The main forms of abstract (logical) thinking are concept, judgment, and inference.

Each of these logical forms will be the subject of our study in the following sections. We will now briefly review them in order to illuminate the concept of logical form.

Individual objects or their combinations are reflected by our thinking in concepts that are different in content. For example, “textbook” and “crime” are concepts that reflect completely different objects of thought. A textbook is a printed source of knowledge about the basics of any science and serves to train future specialists. A crime is a socially dangerous, illegal, guilty and punishable act. As we see, these different objects are reflected in thinking in the same way - as a certain set of their common, essential properties and characteristics.

By highlighting the characteristic features of one object, or the repeating and common features of a certain set of objects, we create the concept of an object “A” as a certain set of its essential features “a”, “b”, “c”.

Thus, various objects are reflected in human thinking in the same way - as a certain connection of their essential features, i.e. in the form of a concept.

The form of judgment reflects the relationship between objects and their properties. These relationships are affirmed or denied. For example, “the accused has the right to defense” and “The Volga does not flow into the Black Sea.”

The above judgments are different in their content, but the way of connecting the components of their content is the same - this connection is expressed in the form of affirmation or negation. Having denoted the concepts included in the judgment with the symbols accepted in logic S (subject - from Latin - lying below, the underlying concept of the subject of judgment) - this is how the concept of the subject of judgment is designated - and P (predicate - from Latin - said, a sign of the subject) - the concept of an attribute of an object, we obtain a scheme that is common to any judgment of this type: “S - P”, where S and P-concepts included in the judgment, and the sign “-” means the connection between them. By S and P we can understand any objects and their properties, by the sign “-” - a connection (both affirmative and negative).

Thus, a judgment is a certain way of reflecting the relations of objects of reality, which is expressed in the form of affirmation or in the form of negation.

Considering the inference through which a new judgment is derived from one or more judgments, we can establish that in inferences of the same type the conclusion is carried out in the same way.

For example:

All philologists study logic

We are philology students

We study logic.

The conclusion (“We study logic”) is necessarily derived from the premises that they are connected by the common concept of “philologists.”

In the same way, that is, thanks to the semantic connection of judgments-assumptions, it is possible to obtain a conclusion from any other judgments in content.

So, we identify something common in inferences with different contents: the method of connection between judgments.

Having examined the basic forms of thinking - concept, judgment and inference, we found something in common in them that does not depend on the substantive content of thoughts, namely: the way of connecting the elements of thought - features in the concept, concepts in the judgment and judgments in the inference. The content of thoughts determined by these connections does not exist in itself, but in certain logical forms: concepts, judgments, conclusions.

Logical form or form of thinking is a way of connecting the elements of thought, its structure, thanks to which the content exists and reflects reality.

In the real process of thinking, the content and form of thought exist in inextricable unity. There is no meaning that is devoid of form, just as there is no form that is meaningless. But for the purpose of special analysis, we abstract from the substantive content of thoughts and focus on studying their form. The study of logical forms beyond their specific content is the most important task of the science of logic.

that's how it is general concept logical form.

The concept of logical form (form of thinking)

As noted above, the main forms of abstract thinking include concept, judgment, inference. Each of these forms of thinking is a system, the elements of which are connected with each other in a certain way and form a corresponding logical structure. The word “form” indicates that logic considers concepts, judgments, conclusions, abstracting from their specific content, changes and development of forms.

Logical form (form of thinking) is a way of connecting the elements of thought, its structure.

The structure of thought, i.e. its logical form can be expressed using symbols. Let us identify the structure (logical form) of the following three judgments: “All students of Moscow State University ( S) have student cards ( R)", "All lawyers ( S) are lawyers ( R)". Their content is different, but the form is the same: " S There is R" ("Grand Theatre Russia ( S) – National treasure (R)"). It includes: 1) S (subject), i.e. concept of the subject of judgment; 2) P (predicate), i.e. concept of a feature of an object;

3) connective (“have”, “are”). Sometimes the connective may be absent or replaced by a dash, and the quantifier word may also be omitted. In this case, quantifiers (from the Latin quantum - how many) must be understood as logical operators that indicate the “number” of individuals belonging to the sphere of reasoning.

