The 19th century is called the “Golden Age” of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared in full swing literary process 17th-18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol outlined the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This artistic type « extra person", the example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type “ little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “ Stationmaster».
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol " Dead souls“The writer, in a sharp satirical manner, shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is evident). The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. Full satirical images and works by A.S. Pushkin. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict vices and shortcomings Russian society – characteristic feature all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
http://jordencook.com/maps341 Since the middle of the 19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature, which is created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis of the serfdom system is brewing, there are strong contradictions between the authorities and common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. The socio-political, philosophical issues. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. Worth noting poetic works Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce into poetry social issues. His poem “Who can live well in Rus'? ", as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
visit web page The literary process of the late 19th century revealed the names of N.S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved himself to be a master of the small literary genre - the story, as well as an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by so-called decadent literature, distinctive features which included mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens new page in the history of Russian literature.
The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. We should not forget that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin .
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the emergence of romanticism. Specified literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. The poetic works of poets E.A. come to the fore. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova. The creativity of F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem “Ruslan and Lyudmila” in 1920. And his novel in verse “Eugene Onegin” was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman"(1833), "Bakhchisarai Fountain", "Gypsies" ushered in the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. Known for it romantic poem“Mtsyri”, the poetic story “The Demon”, many romantic poems.
Interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets called on the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on political life countries are poems by A.S. Pushkin “Prophet”, ode “Liberty”, “Poet and the Crowd”, poem by M.Yu. Lermontov “On the Death of a Poet” and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. Prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by English historical novels V. Scott, whose translations were extremely popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with prose works A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story “ Captain's daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a colossal amount of work exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was aimed at those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol designated the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of “superfluous man”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called “little man” type, which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story “The Overcoat”, as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story “The Station Agent”.
Literature inherited its journalistic and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem by N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls" the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism is felt).
The comedy “The Inspector General” is based on the same plan. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical tendency in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol “The Nose”, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin “Gentlemen Golovlevs”, “The History of a City”.
Since the mid-19th century, the formation of Russian realistic literature has been taking place, which was created against the backdrop of the tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis is brewing in the serf system, and there are strong contradictions between the authorities and the common people. There is an urgent need to create realistic literature that is acutely responsive to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky denotes a new realistic direction in literature. His position is developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westerners and Slavophiles about the paths of historical development of Russia.
Writers turn to socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. His works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical issues predominate. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry subsides somewhat. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who Lives Well in Rus'?” is known, as well as many poems that reflect on the difficult and hopeless life of the people.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the emergence of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realistic tradition began to fade away. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the distinctive features of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence developed into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
Russian literature of the 20th century: general characteristics
Description of the literary process of the 20th century, presentation of the main literary movements and directions. Realism. Modernism(symbolism, acmeism, futurism). Literary avant-garde.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. steel the time of the bright flourishing of Russian culture, its “silver age” (the “golden age” was called Pushkin’s time). In science, literature, and art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, and competition different directions, groupings and styles. At the same time, the culture silver age"there were deep contradictions characteristic of all Russian life of that time.
Russia's rapid breakthrough in development and the clash of different ways of life and cultures changed the self-awareness of the creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, analysis social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Interest in religion revived; The religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the turning point not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of impending social explosions, of the fact that the entire familiar way of life, the entire old culture, could perish. Some awaited these changes with joy, others with melancholy and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
On turn of the 19th century and 20th centuries literature developed in other historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, it will be the word “crisis”. Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world and led to the paradoxical conclusion: “matter has disappeared.” A new vision of the world, thus, will determine the new face of realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating consequences for human spirit had a crisis of faith (" God died!" exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the person of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of irreligious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology for evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence, which turned into terror - all these features indicate a deep crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the early 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a feeling of exhaustion of past development will be felt, and a revaluation of values will take shape.
Literature update, its modernization will cause the emergence of new movements and schools. The rethinking of old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the advent of the “Silver Age” of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name N. Berdyaeva, who used it in one of his speeches in D. Merezhkovsky’s salon. Later art critic and the editor of Apollo, S. Makovsky, consolidated this phrase by calling his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century “On Parnassus of the Silver Age.” Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write “...the silver month is bright / Cold over the silver age.”
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be designated as follows: 1892 - exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of social upsurge in the country, manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov mass emigration of Russian cultural figures from Russia, expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
The 19th century gave birth large number Russian talented prose writers and poets. Their works quickly burst into the world and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was influenced by them. General characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century has become the subject of study in a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, the prerequisites for such a rapid cultural rise were events in political and social life.
Story
The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in XVIII century social life in Russia was relatively measured, the next century included many important vicissitudes that influenced not only further development society and politics, but also on the formation of new trends and trends in literature.
The striking historical milestones of this period were the war with Turkey, the invasion of Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of words was A.S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.
