Development of crafts, manufactories, domestic and foreign trade in Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVIII century dictated active economic policy government of Catherine II. It was determined by the interests of the nobility and partly large merchants and industrialists. The proclamation of freedom of trade and industrial activity contributed to the development of peasant trade and manufacturing, which undoubtedly was beneficial to the nobility, because “capitalist peasants” were serfs and paid large quitrents and were bought out for a lot of money. During the reign of Catherine II, 2/3 of the manufactories registered in the second half of the 90s were created. XVIII century

In the social sphere, the policy of Catherine II was called “enlightened absolutism.” “Enlightened absolutism” is a pan-European phenomenon that has formed a natural stage state development many European countries. This version of public policy arose under the influence of the ideas of the French Enlightenment. The main slogan of the Enlightenment was the achievement of the "kingdom of reason." Belief in the limitless powers of the human mind gave rise to ideas about the possibility of building a society on reasonable, fair principles. Many figures of the era pinned their hopes on an enlightened monarch who would be able to put their ideas into practice. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" in Russia was an attempt to prevent popular movements against the serfdom system and adapt the landowner economy to new bourgeois relations.

Under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment, Catherine II decided to develop a new Code of Laws, which, while maintaining intact autocracy and serfdom, would give grounds to talk about Russia as a rule-of-law state. For this purpose, in 1767, Catherine II convened the Legislative Commission in Moscow. Elections of deputies were class-based. The discussion of the peasant issue caused the greatest urgency at the commission meetings. The debate over this issue became so protracted that the empress became disillusioned with the expediency of the commission's work and came to the conclusion of its dissolution. Under the pretext of war with Turkey in 1768, the commission was dissolved without drawing up a new Code.

The obvious tilt of the internal political course towards protecting the interests of the nobility (Charter to the nobility of 1785; Charter to the cities of 1785) led to the outbreak of the most bloody and brutal peasant war - the war led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773-1775), which demonstrated presence of deep social contradictions V Russian society. The Pugachev uprising caused swipe according to the provincial administration. Catherine II took steps to restore and improve local government, publishing in 1775 the “Establishment on the Governorates.” The new provincial administration relied on the nobility, which increased the empress's dependence on him. Thus, the alliance of the most conservative elements of society against all others was once again strengthened, which slowed down the development of the commercial bourgeoisie and exacerbated the contradictions of serfdom.

Since the dissolution of the Statutory Commission, an important feature has emerged in Russian politics: periods of internal reforms began to alternate with periods of active foreign policy. Reforms in Russia were, as a rule, alarming, while the sphere of foreign policy provided a more relaxed and reliable field of activity for energetic supporters of enlightened absolutism.

The most important foreign policy task facing Russia in the second half of the 18th century was the struggle for access to the Azov and Black Seas. For a long time, the Crimean Khanate posed a great danger to the southern borders of the empire. From there, with the support of Turkey, Tatar military raids were constantly carried out. At the end of the century, Catherine II fought two victorious wars with Turkey - in 1768-1774. and 1787-1791, as a result of which Russia received Crimea and access to the Black Sea. The port cities of Chersonesos, Odessa, and Sevastopol were created on its coast, which became the military base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Russia's centuries-old task of strengthening its southern borders and gaining the opportunity for active foreign policy actions in the south has been solved.

Simultaneously with the Russian-Turkish wars, Europe was shocked by the events of the Great french revolution. Revolutionary processes turned out to be closely intertwined with the Polish question. Russia showed a very active position in its decision. As a result of three divisions of Poland (1772, 1793 and 1795) between Austria, Prussia and Russia, the latter took over Belarus, right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Courland, and part of Volyn. The unification of Belarusian and Ukrainian lands was a progressive act for the development of these peoples.

Russia's influence also grew in the east. Economic and cultural ties between Russia and Kazakhstan were strengthened, and the development of Siberia continued. In the first half of the 18th century. Russian travelers reached Alaska, and in 1784 the construction of permanent Russian settlements began on its territory.

