Literary direction is an ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which has received a programmatic justification. The belonging of writers to one direction is determined by the unity of cultural tradition, the relative similarity of worldview and methods of reproducing reality. In the history of Russian literature, the most significant trends were classicism, romanticism and realism.
A literary movement is different from a current. Writers may belong to one direction,
Different in ideological views and aesthetic features of creativity, that is, in one literary direction there can be different movements. The trend presupposes a common ethical and social ideal, artistic principles and techniques.
Thus, in Russian classicism the “Sumarokov” and “Lomonosov” movements stand out.
Classicism- a literary movement that originated in the 17th century. but France in the conditions of the formation of an absolutist state. Classical writers chose ancient art as a role model, but interpreted it in their own way. Classicism is based on
The principle of rationalism (racio). Everything must be subject to reason, both in the state and in personal life, and selfish feelings and passions must be brought within the framework of civil and moral duty by reason.
The theorist of classicism was the French poet Nicolas Boileau, who outlined the program of the movement in the book “Poetic Art”. In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established:
– The main conflict of the works is the struggle between egoistic feeling and civic duty or between passion and reason. In this case, duty and reason always win.
– In accordance with their attitude to public duty, the actors were divided into positive and negative. The characters had only one quality, one dominant trait (cowardice or courage, deceit or nobility, etc.), i.e. the characters were one-line.
– A strict hierarchy of genres was established in literature. All of them were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy). Outstanding events were depicted in high genres; the heroes were monarchs, statesmen, and generals.
They glorified deeds for the benefit of the state and the monarchy. The language in works of high genres was supposed to be solemn and majestic.
In low genres, the life of people of the middle classes was depicted, everyday phenomena and individual character traits of a person were ridiculed. The language of fables and comedies was close to colloquial.
Dramatic works in the aesthetics of classicism were subject to the requirement of three unities: time, place and action. The unity of time and place meant that the action in the play should take no more than a day and take place in one place. The unity of action dictated a plot line that was not complicated by side episodes.
In France, the leading writers of classicism were playwrights P. Corneille and J. Racine (in the genre of tragedy), Moliere (comedy), J. Lafontaine (fable).
In Russia, classicism developed from the 18th century. Although Russian classicism had much in common with Western European, in particular with French, national specificity was clearly manifested in literature. If Western European classicism turned to ancient subjects, then Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism, a critical note sounded clearly, the denunciation of vices was sharper, and the interest in the folk language and in folk art in general was more pronounced.
Representatives of classicism in Russian literature are A. D. Kantemir, M. V. Lomonosov, A. P. Sumarokov, D. I. Fonvizin.
Romanticism- an ambiguous phenomenon. Develops in the literature of Europe and Russia from the end of the 18th - in the first third of the 19th century. In each country, romanticism had its own characteristics. The high landmarks of romanticism were in England - J.
G. Byron, in France - V. Hugo, in Germany - E. T. A. Hoffmann and G. Heine, in Poland and Belarus - A. Mickiewicz.
In romanticism, the dominant significance is the writer’s subjective position in relation to reality, which is expressed not so much in its reconstruction as in its re-creation. Writers of romanticism were united by some common features:
– Dissatisfaction with reality, discord with it, disappointment led to the creation of a picture of the world that corresponded to the writer’s ideals. All romantic writers depart from reality. Some - into the world of foggy dreams, a mystical past, the other world (the so-called passive romanticism, or, more precisely, religious-mystical).
Others dreamed of the future, called for a struggle for the reconstruction of society, for personal freedom (active or civic romanticism).
– The heroes of romantic poetry are unusual, exceptional personalities. These are either lonely rebels disappointed in life, leaving society, or strong and courageous individuals who perform heroic deeds, ready to sacrifice themselves for the sake of the happiness of others.
– Exceptional characters act in exceptional circumstances, in which they demonstrate all their extraordinary qualities, and the heroes act outside of social and everyday conditions. The action may take place in exotic countries, in other world.
– In romantic works, the lyrical principle predominates. Their tone is emotional, upbeat, pathetic.
In Russia, religious and moralistic romanticism is represented by the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, civil romanticism by K. F. Ryleev, V. K. Kuchelbecker. A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, and the early M. Gorky paid tribute to romanticism.
Realism- a literary direction in which the surrounding reality is depicted specifically historically, in the variety of its contradictions, and “typical characters act in typical circumstances.”
Literature is understood by realist writers as a textbook of life. Therefore, they strive to comprehend life in all its contradictions, and a person - in psychological, social and other aspects of his personality.
Common features of realism:
– Historicism of thinking.
