

Cro-Magnons or ( Homo Sapiens) is the last ancient man known to science, whose height already reached 170-190 cm. External resemblance This type of primitive people with monkeys was practically invisible, since the brow ridges were reduced, and the lower jaw no longer protruded forward. Cro-Magnons made tools not only from stone, but also from wood and bone. In addition to hunting, these human ancestors were engaged in agriculture and the initial forms of animal husbandry (tamed wild animals).

The level of thinking of the Cro-Magnons was significantly higher than their predecessors. This allowed them to create cohesive social groups. The herd principle of existence was replaced by the tribal system and the creation of the rudiments of socio-economic laws.

The primitive era of mankind is the period that lasted before the invention of writing. In the 19th century it received a slightly different name - “prehistoric”. If you do not delve into the meaning of this term, then it unites the entire time period, starting from the origin of the Universe. But in a narrower perception, we are talking only about the past of the human species, which lasted until a certain period (it was mentioned above). If the media, scientists or other people use the word “prehistoric” in official sources, then the period in question must be indicated.

Although the characteristics of the primitive era have been developed by researchers bit by bit for several centuries in a row, discoveries of new facts relating to that time are still being made. Due to the lack of writing, people compare data from archaeological, biological, ethnographic, geographical and other sciences for this purpose.

Development of the primitive era

Throughout the development of mankind, it has been constantly proposed various options classifications of prehistoric time. Historians Ferguson and Morgan divided it into several stages: savagery, barbarism and civilization. The primitive era of humanity, including the first two components, is divided into three more periods:

Stone Age

The primitive era received its periodization. We can highlight the main stages, among which was and At this time, all weapons and objects for everyday life were made, as you might guess, from stone. Sometimes people used wood and bones in their works. Towards the end of this period, clay dishes appeared. Thanks to the achievements of this century, the area of ​​human settlement on the inhabited territories of the planet has changed greatly, and it was also as a result of it that human evolution began. We are talking about anthropogenesis, i.e. the process of the emergence of intelligent beings on the planet. End stone period was marked by the domestication of wild animals and the beginning of the smelting of certain metals.

According to time periods, the primitive era to which this century belongs was divided into stages:

Copper Age

The era of primitive society, having chronological sequence, characterize the development and formation of life in different ways. In different territorial regions the period lasted for different times (or did not exist at all). The Eneolithic could have been connected to the Bronze Age, although scientists still distinguish it as a separate period. The approximate time period is 3-4 thousand years. It is logical to assume that this primitive era was usually characterized by the use of copper devices. However, the stone never went out of fashion. Acquaintance with new material happened rather slowly. When people found it, they thought it was a stone. The usual treatment at that time - hitting one piece against another - did not give the usual effect, but still the copper was deformable. When cold forging was introduced into everyday life, work with it went better.

Bronze Age

This primitive era became one of the main ones, according to some scientists. People learned to process certain materials (tin, copper), due to which they achieved the appearance of bronze. Thanks to this invention, a collapse began at the end of the century, which occurred quite synchronously. We are talking about the destruction of human associations - civilizations. This entailed a long development of the Iron Age in a certain area and a too long continuation of the Bronze Age. The latter in the eastern part of the planet lasted a record number of decades. It ended with the emergence of Greece and Rome. The century is divided into three periods: early, middle and late. During all these periods, the architecture of that time actively developed. It was she who influenced the formation of religion and the worldview of society.

Iron Age

Considering the eras of primitive history, we can come to the conclusion that it was the last one before the advent of intelligent writing. Simply put, this century was conditionally singled out as a separate one, since objects made of iron appeared and were widely used in all spheres of life.

Iron smelting was a fairly labor-intensive process for that century. After all, it was impossible to obtain real material. This is due to the fact that it corrodes easily and does not withstand many climate changes. In order to obtain it from ore, a much higher temperature was required than for bronze. And iron casting was mastered after too long a period of time.

The emergence of power

Of course, the emergence of power was not long in coming. There have always been leaders in society, even when it comes to primitive era. During this period, there were no institutions of power, and there was no political dominance either. Here, greater importance was attached social norms. They invested in customs, “laws of life,” traditions. Under the primitive system, all requirements were explained in sign language, and violations of them were punished by an outcast from society.