After the death of Catherine II, the throne passed to her son, Paul I (1796-1801). Paul sought to further strengthen autocracy and personal power. The emperor's transformations in the army, his desire to follow the military doctrine of the Prussian king Frederick II, caused serious rejection in the guard, which led to the last palace coup in the history of Russia: Paul I was killed by conspirators, the Russian throne passed to his eldest son Alexander I (1801-1825 gg.).

conclusions

Concluding a brief excursion into the era of the 17th - 18th centuries, we can highlight the following changes in the development of the Fatherland:

During this period, the economic policy of the state was characterized by a policy of mercantilism and protectionism. The development of elements of capitalism, however, was hampered by the deepening of serf relations and their penetration into the emerging industry, which led to Russia's growing lag behind the advanced countries of Western Europe.

The state's social policy was aimed at eliminating those social institutions that limited the absolutism of the tsarist power, as well as at creating new social strata and their unification.

The state legal system of Russia has evolved from an estate-representative monarchy to absolutism. This was expressed in the creation of an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a new service ideology, the concentration in the hands of the monarch of all legislative, executive and judicial powers, and the absence of any bodies or legislative acts limiting his powers.

During the XVII - XVIII centuries. There have been significant changes in the spiritual life of Russia. The Church came under the control of secular authorities and lost part of its wealth as a result of the secularization of church land ownership. Internal church life was complicated by the schism caused by the reforms of the mid-17th century.

This period is associated with the formation of a new class secular culture and education, the penetration of Enlightenment ideas into Russia, and the formation of various trends in socio-political life.

In the XVII - XVIII centuries. We are witnessing a significant increase in Russian territory as a result of an active foreign policy. The tasks of breaking out of economic isolation and strengthening state borders were solved, which led to a change in the geopolitical position of Russia and the formalization of its imperial status.

However, despite the efforts of state power, Russia remained an agrarian country, entangled in serfdom (feudal) relations, with the absolute power of the monarch. This led to the strengthening of elements of unfreedom in public life, and the germs of civil society were harshly suppressed. Despite the significant success of modernization processes, Russia at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. remained a traditional society.

Tables. "Distinctive features of traditional and industrial societies"

Traditional society Industrial society - predominance of subsistence farming; -the presence of a class hierarchy; -structure stability; -sociocultural regulation of processes is based on tradition; - the dominance of religion. - the spread of large-scale machine production; -urbanization; -statement market economy; -emergence social groups entrepreneurs and employees; -the formation of democracy, civil society and the rule of law.

"Phases of modernization"

Phases of modernizationContent of the modernization processChronological frameworkEuropeRussiaPre-industrial or proto-industrialTransition from natural productive forces to social ones; from individual agricultural and handicraft production to manufacture; from personal dependence to market relations. XVI-XVII centuries. II half of the XVII - early XIX centuries. Industrial revolution or early industrial transition from manufactory to machine or factory production; from hand tools to mechanical ones; stratification of society into the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. XVII-XIX centuries. 40s. XIX - early XX centuries *In the USSR - expansion of factory production; - increase in mechanical tools; -elimination of social stratification. 20s - 40s. XX century.Industrial - Transformation of the labor process based on scientific and technological revolution and scientific engineering organization; - the emergence and development of flow-conveyor production; - *softening of class contradictions. 1900-1929. - USA; 1930-1950 - Western Europe 1950-1960 - Japan 50s - end of the 20th century * In the USSR - absence of class contradictions

Diagram "Dynastic tree of the House of Romanov"

Catherine's ideology and projectsII.

Catherine II adhered to the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, the main provisions of which were reflected in the “Order” to the Empress of the Statutory Commission (1767):

Creation of a new legislative code based on the principles of educational philosophy;

Abolition of outdated feudal institutions (some class privileges, subordination of the church to the state);

Carrying out peasant, judicial, educational reforms, easing censorship.

Most of these plans were not implemented.

Presentation page 9

Catherine's domestic policyII.

With the “Manifesto on Freedom for the Nobility” (1762) and the “Charter Granted to the Nobility” (1785), Catherine II secured the privileges of the nobility:

The nobles were exempt from taxes and duties.