– The focus is on the patterns operating in life, determined by cause-and-effect relationships.
– Fidelity to reality becomes the leading criterion of artistry in realism.
– A person is depicted in interaction with the environment in authentic life circumstances. Realism shows the influence of the social environment on a person’s spiritual world and the formation of his character.
– Characters and circumstances interact with each other: character is not only conditioned (determined) by circumstances, but also itself influences them (changes, opposes).
– Works of realism present deep conflicts, life is given in dramatic clashes. Reality is given in development. Realism depicts not only already established forms of social relations and types of characters, but also reveals emerging ones that form a trend.
– The nature and type of realism depends on the socio-historical situation – in different eras it manifests itself in different ways.
In the second third of the 19th century. writers' critical attitude towards surrounding reality– both to the environment, society, and to the individual. Critical understanding of life, aimed at denying its individual aspects, gave rise to the name realism XIX V. critical.
The largest Russian realists were L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. S. Turgenev, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A. P. Chekhov.
The depiction of the surrounding reality and human characters from the point of view of the progressiveness of the socialist ideal created the basis socialist realism. The first work of socialist realism in Russian literature is considered to be M. Gorky’s novel “Mother”. A. Fadeev, D. Furmanov, M. Sholokhov, A. Tvardovsky worked in the spirit of socialist realism.
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Classicism Literary movement of the 17th – early 19th centuries The term “classicism” translated from Latin means “exemplary” and is associated with the principles of imitation of images.
This direction is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as a certain artistic movement, tends to reflect life in ideal images that gravitate towards a certain “norm”, samples.
The author had to observe three classical unities: Unity of action - the play must have one main plot, secondary plots are kept to a minimum. Unity of place - the action is not transferred in space, the area limited by the stage corresponds to the same place in the space of the play. Unity of time - the action of the play should take (in the reality assumed by the work) no more than 24 hours.
The laws of classicism did not allow the mixing of genres, styles and narrative language. If it was an ode, then it should have been written in bookish language on the occasion of a solemn or significant event. In comedy, colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary was allowed.
Higher genres: epic; epic poem; tragedy; Oh yeah. Works higher genres should have reflected government or historical events, the main characters could be monarchs, generals, aristocrats, as well as gods and heroes of the ancient era.
Low genres: comedy; satire; fable. These works showed the daily life of ordinary people.
In Russia, classicism appeared in the second quarter of the 18th century. The main high genre was the ode, in which poets glorified the acts of Peter I, Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine II, the victories of the Russian troops, or turned to the glorious future of Russia, which was invariably associated with the benefits of the reigning monarchs. The main low genre was the fable. Russian fables ridiculed the vices of society, but the fables were instructive in nature.
The most prominent representatives of classicism in Russia were V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, I.A. Krylov, D.I. Fonvizin.
Sentimentalism Literary movement of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, to be the dominant of “human nature,” which distinguished it from classicism.
Special attention- to the spiritual world of a person. The main thing is declared to be the feeling, the experience of a simple person, and not great ideas. The hero of educational literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, his inner world enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around. By origin (or by conviction) the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; the rich spiritual world of the common people is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.
The main genres of sentimentalism: story, elegy, novel, letters, travel, memoirs
Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s - early 1790s thanks to translations of novels, including “Werther” by J. W. Goethe. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin “Letters of a Russian Traveler.” His story “Poor Liza” (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited a general atmosphere of sensitivity, melancholy and the theme of suicide.
Representatives: James Thomson, Edward Jung, Thomas Gray, Laurence Stern (England), Jean Jacques Rousseau (France), Nikolai Karamzin (Russia). In French literature, sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J. -J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre. IN German literature– works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.
Romanticism Literary movement of the late XVIII - second half of the 19th century V. A counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws.
Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.
Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism The idea of two worlds is a struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of dual worlds has two modifications: departure into the world of fantasy; travel, road concept.
Hero Concept: The romantic hero is always an exceptional person; the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality; the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone; aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.
Speech style romantic work: extreme expression; the principle of contrast at the composition level; abundance of symbols.
The main genres of romanticism: Elegy Idyll Ballad Novella Novel Fantastic story
Realism Literary movement of the 19th century. Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it.
The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.
Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality. While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer is interested in how the world influences personality. The actions of the heroes of realistic works are determined by life circumstances.
Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, they distinguish: critical (social) realism; realism of characters; psychological realism; grotesque realism.