The following two conditional propositions have the same form: “If a student regularly performs homework, then he has a better chance of passing the exam with an excellent grade"; "If there is a lot of snow outside, then you can ski": "If A, That IN". Symbolically: A → B.

IN general view the structure of a logical form can be represented as a set of elements: 1) boolean variables(substantive side of reasoning) – names of objects, judgments (statements) that have independent content; 2) logical constants(formal side of reasoning) - logical conjunctions ("and", "or", "if... then", etc.), quantifier words ("all", "none", "some", etc.) , connectives that do not have independent content.

The concept of the law of thinking (logical law)

Human thinking is subject to logical laws, or laws of thinking.

Consideration of this issue is directly related to the above analysis of the concepts of “truth of thought” and “correctness of reasoning.”

Correct logical forms of reasoning - these are those in which new true judgments are always necessarily obtained from true judgments. Correctly constructed reasoning has the character of laws of thinking.

Thus, the law of thinking, or logical law, is the necessary stable connections between thoughts in the process of reasoning.

Features of the laws of formal logic:

• 1) objectivity - laws do not depend on the will and consciousness of a person;
• 2) formal universality - cover thoughts infinitely different in content, but similar in form;
• 3) necessity - without observing the laws it is impossible to achieve truth in rational knowledge;
• 4) abstractness - reflect only significant connections between thoughts, abstracting from non-essential ones;
• 5) stability - their content does not change when the subject of discussion changes;
• 6) obviousness - do not need proof;
• 7) normativity – ensure the correctness of reasoning.

Formal logic studies two types of laws.

1. Laws expressing necessary General requirements, which concepts, judgments, inferences and logical operations with them must satisfy. These laws are called basic, because they express the fundamental properties of logical thinking: its certainty, consistency, consistency and validity.

Basic formal logical laws:

• 1) the law of identity;
• 2) the law of the excluded middle;
• 3) the law of non-contradiction;
• 4) the law of sufficient reason.
• 2. Laws expressing logical forms(schemes, structures) of correctly constructed reasoning, conclusions, statements.

The second type of laws includes correctly built statements in which the truth of some propositions necessarily forces one to recognize the truth of others. With properly constructed thinking, we “feel forced” to think one way and not another. For example, if we recognized the truth of the judgments: “If a person committed a theft, then he committed a crime” and “The person committed a theft,” then it is necessary to recognize the truth of such a judgment: “The person committed a crime.”

The laws of thinking underlie various logical operations, conclusions, and evidence that a person makes in the process of mental activity.

Practical meaning of logic

Representing a practical science, formal logic helps to improve the thinking process, namely, it forms knowledge, skills and abilities that allow a specialist to:

• a) express your thoughts logically and convincingly;
• b) critically evaluate one’s own and others’ reasoning, independently evaluate and solve complex problem situations, phenomena and processes;
• c) competently, i.e. logically correctly using such operations and procedures as generalization and limitation, definition, division of concepts, transformation of judgments, establishing their truth and falsity, organizing information;
• d) use the laws of thinking as effective remedy cognition, beliefs in the course of various communicative situations;
• e) detect and qualify logical errors, deliberately or unintentionally made in reasoning.

Being a normative science, formal logic does not simply describe human thinking, but sets certain principles (norms) and rules to which human thinking is subject.

Formal logic forms a culture of thinking, the ability to effectively use the arsenal of logically cognitive tools acquired by humanity.

In all sciences, certain terminology and concepts are used, judgments are affirmed or denied, and conclusions are drawn. But no science, except formal logic, studies general features these forms of communication.

The discovery of the logical form of thinking made it possible to distinguish between the world of phenomena and their deep invariant structures, which are hidden behind the external sensory side of phenomena, which made it possible to establish regular relationships for a whole class of phenomena and make scientific generalizations.

Thus, logic can be called a science that studies forms of thinking from the point of view of their structure, laws and rules for obtaining inferential knowledge.