Noble land ownership increased noticeably.

The exemption of the nobility from compulsory service (introduced by Peter III) was confirmed.

In 1775, the country was divided into 50 provinces instead of the previous 20. The population of the province ranged from 300 to 400 thousand people.

The secularization (confiscation) of church lands in favor of the state continued.

In 1787, a system of city schools was created (main and small public schools)

Presentation page 10

The uprising of E.I. Pugacheva (1773-1775)

In 1773, an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks (who lived in the area of ​​the Yaik River) began, a peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev.

Pugachev proclaimed himself Emperor Peter III.

The peasant uprising covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg region, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkortostan, part of Western Siberia, as well as the Middle and Lower Volga regions.

During the uprising, the Cossacks were joined by Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Chuvashs, Mordovians, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all the provinces where hostilities took place.

Basic demands: abolition of serfdom, restoration of Cossack liberties in areas where Cossacks lived.

In 1775 the uprising was suppressed.

Presentation page 11

XVIIIcentury. Wars with Turkey.

Foreign policy objectives:

the struggle for access to the Black and Azov Seas;

liberation of the lands of Ukraine and Belarus from foreign domination and the unification of all Eastern Slavs in one state;

the fight against revolutionary France in connection with the Great French Revolution that began in 1789;

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Russian foreign policy in the second halfXVIIIcentury. Partitions of Poland.

Together with Prussia and Austria, Russia participated in the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland).

According to the first partition (1772) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, part of eastern Belarus went to Russia.

According to the second section (1793) - Russia received the remaining part of eastern and central Belarus with Minsk, Volyn and Podolia.

According to the third partition (1795), western Belarus, western Volyn, Lithuania and Courland went to Russia.

Thus, almost all lands were united under Russian rule Eastern Slavs, included in Kievan Rus, excluding the Galician lands with Lvov (Galicia), which became part of Austria.

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Russo-Turkish War 1768-1774

After a number of victories on land (under the leadership of P.A. Rumyantsev, V.M. Dolgorukov and A.V. Suvorov) and at sea (under the leadership of G.A. Spiridonov, A.G. Orlov and S.K. Greig ) the war was over.

According to the termsKuchuk-Kainardzhisky world(1774) Russia received:

access to the Black Sea;

the steppes of the Black Sea region - Novorossiya;

the right to have your own fleet in the Black Sea;

right of passage through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits;

Azov and Kerch, as well as Kuban and Kabarda passed to Russia;

The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey;

the Russian government received the right to act as a defender legal rights Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

Russian-Turkish War 1787-1791 also ended in defeat for Turkey.

ByTreaty of Jassy:

Türkiye recognized Crimea as a possession of Russia;

the territory between the Bug and Dniester rivers became part of Russia;

Turkey recognized Russian patronage of Georgia, established by the Treaty of Georgievsk in 1783.

Presentation page 14

Paul's reformsI (1796-1801)

In 1796, Paul I (son of Catherine II and Peter III) came to power. During his 5 years in power, he carried out important reforms:

1. the law on succession to the throne, according to which the eldest son of the monarch became the heir to the throne,

2. limiting the work of peasants for the landowner to three days a week.

3. reduction of noble privileges and restoration of compulsory service of nobles.

The latter caused discontent among the nobility, and a conspiracy arose during which Paul I was killed.

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At the end of the 18th century. The process of development of Russian culture is entering a new stage of development. Formed national culture, the centuries-old process of accumulation of knowledge enters the stage of formation of sciences, the literary Russian language is taking shape, national literature appears, the number of printed publications, architectural masterpieces are being built, painting and sculpture are developing.

The old church and estate schools no longer satisfied the need for the quantity and quality of educated citizens. Since the 80s The government begins the creation of general education institutions. In 1786, according to the Charter of public schools, main public schools with four classes were established in provincial cities, and small public schools with two classes were established in district cities. The number of class schools for the education of nobles increased. An outstanding figure in the field of education was I.I. Betsky. In addition to public schools, he created a school at the Academy of Arts, a Commercial School, and a nursing department at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens.