Late A. S. Pushkin is the founder of realism in Russian literature (historical drama “Boris Godunov”, stories “ Captain's daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Belkin's Tales", a novel in verse "Eugene Onegin") M. Yu. Lermontov ("Hero of Our Time") N.V. Gogol ("Dead Souls", "The Inspector General") I. A. Goncharov (“Oblomov”) A. I. Herzen (“Who is to blame?”) N. G. Chernyshevsky (“What to do?”) F. M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “White Nights”, “Humiliated and Offended ", "Crime and Punishment", "Demons") L. N. Tolstoy ("War and Peace", "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection").
I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “ Noble Nest", "Asya", "Spring Waters", "Fathers and Sons", "New", "On the Eve", "Mu-mu") A. P. Chekhov ("The Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Student" , “Chameleon”, “The Seagull”, “Man in a Case”) V. G. Korolenko (“In Bad Society”, “Children of the Dungeon”, “Paradox”, “The River Is Playing”) A. I. Kuprin (“Junkers” , “Olesya”, “Staff Captain Rybnikov”, “Gambrinus”, “Shulamith”) A. T. Tvardovsky (“Vasily Terkin”) V. M. Shukshin (“Cut”, “Crank”, “Uncle Ermolai”) B. L. Pasternak (“Doctor Zhivago”) M. A. Sholokhov (“ Quiet Don", "The Fate of a Man") M. A. Bulgakov ("The Master and Margarita", "Heart of a Dog")
CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic movement that originated in the Renaissance and continued its development until the first decades XIX century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its main features were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674). Classicism was considered as a movement oriented towards ancient art. The definition of classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, comparison to ancient models and strict adherence to rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of “three unities” (“unity of time”, “unity of place”, “unity of action”) were mandatory, which became a symbol of the three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in drama. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this movement understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmony of composition, a set of specific themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome the contradictions of real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although in classicism such prose genres, as aphorisms (maxims) and characters, special meaning have in it dramatic works and the theater itself, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of “good taste”, developed by the so-called “good society”. The taste of classicism prefers brevity to verbosity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity, extravagant - decency. The basic law of classicism is artistic verisimilitude, which depicts things and people as they should be according to moral standards, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which should turn them into universal human types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; French - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art of the 18th century. Sentimentalism received its name after the publication of the novel “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimental writers is on the life of the human heart; the external world of nature in their works is closely connected with the inner world of the human soul, with intense interest in emotional sphere and the experiences of the individual. The sublime principle, fundamental in the works of the theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of the touching, sympathy for one’s neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, and a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated back in the 18th century and enjoyed great readership and influence. significant influence on domestic writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its highest flowering in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”, “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravyova, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitrieva.
ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant movements in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, which became widespread worldwide and discovered many talented artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a sublime, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between ideal and reality, a feeling of a gap between them and at the same time a thirst for their reunification is the defining beginning of romantic art.
Romantics have always been attracted to fantastic plots and images, folk legends, parables, and fairy tales; they were interested in unknown distant countries, the life of tribes and peoples, heroic turning points in historical eras, the fertile and bright world of living nature, with which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed the high and the low, the tragic and the comic, the real and the fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - the historical novel, the lyric-epic poem, the fairy tale. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change existing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyric poetry. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.
In conditions other than those of Western Europe, Russian romanticism arose and developed, becoming the main event literary life in the 1820s. Its most important features were less distinctness of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. The period of origin of the romantic movement in Russia falls on the years 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a huge influence on subsequent literature. The years 1816 - 1825 became a time of intensive development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity of the Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delviga. A.S. becomes the central figure of Russian romanticism. Pushkin. In the third period, covering 1826-1840, romanticism became most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this direction was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutcheva, early works N.V. Gogol. Subsequently, the influence of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Romantic traditions continue to this day.
REALISM(from Late Lat. - material, real) - the leading literary movement of the 19th-20th centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and human personality in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory became a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the clear manifestation of certain “unrealistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a complete, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (albeit optionally) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged quite late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is experiencing constant changes and updates, while revealing a natural “survival” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.
MODERNISM(from French - newest) - an aesthetic concept that emerged in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of a revision of the philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles of artistic culture of the 19th century, which occurred during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and movements as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, they are all united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible changes, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, allowing us to talk about a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, drama, and prose.
POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - used in last decades, but has not yet received a clear and unambiguous interpretation of the term, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is a multi-valued and multi-level complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, subject to the influence of national-historical, social and other circumstances, determined by the specifics of the worldview , worldview and assessment of a person’s cognitive capabilities, his place and role in the world around him. The origin of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of the Second World War, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and was reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its entirety, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he is trying to resist. In this regard, the concepts with which theorists of this direction operate are not accidental: “the world as chaos”, “postmodern sensitivity”, “the world as a text”, “consciousness as a text”, “intertextuality”, “crisis of authorities”, “author’s mask”, “parody mode of narration”, fragmentation of narration, meta-story, etc.
Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- advanced detachment), avant-garde- a general name for movements in world art, primarily in European art, that emerged at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The brightest representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:
· futurism - Alexey Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;
· expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.
Dramaturgy
The pioneer of avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and worldview are consolidated in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, the late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hofmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama was enriched with the techniques of absurdist literature. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrowicz, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received complete expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel developed absurdist motifs in their dramas.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
NATIONAL RESEARCH
IRKUTSK STATE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY
CORRESPONDENCE AND EVENING FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC LEGAL DISCIPLINES
Essay
on the topic: Literary movements and movements of the 17th-19th centuries.
(classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism)
Abstract on the discipline
"Culturology"
performed by a student of group YURZ-09-3
Eremeeva Olga Olegovna
Irkutsk, 2011
Content
Page
Introduction .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. .......
3 – 4
- General characteristics of literary trends and movements XVII-XIX centuries .............................. .............................. .............................. .............................. ..........
5 – 7
Literary trends and movements of the 17th-19th centuries. .............................. . 8
§ 2. Sentimentalism .............................. .............................. .............................. ............ 12 – 14
§ 3. Romanticism .............................. .............................. .............................. ...................... 15 – 17
§ 4. Realism .............................. .............................. .............................. ............................ 18 – 19
Conclusion .............................. .............................. .............................. ........................... 20 – 21
List of used literature.............................. .............................. ................. 22
INTRODUCTION
Russian literary life of the early 19th century. proceeded under the sign of the ever-deepening collapse of classicism and fierce disputes around its artistic heritage.
Various events of the late 18th century. - which began under the influence of the growth of capitalism and the collapse of feudal-serf relations, the involvement in this culture of the country, increasingly wider sections of the landowner class and the “third estate” - this whole chain of heterogeneous phenomena led to the decline and decomposition of the dominant style of the previous era.
The overwhelming majority of writers abandoned what classicism so lovingly cultivated - the decorous and cold normativism that carefully separated the “high” forms of art from the “mean” types that served the interests of the despicable “rabble.” The democratization of literature is accompanied by the democratization of language.
The organization of the literary base of the Old Belief at the beginning of the century was taken over by Admiral A.S. Shishkov, expressing his ideas in the essay “Discourse on the old and new syllable of the Russian language,” which was published in 1803 and quickly became a confession of faith for all supporters of the “good old” classical art.
This center of literary “Old Belief” was opposed by two societies that united opponents of classicism.
The earliest in terms of the time of its emergence and at the same time the most radical in its political tendencies was the “Sick Society of Lovers of Russian Literature.”
The purpose of this essay is to study literary trends and trends of the 17th-19th centuries.
Based on the goal test work, I have identified the following tasks:
- consider the general characteristics of literary trends and movements of the 17th-19th centuries;
- identify character traits classicism;
- identify the characteristic features of sentimentalism;
- identify the characteristic features of romanticism;
- identify the characteristic features of realism.
CHAPTER 1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LITERARY DIRECTIONS AND TRENDS
XVII-XIX centuries.
Literary direction is often identified with artistic method. Designates a set of fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles of many writers, as well as a number of groups and schools, their programmatic and aesthetic attitudes, and the means used. In the struggle and change of directions, the laws of the literary process are most clearly expressed.
The concept " direction
» are characterized by the following features:
- the commonality of the deep spiritual and aesthetic foundations of artistic content, due to the unity of cultural and artistic traditions;
the same type of worldview of writers and the life problems they face;
the similarity of the epochal socio-cultural-historical situation.
Literary movement is a narrower concept than literary movement. Writers belonging to the same movement not only have common artistic principles expressed in literary manifestos, but also belong to the same literary groups or circles, unite around a magazine or publishing house.
A literary movement is often identified with a literary group and school. Designates a set of creative personalities who are characterized by ideological and artistic affinity and programmatic and aesthetic unity. Otherwise, literary movement- This is a type of literary movement. For example, in relation to Russian romanticism they talk about “philosophical”, “psychological” and “civil” movements. In Russian realism, some distinguish “psychological” and “sociological” trends 2.
Literary scholars often use, sometimes as synonyms, the terms “direction” and “current.” It would, apparently, be advisable to retain the term “literary movement” only to designate the work of those groups of writers of a particular country and era, each of which is united by the recognition of a single literary program, and the work of those groups of writers who have only an ideological and artistic community is called a literary movement.