Logic also studies the general logical techniques used by man in cognitive reality.

Studying logic develops the following skills.

• 1. Think accurately and express your thoughts clearly.
• 2. Convince the interlocutor.
• 3. Justify your reasoning.
• 4. Analyze your own and others’ reasoning.
• 5. Conduct an argument, discussion, controversy.
• 6. Think (and this is the most important thing).

Logic is a science that studies methods and means of correct thinking and understanding real world. It represents natural, consistent thought processes with the help of which one can see and determine the cause-and-effect relationship that arises between objects and phenomena.

We need logical thinking in order to timely analyze and apply previously received information. It helps us to solve various problems (from compiling shortest path home and before developing a large-scale business plan). Logical thinking allows you to separate the main from the secondary, find connections and fully analyze the situation.

Thanks to logic, we can give reasons for various phenomena, consciously approach the solution of important problems and competently share our thoughts.

What types of logical thinking are there?

Thinking is the process of processing received information that comes from outside world. When receiving any information, a person is able to present it in the form of a certain image, to imagine an object when it is not nearby.

The following main types of logical thinking are distinguished:

1. Visually effective– as a result of solving a problem, a person is able to transform it in his thoughts, based on previously acquired experience and knowledge. At first, a person observes the situation, then, through trial and error, tries to solve the problem, after which theoretical activity is formed. This type of thinking involves equal application of theory and practice.
2. Visual-figurative– thinking occurs through representation. It is most common in children preschool age. In order to solve a problem, children often use images that can be in memory or created by imagination. Also, this type of thinking is possessed by people who are associated with a type of activity in which it is necessary to make decisions based on the observation of objects or their images (drawing, diagram).
3. Abstract-logical – this species of thinking, individual details are not important, he is interested in the process of thinking as a whole. To avoid problems solving important problems in the future, it is important to develop abstract logical thinking even from early childhood. This type of thinking manifests itself in three main forms: concept, judgment, and inference.

A concept unites one or more homogeneous objects, dividing them according to essential characteristics. This form of thinking needs to be developed in children in early age, giving definitions to all objects and interpreting their meaning.

Judgment can be either simple or complex. This can be an affirmation of an object or a denial of its relationship with other objects. An example of a simple proposition is simple phrases: “Masha loves porridge”, “Mom loves Anya”, “The cat meows”, etc. This is exactly how kids think when they begin to explore the world around them.

An inference is a logical analysis of what is happening, which is based on several judgments.

Each person can independently develop a logical type of thinking by solving special problems, puzzles, crosswords, and puzzles.

Logical mental operations

Logical mental operations consist of:

• comparisons,
• abstractions,
• generalizations
• specification,
• analysis,
• synthesis.

By comparisons we can understand the reason for our failure and subsequently pay due attention to the problem and the conditions under which it was created.

Abstraction process allows you to divert the attention of one object from other closely interrelated objects. Abstraction makes it possible to see an object, determine its essence and give your own definition of this object. Abstraction refers to mental activity person. It allows you to comprehend the phenomenon, touching on its most significant character traits. By abstracting from problems, a person learns the truth.

Generalization allows you to combine similar objects and phenomena based on common characteristics. Typically, generalization is used to summarize or draw up rules.

A thought process like specification completely opposite to generalization. It serves for correct awareness of reality, not allowing thinking to break away from the real perception of phenomena. Concretization does not allow our knowledge to acquire abstract images, which in reality become useless.

Our brain uses every day analysis for a detailed division into parts of an object or phenomenon necessary for us. By analyzing a phenomenon or object, we can identify its most necessary elements, which will further help us improve our skills and knowledge.

Synthesis on the contrary, it allows you to compose from small details big picture what's happening. With its help, you can compare current events by going through several individual facts. An example of synthesis is puzzles. When assembling a mosaic, we imagine one or another part of it, putting aside what is unnecessary and adding what is necessary.

Applying logic

Logical thinking is used in almost every area of ​​human activity (humanities, economics, rhetoric, creative activity and so on.). For example, in mathematical sciences or philosophy they use strict and formalized logic. In other areas, logic serves as a source useful knowledge necessary to obtain a reasonable conclusion about the situation as a whole.