Main center scientific activity there was an Academy of Sciences. In order to develop higher education in Russia, on January 12, 1755, Moscow University was opened with two gymnasiums, which became the center of Russian education. Unlike European universities, education there was free for all classes (except for serfs). In 1773, the Mining School opened in St. Petersburg. The creation of a network of higher educational institutions required the publication of new textbooks. They were developed by the Academy of Sciences and Moscow University. An outstanding role in the development of domestic science was played by M.V. Lomonosov is a multi-talented scientist, poet, historian and natural scientist.

Particular development in the 18th century. received natural sciences. In 20-50 years. 18th century The Academy of Sciences organized the Great Northern Expedition to explore northeast Asia, the Arctic Ocean and northwest America.

In the 60-80s. A comprehensive study of the north of the European part of Russia was carried out. The most important geographical discoveries were made by S.I. Chelyuskin, S.G. Mapygin, Laptev brothers. V. Bering and A.I. Chirikov passed between Chukotka and Alaska, opening the strait between America and Asia.

In the second half of the 18th century. There is a rise in technical thought. I.I. Polzunov was the first to develop a design for a universal steam engine. I.P. Kulibin created a project for a single-arch bridge across the Neva, invented a searchlight, an elevator, and prosthetics for the disabled.

The literature of this period is represented by three directions. Classicism represents the work of A.P. Sumarokov (tragedy “Dmitry the Pretender”, comedy “Guardian”). N.M. writes in a romantic style. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”). The artistic-realistic direction is represented by D.I. Fonvizin (comedies “The Brigadier” and “The Minor”).

In 1790, a book by A.N. Radishchev's "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow", which contained a protest against serfdom.

The architecture was dominated by the Russian Baroque style, which was distinguished by its special luxury. It was a fusion of European classicism and domestic architectural traditions.

The largest architects of this direction were V.V. Rastrelli in St. Petersburg and D.V. Ukhtomsky in Moscow. The style of classicism in St. Petersburg was represented by D. Quarenghi, N.A. Lvov and C. Cameron. In Moscow, V.I. worked in the style of classicism. Bazhenov and M.F. Kazakov.

Russian painting is being improved in traditional portraiture (works by F.S. Rokotov, D.G. Levitsky, V.L. Borovikovsky). M. Shibanov laid the foundation for genre painting. The founders of landscape painting are S.F. Shchedrin and F.Ya. Alekseev. The first paintings in the historical genre were created by A.P. Losenko.

Wonderful creations are created by sculptors F.I. Shubin - master of sculptural portrait and M.I. Kozlovsky, who became the founder of Russian classicism in sculpture.

2.1 Life and customs

The second half of the 18th century, namely the period of the reign of Catherine II, went down in history as the “golden age” of the Russian nobility. One of the first manifestos of Catherine II after her accession to the throne was the “Manifesto on the granting of liberty and freedom to the entire Russian nobility,” according to which the nobles were exempted from the duties of military and civil service.

According to the same “Manifesto”, many nobles received lands into their possession, and the peasants, the inhabitants of these lands, were assigned to them. Naturally, these lands had to be improved. Improvement began, as a rule, with the construction of an estate. And the reign of Catherine was the heyday of noble estate culture. But the life of the majority of landowners was not separated by the “Iron Curtain” from the life of the peasants; there was direct contact with folk culture, and a new attitude was emerging towards the peasant as an equal person, as an individual.

Also, the second half of the 18th century was marked by a number of innovations concerning the life of citizens. Especially a lot of new things have appeared in the life of cities. After the government allowed merchants to keep shops in their homes, merchant estates with warehouses and shops appeared in cities, forming entire shopping streets.

Water pipelines appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, but for most cities the source of water supply remained numerous wells and nearby reservoirs, as well as water carriers delivering water in barrels.

At the end of the century in some major cities lighting of main streets is being introduced. In Moscow, the first street lamps appeared in the 30s. XVIII century In them, a wick dipped in hemp oil was lit by special order of the authorities.