Does this mean that the difference between literary movements and movements consists only in the fact that representatives of the former, possessing an ideological and artistic community of creativity, created a creative program, and representatives of the latter could not create it? No, the literary process is a more complex phenomenon. It very often happens that the work of a group of writers of a certain country and era, which created and proclaimed a single creative program, has, however, only a relative and one-sided creative community, that these writers, in essence, belong not to one, but to two (sometimes more) literary movements. Therefore, while recognizing one creative program, they understand its provisions differently and apply them differently in their works. There are, in other words, literary movements that combine the work of writers of different movements. Sometimes writers of different, but somewhat ideologically close to each other, movements programmatically unite in the process of their common ideological and artistic polemics with writers of other movements, ideologically sharply hostile to them.
CHAPTER 2. LITERARY DIRECTIONS
Classicism
Classicism –
(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - a direction in the literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries, focusing on aesthetically reference images and forms of ancient (“classical”) art. The poetics of classicism began to take shape in Italy, but classicism took shape as the first independent literary movement in France in the 17th century. - in the era of the heyday of absolutism. F. Malherbe is recognized as the official founder of classicism; the poetic canons of classicism were formulated in N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674) 3 . The aesthetics of classicism is based on the principles of rationalism: a work of art is considered by classicism as intelligently constructed, logically verified, capturing the enduring, essential properties of things. The external diversity, disorder, and chaos of empirical reality are overcome in art by the power of reason. The ancient principle of “imitation of beautiful nature”: art is designed to present an ideal, reasonable model of the universe. It is no coincidence that the key concept in classicism is the model: that which is perfect, correct, and unshakable has aesthetic value.
Interest in the intelligible universal laws of life, as opposed to the “stuff” of everyday life, led to an appeal to ancient art - modernity was projected onto history and mythology, the momentary was verified by the eternal. However, by asserting the priority of rational order over the current variability of living life, the classicists thereby emphasized the opposition of reason and feeling, civilization and nature, the general and the individual. The desire to capture the “intelligent beauty” of the world in a work of art also dictated strict regulation of the laws of poetics.
Classicism is characterized by a strict genre hierarchy: genres are divided into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (comedy, satire, fable). The subject of depiction in high genres are historical events, state life, the heroes are monarchs, generals, and mythological characters. Low genres are aimed at depicting private life, everyday life, and everyday activities " ordinary people" 4 . Each genre has strictly defined formal characteristics: for example, in dramaturgy, the fundamental rule in organizing stage action was the rule of three unities - the unity of place (the action should take place in one house), time (the action should fit into one day) and action (events in the play should be combined a single node of conflict, and the action develops within the framework of one storyline). Tragedy has become the leading classic genre: its main conflict is the confrontation between the private, individual and social, historical existence of man. The hero of the tragedy is faced with the need to choose between feeling and duty, free will and moral imperative. The main subject of artistic research is the internal split between the real and ideal “I” of a person.
In low genres, history and myth faded into the background - the verisimilitude and recognition of situations from modern everyday life became more important.
In Russian literature, the formation of classicism occurs in the 18th century; it is associated primarily with the names of M. Lomonosov, A. Sumarokov, A. Kantemir, V. Trediakovsky.
The greatest importance in genre system Satires (A. Kantemir), fables (I. Krylov), and comedies (D. Fonvizin) receive Russian classicism. Russian classicism is distinguished by its predominant development of national-historical issues, rather than ancient ones, and its focus on modern themes and specific phenomena of Russian life.
Among the high genres, the central place belongs to the ode (M. Lomonosov, G. Derzhavin), which combined patriotic pathos with high lyrical, subjective experience.
Russian classicism went through 3 periods:
1) from the 30s to the 50s of the 18th century - the efforts of writers at this stage were aimed at the development of education and science, the creation of literature and national language. This problem will be solved in the works of A.S. Pushkin.
2) 60s, end of the 18th century - the tasks of educating a person - a citizen - come to the fore. The works angrily denounce personal vices that prevent a person from serving for the benefit of the state.
3) the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries - there was a decline in classicism; National motives are intensifying, writers are no longer interested in just the type of ideal nobleman, but in the type of Russian ideal nobleman.
Thus, Russian classicism at all stages was distinguished by high citizenship.
The decline of classicism:
In Russia, classicism as a literary direction of liberal-noble orientation arose in the 30s of the 18th century. and reached its peak in the 50s and 60s. At the beginning of the 19th century. Outstanding supporters of classicism, M.M. Kheraskov and G.R. Derzhavin, still lived and wrote. But by this time, Russian classicism as a literary movement was losing its former progressive features: civic-educational and state-patriotic pathos, the affirmation of human reason, opposition to religious-ascetic scholasticism, a critical attitude towards monarchical despotism and the abuses of serfdom.