A person tries to apply logical skills on a subconscious level. Some people cope with this better, some worse. But in any case, using our logic, we need to know what we can do with it:

1. Pick up required method problem solving;
2. Think faster;
3. Express your thoughts qualitatively;
4. Avoid self-deception;
5. Find and correct mistakes of other people in their conclusions;
6. Select the necessary arguments to convince your interlocutor that you are right.

In order to develop correct logical thinking, you need not only desire, but also systematic training in the main components of this issue.

Is it possible to learn logical thinking?

Scientists identify several aspects that help master the basic concepts of logic:

• Theoretical training – knowledge that is provided in educational institutions. These include basic concepts, laws and rules of logic.
• Practical learning – previously acquired knowledge that needs to be applied in real life. At the same time modern training involves passing special tests and solving problems that can reveal the level of intellectual development of a person, but without applying logic in emerging life situations.

Logical thinking must be built sequentially, based on arguments and events that help to draw the right conclusions and accept important decisions. A person with well-developed logical thinking has no problems in solving serious issues that require quick reactions and analytical activity.

It is necessary to develop this ability in childhood, but through long-term training, adults can also master logical thinking skills.

In modern psychology there is a large number of exercises that can develop a person’s observation, thinking, and intellectual abilities. One of effective exercises is "Logicality".

The main idea of ​​the exercise is correct definition relationships between judgments and whether the conclusion drawn is logical. For example: “All cats can meow. Vaska is a cat, which means he can meow” - this statement is logical. “Cherry red. The tomato is also red, which means it is a fruit.” There is a clear error in this conclusion. Each exercise allows you to build a logical chain for yourself that will allow you to make the only right decision.

Thinking is a difficult-to-define concept. If we say that thinking is a generalized reflection of reality human brain, this definition will emphasize the epistemological, i.e., theoretical-cognitive, aspect of thinking. A physiologist would prefer a different formulation: thinking is an ideal manifestation of the highest nervous activity brain Psychologists say that thinking is intelligence in action. But then you need to find out what intelligence is. Here we risk falling into a circle of mutually related definitions: thinking is a product of the brain, and the brain is the material carrier of thinking. On modern level knowledge about the thought process, information definitions of thinking appeared. So, English cyberneticist

W. Ross Ashby considers thinking as a process of processing information according to some program that involves selection at least an order of magnitude higher than random.

Of course, human thinking cannot be identified only with the process of information processing: after all, it has both biological and social aspects. But the cognitive side of thinking lies in the active extraction of information from the external world and its processing. When they say that thinking is the processing of information, they are not so much defining the concept of “thinking” as indicating one of its properties.

Thinking, or the logical stage of cognition, having arisen on the basis of sensations, perceptions and ideas, cannot be reduced to a simple set of sensory images. Thinking is a qualitatively new, more complex form of cognition than the sensory stage of cognition. Thinking is a social product. It arises and develops along with the emergence and development of labor and language, which records the results of thinking. Thinking as a process of reflecting Objective reality represents the highest level of human cognition. Born from labor and together with it, it seemed to split the knowable nature into two opposite “parts” - subject and object, the dialectical relationship of which to this day constitutes the internal content of all human activity: both theoretical and practical. Thanks to work and thinking, the never-ending processes of objectification and deobjectification of knowledge in society were consolidated, opening the way to its intensive production and dissemination. The originality and uniqueness of thinking are associated with his ability to know himself, which to a large extent determined all his other abilities.

Thinking is a process during which a person compares thoughts, i.e., reasons, draws conclusions, and from some thoughts derives others containing new knowledge.

The thought process has an internal structure and is realized in such naturally occurring forms as concept, judgment, and inference. Operating with concepts, judgments and obtaining new knowledge in conclusions constitute the formal logical apparatus of thinking. Logical form represents historically established ways of connecting the constituent elements of thought.