With the increase in population, hygiene issues became a big problem for city authorities, so the number of public baths in cities was growing, where visitors could have a meal and while away the night for a special fee. For the first time, a special decree of the Senate prohibited the patriarchal custom of bathing together for men and women, and according to the Charter of the Deanery of 1782, persons of the opposite sex were prohibited from entering the bathhouse on a day other than their own.

Another innovation in the second half of the century was the opening of city hospitals. The first of them appeared in St. Petersburg in 1779. But, despite this, the common people firmly retained faith in healers and conspiracies. The government itself strengthened prejudices: in 1771, during the plague epidemic in Kostroma, Catherine II confirmed the decree of 1730 on fasting and religious procession around the city as a means of combating the infection.

2.2 Education and science

In the “Catherine era” the trend towards nationalization of education received new impetus and a new character. If in the first quarter of the century the main goal of education was to satisfy the state’s need for personnel, then Catherine II, with the help of education, sought to influence public consciousness and educate “a new breed of people.” In accordance with this, the principle of class-based education was preserved.

Book publishing played an important role in the spread of literacy and the development of education, which expanded significantly in the second half of the century. Book publishing has ceased to be a privilege of the state. The Russian educator N.I. played a major role in its development. Novikov. His printing houses published books in all branches of knowledge, including textbooks. An important event was the publication in 1757 of “Russian Grammar” by M.V. Lomonosov, which replaced the outdated “Grammar” by M. Smotritsky.

Primary school still remained the least developed link in the education system. As in the previous period, there were diocesan schools for the children of the clergy, and garrison schools for the children of recruits. Only at the end of the century were formally classless main public schools opened in each province, and small public schools in each district. However, the children of serfs were still deprived of the opportunity to receive an education.

Vocational schools continued to occupy a significant position in the educational system. The network of medical, mining, commercial and other vocational schools was further developed, and new areas of special education emerged. In 1757 in St. Petersburg, according to the project of I.I. Shuvalov founded the Academy of the Three Most Noble Arts. A Ballet School was opened at the Moscow Orphanage. To train teachers of public schools, teacher seminaries were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg, on the basis of which pedagogical institutes subsequently emerged.

Significant changes have occurred in the system high school. The largest cultural center of the Russian Empire was created in 1755 according to the project of M.V. Lomonosov and I.I. Shuvalov Moscow Imperial University. The university had faculties of philosophy, law and medicine. Theology was not taught there until the beginning of the 19th century; all lectures were given in Russian. A printing house was organized at the university, where the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was published until 1917. In addition to Moscow University, where education in accordance with the charter was classless, noble corps (land, naval, artillery, engineering and pages) and theological academies still operated.

In 1764, the Smolny Institute of Noble Maidens (Educational Society of Noble Maidens at the Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg) was opened for girls, at which there was a “School for Young Girls” of non-noble origin (later it was transformed into the Alexander Institute).

In 1786, the “Charter of Public Schools” was published - the first legislative act in the field of education. For the first time, unified educational plans and class-lesson system

By the end of the 18th century. there were 550 educational institutions in the country, with about 60 thousand students; Women's education was started. Despite significant achievements in the spread of literacy and the development of a network of educational institutions, education still remained class-based; it was not universal, compulsory and the same for all categories of the population.

Catherine II continued the policy of state support for domestic science. Understanding the importance of the development of science for strengthening the economy and defense capability of the country, Catherine II supported various scientific research. For example, it was she who received the first smallpox vaccination in 1768. In the “Catherine era”, domestic scientists took a dominant position in the Academy of Sciences, the circle of domestic academic scientists grew significantly, among them nephew M.V. Lomonosov mathematician M.E. Golovin, geographer and ethnographer I.I. Lepekhin, astronomer S.Ya. Rumovsky and others. At the same time, fearing any “freethinking,” the empress sought to subordinate the development of science to strict state regulation. This was one of the reasons for the sad fate of many talented Russian self-taught scientists.