Some properties of the poetics of classicism are used by individual writers and later (for example, Kuchelbecker and Ryleev) 5 are perceived by advanced romantics. However, as a literary movement, classicism becomes an arena of epigonism (i.e., imitative literary activity devoid of creative originality). The defense of autocracy and serfdom evoked the full support of classicism among the ruling circles.
Sentimentalism
Sentimentalism
(French sentimentalism, from sentiment - feeling) - a literary movement of the second half of the 18th century, which established feeling, rather than reason, as the dominant of the human personality and human existence. The normativity of the aesthetics of sentimentalism lies in the given ideal: if in classicism the ideal is “a reasonable man,” then in sentimentalism it is a “feeling man,” capable of releasing and improving “natural” feelings. Hero of sentimental writers to a greater extent individual; his psychological world is more diverse and mobile, the emotional sphere is even hypertrophied.
Sentimentalism - as opposed to classicism - asserts the value of a person beyond the class (the democratization of the hero is a distinctive feature of sentimentalism): the wealth of the inner world is recognized for every person.
The aesthetic features of sentimentalism begin to take shape in the works of J. Thomson, E. Jung, T. Gray: writers turn to the depiction of an idyllic landscape, conducive to thinking about the eternal; The atmosphere of the work is determined by melancholic contemplation, focus on the process of formation and the dynamics of experience. Attention to the psychological world of man in its contradictory features is a distinctive feature of the novels. Richardson (“Clarissa,” “The History of Sir Charles Grandison”) 6. The reference work that gave its name to the literary movement is “Sentimental Journey” by L. Stern.
A distinctive feature of English sentimentalism is “sensitivity” combined with irony and sarcasm. Russian sentimentalism is marked by a focus on didacticism, the imposition of an ethical ideal on the reader (the most typical example is “Letters of a Russian Traveler” by N. Karamzin).
In Russian literature, sentimentalism manifested itself in two directions: reactionary (Shalikov) and liberal (Karamzin, Zhukovsky). Idealizing reality, reconciling, obscuring the contradictions between the nobility and the peasantry, reactionary sentimentalists painted an idyllic utopia in their works: autocracy and social hierarchy are sacred; serfdom was established by God himself for the sake of the happiness of the peasants; serf peasants live better than free ones; it's not just vicious serfdom, but abuse of it. Defending these ideas, Prince P.I. Shalikov in “Travel to Little Russia” depicted the life of peasants full of contentment, fun, and joy. In the play by playwright N.I. Ilyin’s “Liza, or the Triumph of Gratitude” the main character, a peasant woman, praising her life, says: “We live as cheerfully as the red sun.” The peasant Arkhip, the hero of the play “Generosity, or Recruitment” by the same author, assures: “Yes, such good kings as there are in Holy Rus', go out into the whole wide world, you won’t find others” 7 .
The idyllic nature of creativity was especially manifested in the cult of the beautifully sensitive personality with its desire for ideal friendship and love, admiration for the harmony of nature and a cutesy mannered way of expressing one’s thoughts and feelings. Thus, playwright V.M. Fedorov, “correcting” the plot of Karamzin’s story “Poor Liza,” forced Erast to repent, abandon his rich bride and return to Liza, who remains alive. To top it all off, the tradesman Matvey, Lisa’s father, turns out to be the son of a wealthy nobleman (“Liza, or the Consequence of Pride and Seduction,” 1803).
However, in the development of domestic sentimentalism, the leading role belonged not to reactionary, but to progressive, liberal-minded writers: A.M. Kutuzov, M.N. Muravyov, N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky. Belinsky rightly called “a remarkable person”, “a collaborator and assistant of Karamzin in the transformation of the Russian language and Russian literature” I.I. Dmitriev - poet, fabulist, translator.
Liberal-minded sentimentalists saw their calling in, as far as possible, comforting people in suffering, troubles, sorrows, and turning them to virtue, harmony and beauty. Perceiving human life as fickle and fleeting, they glorified Eternal values– nature, friendship and love. They enriched literature with such genres as elegy, correspondence, diary, travel, essay, story, novel, drama. Overcoming the normative-dogmatic requirements of classicist poetics, the sentimentalists largely contributed to the rapprochement literary language with conversational According to K.N. Batyushkova, the model for them is the one “who writes the way he speaks, whom the ladies read!” Personalizing language characters, they used elements of popular vernacular for peasants, official jargon for clerks, Gallicisms for the secular nobility, etc. But this differentiation was not carried out consistently. Positive characters, even serfs, spoke, as a rule, in literary language.