Literary language
The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to his comprehensive development and excellent education. One day he set himself the goal of achieving all the peaks in education. And he achieved it by the age of thirty-seven. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and characteristics of the Russian soul. This literary type There were no analogues in our literature before.
Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, a person with at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of “Eugene Onegin” who made a revolution in Russian literature.
Romanticism
This concept originates from Western medieval epic. But to 19th century it acquired new shades. Originating in Germany, romanticism penetrated into the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by a desire for mystical motives and folk legends. Poetry traces the desire to transform life for the better and the chanting folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end became fertile ground for poetic creativity.
The general characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century are marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite often found in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.
As for prose, new forms of the story have appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples romantic prose - early works Nikolai Gogol.
Sentimentalism
With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is sensual and focuses on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature at the end of the 18th century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century he gained a number of followers.
Satirical prose
It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting your creative journey with a description small homeland, this author later moved to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult today to imagine what Russian literature of the 19th century would have been like without this master of satire. The general characteristics of his prose in this genre come down not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirical writer “traversed” almost all layers of society.
A masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel “Gentlemen Golovlevs,” dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence
Realistic novel
In the second half of the century, realistic prose developed. Romantic ideals turned out to be insolvent. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a concept as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general description briefly represents a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the occurrence of certain phenomena. As for Dostoevsky's realistic prose, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author became a reaction to the mood that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting prototypes of people he knew in his works, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.
In the first decades, the country glorified Mikhail Kutuzov, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. The general characteristics of the end of the century can be summed up in a few words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the entire people, but its individual representatives that came to the fore. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person.”
Folk poem
In the years when the realistic novel took a dominant position, poetry faded into the background. The general characteristics of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century allow us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.
End of the century
At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning creative path critics accused the writer of being cold towards current social issues; his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image of the “little man” created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. Various philosophical and political ideas, which were developed in late XIX centuries, could not help but influence the lives of individual people.
IN later literature The 19th century was dominated by revolutionary sentiments. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.
General characteristics of the 19th century deserve more close attention. Every major representative this period created his own art world, whose heroes dreamed of the impossible, fought social evil or experienced their own small tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of a century rich in social and political events.
The 19th century as a cultural era begins in the calendar 18th century with the events of the Great French Revolution 1789-1793. This was the first bourgeois revolution on a global scale (previous bourgeois revolutions of the 17th century in Holland and England had limited national importance). The French Revolution marks the final fall of feudalism and the triumph of the bourgeois system in Europe, and all aspects of life with which the bourgeoisie comes into contact tend to accelerate, intensify, and begin to live according to the laws of the market.
The 19th century was an era of political upheaval that redrew the map of Europe. In socio-political development at the forefront historical process France stood. The Napoleonic Wars of 1796-1815, the attempt to restore absolutism (1815-1830), and the series of subsequent revolutions (1830, 1848, 1871) should be considered as consequences of the French Revolution.
The leading world power of the 19th century was England, where early bourgeois revolution, urbanization and industrialization led to the rise of the British Empire and dominance of the world market. Profound changes took place in social structure English society: the peasant class disappeared, there was a sharp polarization of the rich and the poor, accompanied by mass protests of workers (1811-1812 - the movement of the machine tool destroyers, the Luddites; 1819 - the shooting of a demonstration of workers in St. Peter's Field near Manchester, which went down in history as " Battle of Peterloo"; Chartist movement in 1830-1840). Under the pressure of these events, the ruling classes made certain concessions (two parliamentary reforms - 1832 and 1867, reform of the education system - 1870).
Germany in the 19th century painfully and belatedly solved the problem of creating a single national state. Having met new century able feudal fragmentation, after Napoleonic wars Germany has transformed from a conglomerate of 380 dwarf states into a union of first 37 independent states, and after a half-hearted bourgeois revolution In 1848, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck set a course for creating a united Germany “with iron and blood.” The unified German state was proclaimed in 1871 and became the youngest and most aggressive of the bourgeois states of Western Europe.
United States of America throughout XIX century explored endless spaces North America, and as the territory increased, so did the industrial potential of the young American nation.
In 19th century literature two main directions - romanticism and realism. Romantic era begins in the nineties of the eighteenth century and covers the entire first half of the century. However, the main elements of romantic culture were fully defined and revealed the possibilities of potential development by 1830. Romanticism is an art born of a brief historical moment of uncertainty, crisis that accompanied the transition from a feudal system to a capitalist system; When by 1830 the outlines of capitalist society were determined, the art of realism replaced romanticism. At first, the literature of realism was the literature of individuals, and the term “realism” itself arose only in the fifties of the 19th century. In the mass public consciousness contemporary art Romanticism continued to remain, in fact having already exhausted its possibilities, therefore, in literature after 1830, romanticism and realism interact in a complex manner, giving rise to an endless variety of phenomena in different national literatures that cannot be unambiguously classified. In essence, romanticism did not die throughout the nineteenth century: a straight line leads from the romantics of the beginning of the century through late romanticism to the symbolism, decadence and neo-romanticism of the end of the century. Let us sequentially consider both literary and artistic systems of the 19th century using examples of their most prominent authors and works.