Natural sciences in the second half of the 18th century, as in the previous period, developed at an accelerated pace. By the end of the century, domestic natural science had reached the pan-European level. In the second half of the century, active development and description of new lands continued. To study the territory of the Russian Empire, its natural resources, population and historical monuments, the Academy organized 5 “physical” expeditions (1768-1774); polar explorer S.I. Chelyuskin described part of the coast of the Taimyr Peninsula; in honor of Russian navigators D.Ya. and H.P. Laptev named the sea of ​​the Arctic Ocean; S.P. Krasheninnikov, who is considered the founder of Russian ethnography, compiled the first “Description of the Land of Kamchatka”; V. Bering's expedition reached the strait between Asia and America, named after him. G.I. Shelikhov compiled a description of the Aleutian Islands and organized the exploration of Alaska.

By the second half of the 18th century. refers to the origin of domestic agronomic science, one of the founders of which is the Russian writer and naturalist A.T. Bolotov.

2.3 Literature

In the second half of the 18th century. In Russian literature, the intensive creative search that began in the previous period continued. The socio-political role of literature and writers has noticeably increased. XVIII century often called the "century of odes". Indeed, odes became widespread during this period, but in general literature is characterized by a multi-genre nature. Further development has already been achieved famous genres(elegies, songs, tragedies, comedies, satires, etc.), new ones appeared (a modern urban story - “Poor Liza” by N.M. Karamzin).

Until the end of the 60s, classicism remained the dominant direction. In the last third of the century, a new literary and artistic direction arose - realism, characterized by social topicality, interest in inner world person. Sentimentalism, which appeared in the last quarter of a century, proclaimed the cult of natural feeling, nature, and called for the liberation of man from the power of the social environment. In the literature of sentimentalism, the predominant genres were the lyrical story, family and psychological novel, and elegy. The flourishing of Russian sentimentalism is associated with the work of the writer and historian N.M. Karamzin (the stories "Poor Liza", "The Village", "Natalia, the Boyar's Daughter").

Folk art. In the second half of the 18th century. oral folk art acquired a pronounced anti-serfdom character: songs about the hard lot of peasants and the tyranny of landowners; satirical poems ridiculing gentlemen; jokes in which the main character was a savvy man; stories about the life of serfs and Cossacks. Among the most striking works of this period are “The Tale of the Pakhrinskaya Village of Kamkina”, “The Tale of the Village of Kiselikha” and the song of the runaway peasant “The Lament of the Serfs”.

The patriotic themes traditional for the Russian epic received further development. Folk tales and soldiers' songs reflect the historical battles of the Russian army and the activities of outstanding Russian commanders of the 18th century.

2.4 Art

2.4.1 Visual arts

Second half of the 18th century. - a time of intensive development of various types of fine arts, which was largely determined by the activities of the Academy of Arts created in 1757. The leading direction of academic painting was classicism, characterized by compositional clarity, clarity of lines, and idealization of images. Russian classicism manifested itself most clearly in historical and mythological painting.

The leading genre of Russian painting remained the portrait. The intensive development of secular portraiture by the end of the century raised it to the level of the highest achievements of modern world portrait art. The largest portrait painters of the era, who were world famous, were F. Rokotov (“Unknown in pink dress"), D. Levitsky, who created a series of ceremonial portraits (from the portrait of Catherine II to portraits of Moscow merchants), V. Borovikovsky (portrait of M.I. Lopukhina).

Along with portrait painting Landscape (S.F. Shchedrin), historical and mythological (A.P. Losenko), battle (M.M. Ivanov) and still life ("tricks" by G.N. Teplov, P.G. Bogomolov) painting developed. In the watercolors of I. Ermenev and the paintings of M. Shibanov, images of the life of peasants appeared for the first time in Russian painting.

M.V. Lomonosov revived the smalt mosaic technique. Under his leadership, easel portraits and battle compositions were created using this technique. In 1864, a mosaic department was founded at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, the main task of which was to produce mosaics for St. Isaac's Cathedral.