Each simple thought, as a rule, consists of two main elements:

Display of an object, which is called the subject (denoted by the Latin letter S);

A representation of one or another property of an object, which is called a predicate (denoted by the Latin letter P).

For example, in the thought “The lecture was very interesting” there are such elements:

Subject - knowledge about the lecture listened to;

The predicate is knowledge about the quality of this lecture: it was very interesting.

The content of thoughts may be different, but their logical form is nevertheless the same. Thus, the thought “Incorrect classification of a crime is not only a judicial, but also a logical error” differs in content from the thought about an interesting lecture, but in structure they are similar: in the last thought there is a subject (knowledge about the classification of the crime) and a predicate (knowledge about error not only judicial, but also logical).

These elements of thought - subject and predicate - express the relationship between an object and its property. This relationship is fixed in thought with the words “is”, “essence”, “are” (often these linking words are only implied).

Depending on the nature of the combination of elements of thought, several main stable forms of thought are distinguished:

concept, judgment, inference.

The logical form of thinking is used in all areas of knowledge and covers a wide variety of subject content. The property of universality of a logical form does not at all indicate its emptiness and a priori nature, but only indicates that this form reflects the simplest, most frequently encountered properties and relations of the real world, common to all objects and phenomena of objective reality. Therefore, the logical form of thinking that reflects them finds universal application in all areas of science. The universality of the logical form is not denied, but also to a greater extent confirms its objective content.

Done in accordance with a certain logic.

In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished:

• comparison;
• analysis;
• synthesis;
• abstraction;
• generalization.

Comparison- mental operations based on

Analysis- a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.

Synthesis- an operation opposite to analysis, allowing Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper knowledge of reality.

Abstraction - highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from others, insignificant.

Generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.

Forms of logical thinking

The main forms of logical thinking are:

• concepts;
• judgments;
• inferences.

Concept

Concept - form of thinking that reflects in a word concrete and abstract.

Judgment

Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications approval form or denial.

Inference

Conclusion - conclusion.

The conclusions differ:

• inductive;
• deductive;
• Similarly.

Induction - logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general.

Deduction- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.

Analogy- logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private

Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling will give tension, sharpness, purposefulness and perseverance to thinking. According to psychology, without sublime feeling Productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, knowledge, skills and abilities.

Logic and emotions in the thinking process

Thinking, unlike other processes, occurs in accordance with a certain logic. In the structure of thinking, the following logical operations can be distinguished: comparison, analysis, synthesis. abstraction and generalization.

Comparison - mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects. The result of the comparison can be a classification, which acts as the primary form of theoretical knowledge.

Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts or characteristics and then comparing them.

Synthesis - an operation inverse to analysis that allows mentally recreate a whole from analytically given parts. Analysis and synthesis are usually carried out together, contributing to a deeper Knowledge of reality.

Abstraction - mental operation based on you divide the essential properties and connections of an object and abstract from others, insignificant. These highlighted characteristics do not actually exist as independent objects. Abstraction facilitates a more thorough study of them. The result of abstraction is the formation of concepts.

Generalization is the mental unification of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential characteristics.

Basic forms of logical thinking are concepts, judgments and inferences.

Concept - form of thinking that reflects essential properties, connections and relationships objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or a group of words. Concepts can be concrete and abstract.

Judgment - form of thinking that reflects communications between objects and phenomena in approval form or denial. Propositions can be true or false.

Conclusion - a form of thinking in which, based on several judgments, a certain one is made conclusion. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive and analogical.

Induction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general. Deduction is a logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific.

Analogy - logical conclusion in the process of thinking from private to private based on some similarities.

Although thinking is carried out on the basis of logical operations, it does not always act as a process in which only logic and reason operate. Emotions very often interfere with the thinking process, changing it. Emotions subordinate thought to feeling, forcing one to select arguments that speak in favor of the desired decision.

Emotions can not only distort, but also stimulate thinking. It is known that feeling gives tension, sharpness, purposefulness and persistence to thinking. According to psychology, without sublime feelings, productive thought is just as impossible as without logic, knowledge, skills, and abilities.