The 19th century is the century of the formation of world literature, when contacts between individual national literatures accelerate and intensify. Yes, Russian literature XIX centuries, she had a keen interest in the works of Byron and Goethe, Heine and Hugo, Balzac and Dickens. Many of their images and motifs are directly echoed in Russian literary classics, so the choice of works for considering problems foreign literature XIX century is dictated here, firstly, by the impossibility of giving proper coverage of various situations in different national literatures within a short course and, secondly, by the degree of popularity and significance of individual authors for Russia.
Literature
- Foreign literature of the 19th century. Realism: A Reader. M., 1990.
- Maurois A. Prometheus, or the Life of Balzac. M., 1978.
- Reizov B. G. Stendhal. Artistic creativity. L., 1978.
- Reizov B. G. Flaubert's creativity. L., 1955.
- The Mystery of Charles Dickens. M., 1990.
Read also other topics in the chapter “Literature of the 19th Century”.
XIX century rightly called the “golden age” of Russian literature. Already in the first half of the century, literature took a giant step forward. IN early XIX V. Romanticism replaced classicism and sentimentalism. In literature, this was most clearly reflected in the work of the poet V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852), as well as in the early poems of A. S. Pushkin (1799-1837). Romantics in their works turned to historical events, legends, oral folk poetry.
At the turn of the 20-30s. A new direction begins to develop - realism. One of the first realistic works was the comedy “Woe from Wit” by A. S. Griboyedov (1795-1829). But the true founder of realism in Russian literature A. S. Pushkin should be considered, he was also the founder of the Russian literary language. The author of lyrical poems and caustic epigrams, the novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", the poems "The Bronze Horseman", "Boris Godunov", "The Captain's Daughter" and others, A. S. Pushkin not only showed himself as great poet, but also managed to comprehend the essence the most important phenomena Russian history and reality, depicted by him in all its diversity, complexity and inconsistency. Realism is largely inherent in the novel by M. Yu. Lermontov (1814-1841) “A Hero of Our Time.” N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) developed critical realism, the purpose of which was to discover the vulgarities of life, as well as social criticism(“The Inspector General”, “Dead Souls”). Gogol deepened the theme of the “little man” (“The Overcoat”), introduced into Russian literature by A. S. Pushkin (“The Station Agent”).
In the 40s a school of realist writers is being formed (“ natural school"), who rallied around V. G. Belinsky (1811-1848). Realists sought to depict truthfully daily life. They described details of everyday life, peculiarities of speech, emotional experiences of peasants, townspeople, and minor officials. The map of Moscow and the surrounding area in those days already included thousands of objects used by writers as settings in their works. TO the best works of that time include “Poor People” by F. M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881), “Notes of a Hunter” by I. S. Turgenev (1818-1883), “The Thieving Magpie” by A. I. Herzen (1812-1870), “ An ordinary story"I. A. Goncharova (1812-1891).
In the 1850-1870s. aphorisms, parodies and poems signed by Kozma Prutkov began to appear. Kozma Prutkov is a generalized image of an official-bureaucrat of the Nicholas era, who considers himself a model of wisdom. Kozma Prutkov's aphorisms are a sharp satire on bureaucracy, stupidity, veneration for rank, vulgarity and careerism.
An ideological, political and literary struggle broke out around the peasant reform of 1861. The most radical of the " people's intercessors"- revolutionary democrats, whose leader was N.G. Chernyshevsky (1828-1889), and whose main mouthpiece was the magazine Sovremennik, even called for “Rus to the axe.” In this atmosphere of intense struggle, such masterpieces of Russian literature are created as “Who Lives Well in Rus'” by N. A. Nekrasov (1821-1877), “The Past and Thoughts” by A. I. Herzen, “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev, “The Thunderstorm” by A. N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886), “What to do?” N. G. Chernyshevsky, “Oblomov” by I. A. Goncharov, “War and Peace” by L. N. Tolstoy (1828-1910), “Lord Golovlevs” by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826-1889). In these, in the full sense of the word, classical works, and this series can be significantly continued, the high civic spirit and depth of depiction of life inherent in Russian literature are most clearly expressed. Dominant literary genre there was an affair.
IN last decades XIX century The talents of A. P. Chekhov (1860-1904), V. G. Korolenko (1853-1921), V. M. Garshin (1855-1888) appeared. In their works they were able to show that dissatisfaction with autocratic reality is becoming nationwide, that protest is brewing even in the souls of the most downtrodden and humiliated “little” people. Longing has acquired global meaning Chekhov's heroes, their characteristic feeling of the strangeness and unreasonableness of life. V. M. Garshin is already planning to overcome naturalistic tendencies and attempt to combine romantic and realistic principles in lyrical prose.
In the 1890s. “Old” literature, in the words of the poetess Z. N. Gippius, “was at the end”; it was replaced by the literature of the “Silver Age” (the Art Nouveau era).