At the end of the eighteenth century. Catherine II's purchase of a number of private art collections in Europe laid the foundation for one of the largest and most significant museums in the world - the Hermitage.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II

Peter I and the beginning of the modernization of the country. The era of palace coups

In the history of the Russian state, Peter I played a key role. His reign is considered a kind of border between the Muscovite kingdom and the Russian Empire. The boundary clearly delineates the forms of state power: from Ivan III to Peter I and from Peter I to Soviet Russia.

At the king's Alexey Mikhailovich Romanov(1645-1676) from his first wife - Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya- there were 13 children. But while the daughters grew up strong and healthy, the sons grew up frail and sickly. During the life of the tsar, three of his sons died at an early age, the eldest son Fyodor could not move his swollen legs, and the other son Ivan was “poor in mind” and blind.

Having been widowed, 42-year-old Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich married again and took a young, healthy wife as his wife. Natalia Naryshkina, who gave birth to him on May 30, 1672 son Peter. Peter was three and a half years old when Tsar Alexei suddenly fell ill and died. took the throne Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682). Having reigned for 6 years, the sickly Fedor died, leaving neither offspring nor memory of himself among his contemporaries and subsequent generations. Ivan, Peter's elder brother, was supposed to be the successor, but they opposed the weak-minded heir The consecrated cathedral and the Boyar Duma. The situation was complicated by the fact that after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the relatives of his first wife - the Miloslavskys - became masters of the situation, removing from the court those close to the widow-tsarina Natalya Naryshkina. The prospect of Peter's accession did not suit the Miloslavskys, and they decided to take advantage of the discontent of the archers, who complained about the delay in their salaries. Miloslavsky and sister Petra Princess Sophia managed to direct the Streltsy rebellion in a direction favorable to themselves - against the Naryshkins. Some of the Naryshkins were killed, others were exiled.

As a result of the Streltsy rebellion, Ivan was declared the first tsar, Peter the second, and their older sister Sophia became regents under young kings. During the reign of Sophia, Peter and his mother lived mainly in the villages of Kolomenskoye, Preobrazhenskoye, and Semenovskoye near Moscow. At the age of three, Peter began to learn to read and write from clerk Nikita Zotov. Peter did not receive a systematic education(V mature years he wrote with grammatical errors). When Peter turned 17, Tsarina Natalya decided to marry her son and thus get rid of Sophia’s guardianship. After their marriage, the hostility between Sophia and Peter intensified. Sophia again tried to use the Streltsy for her own purposes, but a new Streltsy revolt in August 1689 was suppressed. Sophia, under the name of sister Susanna, was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent, where she lived for 14 years until her death in 1704.

Formally, Peter began to rule jointly with Ivan, but the sick Ivan did not take any part in state affairs - with the exception of official ceremonies. Young Peter was absorbed in military fun, and current state affairs were decided by the princes Boris Alekseevich Golitsyn, Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky and the queen Natalia. Peter, although he felt indomitable energy, did not yet imagine the role that he had to play in the history of Russia.

Peter was a figure of enormous historical proportions, a complex and highly contradictory figure. He was smart, inquisitive, hardworking, energetic. Without receiving a proper education, he nevertheless had extensive knowledge in a wide variety of areas of science, technology, crafts, and military art. There is no doubt that everything he did was aimed, in the opinion of Peter himself, for the benefit of Russia, and not for him, the Tsar, personally. But many of Peter’s personal qualities were determined by the nature of the harsh era in which he lived, and largely determined his cruelty, suspicion, lust for power, etc. It is very significant that Peter liked being compared to Ivan the Terrible. In achieving his goals, he did not disdain to use any means, he was not just cruel to people (personally, for example, he cut off the heads of archers in 1689), he generally looked at a person as a tool, material for creating what he intended for the good empires. During Peter's reign, taxes in the country tripled and the population decreased by 15%. Peter did not hesitate to use the most sophisticated methods of the Middle Ages: torture, surveillance, encouraging denunciations. He was convinced that in the name of state “benefit” moral standards could be neglected.

So, at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Russia was on the verge of transformation. These transformations could occur in different forms and lead to different results. The personality of the reformer played a huge role in the choice of forms of development.