Romanticism
Romanticism
(etymologically goes back to the Spanish romance; in the 18th century the concept of “romantic” was interpreted as an indication of unusualness, strangeness, “literariness”) - a literary movement that formed in European literature at the beginning of the 19th century. Historically, the emergence of romanticism and the development of its ideological and aesthetic principles occurred during the era of the crisis of educational ideas. The ideal of a rationally organized civilization began to be perceived as a great mirage of a bygone era; The “victory of reason” turned out to be ephemeral, but aggressively real - the prosaic everyday life of the world of “common sense”, pragmatics and expediency.
Bourgeois civilization of the late 18th century. only caused disappointment. It is no coincidence that the attitude of the romantics is described using the concept of “world sorrow” 8: despair, loss of faith in social progress, the inability to resist the melancholy of monotonous everyday life grew into cosmic pessimism and caused a tragic discord between man and the entire world order. That is why the principle of romantic dual worlds, which presupposes a sharp contrast between the hero and his ideal and the surrounding world, becomes fundamental to romanticism.
The absolutism of the spiritual claims of the romantics determined the perception of reality as obviously imperfect, devoid of inner meaning. The “terrible world” began to seem like a kingdom of the irrational, where a person’s personal freedom is opposed to the inevitability of fate and fate. The incompatibility of ideal and reality was expressed in the departure of the romantics from modern themes into the world of history, folk tales and legends, the world of imagination, sleep, dreams, fantasy. The second - ideal - world was necessarily built at a distance from reality: distance in time - hence the attention to the past, national history, myth; in space - hence the transfer of action in a work of art to distant exotic countries (for Russian literature the Caucasus became such an exotic world); The “invisible” distance ran between sleep and reality, dream and reality, imagination and reality.
The spiritual world of man appeared in romanticism as a microcosm, a small universe. The infinity of human individuality, the intellectual and emotional world is the central problem of romanticism.
The cult of individuality was maximally expressed in the work of J. Byron; It is no coincidence that a special designation appeared for the now canonical romantic hero - “Byronic hero”. Proud loneliness, disappointment, a tragic attitude and at the same time rebellion and rebellion of spirit are the circle of concepts that define the character of the “Byronic hero.”
In the field of aesthetics, romanticism - as opposed to classicism - asserted the artist’s right not to “imitate nature”, but to creative activity, the creation of his own, individual world - more real than the empirical reality “given to us in sensation.” This principle is also reflected in the system of genre forms of romanticism: the fantastic story (short story), the ballad (built on the combination and reciprocity of real and fantasy worlds), the genre of historical novel is being formed.
The romantic worldview was most clearly manifested in the poems: in the center of the image they were “an exceptional hero in exceptional circumstances,” and his inner world was presented in dynamics, at “peak points” of emotional tension (“Prisoner of the Caucasus” and “A. Pushkin’s Gypsies,” Mtsyri" by M. Lermontov).
Romanticism as a method and direction, which developed at the turn of the 18th - 9th centuries, is a complex and contradictory phenomenon. Disputes about romanticism, its essence and place in literature have been going on for more than a century and a half, and there is still no recognized definition of romanticism. The romantics themselves persistently emphasized the national uniqueness of each literature, and indeed, romanticism in each country acquired such pronounced national features that in connection with this, doubt often arises whether it is possible to talk about any general features of romanticism. Romanticism at the beginning of the 19th century also captured other forms of art: music, painting, theater.
The achievements of Russian romanticism are associated primarily with the names of V. Zhukovsky, A. Pushkin, E. Baratynsky, M. Lermontov, F. Tyutchev.
Realism
Realism
(from Latin realis - real, real) - a literary movement that established itself in Russian literature at the beginning of the 19th century. and passed through the entire twentieth century. Realism asserts the priority of the cognitive capabilities of literature (hence the affirmation of literature as a way of special - artistic - exploration of reality), strives for in-depth knowledge of all aspects of life, typification of life facts 9.
Unlike the classicists or romantics, the realist writer approaches the depiction of life without a predetermined intellectual template - reality for him is a world open to endless knowledge. A living image of reality is born thanks to the recognition and specificity of the details of everyday life: the depiction of a specific place of action, the chronological assignment of events to a specific historical period, and the reproduction of the details of everyday life.
Realism involves the study of the relationship between characters and circumstances, shows the formation of characters under the influence of the environment. The relationship between character and circumstances in realism is two-sided: a person’s behavior is determined by external circumstances - but this does not negate his ability to oppose his free will to them. Hence the deep conflict nature of realistic literature: life is depicted in the most acute clashes of the heroes’ multidirectional personal aspirations, their conscious opposition to the will of extrapersonal, objective circumstances.
At the beginning of the twentieth century. Russian realism was influenced by the literary modernism that opposed it. There has been a major update in the aesthetics and style of realism. The work of M. Gorky and his followers affirmed the ability of the individual to transform social circumstances. Realism produced great artistic discoveries and continues to be one of the most influential literary movements.
CONCLUSION
The artistic culture of modern times has completed a long stage in the evolution of European culture since antiquity. In the 17th - 20th centuries, the question of the forms of reflection of reality in art was constantly being resolved.
From medieval symbolism in the Renaissance, the transition to a mimetric (from the Greek “imitation”) naturalistic depiction of man and nature begins.
Realistic art moved along the path of emancipation of content and genre forms from mythological schemes of world perception.
etc.................
Main literary movements Classicism Sentimentalism Romanticism Realism Signs of a literary movement Unite writers of a certain historical era Represent a special type of hero Express a certain worldview Select characteristic themes and plots Work in certain genres Stand out in style artistic speech They put forward certain life and aesthetic ideals
Classicism 17th – early 19th centuries. Russian classicism is a national-patriotic theme associated with the transformations of Peter 1. Distinctive features - Violation of the truth of life: utopianism, idealization, abstraction in the image - far-fetched images, sketchy characters - Edifying nature of the work, strict division of heroes into positive and negative - use of language that is poorly understood to the common people-national, civil orientation - Establishment of a hierarchy of genres: “high” (odes, tragedies), “middle” (elegies, historical works, friendly letters), “low” (comedies, satires, fables, epigrams) - The rule of “three unities” : time, place and action (all events take place in 24 hours, in one place and around one storyline)
Representatives of classicism Russian literature: M. Lomonosov (“Ode on the day of the accession to the throne of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, 1747”) G. Derzhavin (ode “Felitsa”) A. Sumarokov (tragedies) D. Fonvizin (comedies “The Brigadier”, “The Minor” ") Western European literature: P. Corneille, Voltaire, Moliere, J. Lefontaine
Sentimentalism 2nd half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. Distinctive features - Disclosure of human psychology - Feeling is proclaimed to be the highest value - Interest in the common man, in the world of his feelings, in nature, in everyday life - Idealization of reality, subjective image of the world - Ideas of moral equality of people, organic connection with nature - The work is often written from 1 -th face, which gives it lyricism and poetry
Romanticism A direction reflecting the artist’s desire to contrast reality and dreams. Distinctive features - unusualness, exoticism in the depiction of events, landscapes, people - dreaminess, idealization of reality, cult of freedom - striving for ideal, perfection - strong, bright, sublime image romantic hero- depiction of a hero in exceptional circumstances (in a tragic duel with fate) - Contrast in a mixture of high and low, tragic and comic, ordinary and unusual
Representatives of romanticism Russian literature - V. Zhukovsky (ballads Lyudmila, Svetlana, The Forest Tsar - K. Ryleev (poems) - A. Pushkin (Poems "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Gypsies", "Bakhchisarai Fountain") - M . Lermontov (poem “Mtsyri”) - N. Gogol (story “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka”) - - M. Gorky (story “Old Woman Izergil”, “Song of the Falcon”, “Song of the Petrel” - Western European Literature - D Byron, I.W. Goethe, Schiller, Hoffmann, P. Merimee, V. Hugo, W. Scott
Realism A movement in art and literature of the 19th and 20th centuries, which is based on a complete, truthful and reliable depiction of life. Distinctive features - The basis is a conflict: hero - society - typical literary characters- Typical techniques in depicting reality (portrait, landscape, interior) - Depiction of a certain historical era, real events - Depiction of events and heroes in development - All characters are depicted not in the abstract, but in interaction with the outside world
Representatives of realism - A. Griboedov (comedy “Woe from Wit”) - A. Pushkin (“Little Tragedies”, “Eugene Onegin”) - M. Lermontov (novel “A Hero of Our Time”) - N. Gogol (poem “Dead Souls”) - I. Turgenev (novels “Fathers and Sons”, “On the Eve”, “Rudin”, etc.) - L. Tolstoy (“After the Ball”, “Resurrection”, “War and Peace”, “Sevastopol Stories”, etc.) - F . Dostoevsky (“Crime and Punishment”, “The Idiot”, “The Brothers Karamazov”, etc.)