The name of Peter is associated with the transformation of Russia into an empire, a Eurasian military power.

Peter back in the 90s. XVII century came to the conclusion that to eliminate relative international isolation it was necessary access to the seas - Black and Baltic- or at least one of them. Initially, Russian expansion rushed south - in 1695 and 1696. Azov campaigns took place. Having failed under Azov in 1695, Peter, with his characteristic energy, set about building a fleet. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. During the year, about 30 large ships were built and lowered down the Don. As a result of the second campaign, Azov was captured and access to the Sea of ​​Azov was secured. However, the Turks refused to allow Russian ships through the Kerch Strait, and even more so through the Bosphorus - access to trade routes remained closed.

After "Great Embassy" to Europe (1697-1698) It became clear to Peter that the center of gravity in Russian foreign policy should move to the West. The main goal was access to the Baltic Sea, where Sweden completely dominated. The origins of Russia's territorial claims to Sweden lead to the Treaty of Pillars of 1617, according to which Sweden received territory from Lake Ladoga to Ivangorod (Yam, Koporye, Oreshek and Korely). The main damage for Russia was that its access to the Baltic Sea was closed. But it was impossible to cope with Sweden alone. Allies were needed. They were found in Denmark and Saxony, who were dissatisfied with Sweden's dominance in the Baltic. In 1699, Russia established allied relations with Denmark and Saxony. It is characteristic that Peter managed to hide Russia's true intentions. The Swedish king Charles XII, interested in the war between Russia and Turkey, even gave Peter 300 cannons.

Northern War (1700-1721) was divided into two stages: the first - from 1700 to 1709 (before the Battle of Poltava), the second - from 1709 to 1721 (from the Poltava victory to the conclusion Peace of Nystadt). The war started poorly for Russia and its allies. Denmark was immediately withdrawn from the war. In November 1700, 8 thousand Swedes defeated a 60 thousand strong Russian army near Narva. This was a serious lesson, and Peter was forced to begin hasty reforms, to create a new regular army of the European model. Already in 1702-1703. Russian troops won their first victories. Fortresses were taken Noteburg(renamed Shlisselburg - Klyuch-gorod), Nyenschanz; mouth Not you ended up in Russian hands.

Nevertheless, at the first stage of the war, the strategic initiative remained in the hands of Sweden, whose troops occupied Poland, Saxony and invaded Russia. The turning point in the war was the victorious Russian army Battle of Poltava (27 June 1709). The strategic initiative passed into the hands of Russia. But the nature of the war on Russia's part has changed. Peter abandoned his previous promises to the allies to limit themselves to the return of old Russian territories. In 1710 they were liberated from the Swedes Karelia, Livonia, Estland, fortresses taken Vyborg, Revel, Riga. If it were not for the war with Turkey of 1710-1713, the Northern War would have been ended faster. The Allies drove Sweden out of all its overseas territories. The Swedish Empire collapsed.

The final fate of the Northern War was decided at sea in the battles of Gangute(1714), islands Ezel(1719) and Grenham(1720). Moreover, Russian troops repeatedly landed on the Swedish coast. Charles XII could not accept defeat and continued to fight until his death in Norway in 1718. The new king of Sweden, Frederick I, had to sit down at the negotiating table. On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Estland, Livonia, Ingermanland, the cities of Vyborg and Kexholm were transferred to Russia. Sweden retained Finland, received compensation for Livonia (2 million efimki) and bargained for the right to purchase grain duty-free in Riga and Revel.

Peter considered the victory to be the most great joy In my life. In October 1721, month-long festivities in the capital ended with the solemn ceremony of receiving the king title of All-Russian Emperor. During Peter's lifetime, his new status as emperor was recognized by Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, Holland, and Venice.

Russia has solved the main foreign policy task that the Russian tsars had been trying to achieve for two centuries - access to the sea. Russia has firmly entered the circle of European powers. Permanent diplomatic relations were established with major European countries.

After the end of the Northern War, the eastern direction of Russian policy intensified. The goal was to capture the transit routes of eastern trade through the Caspian regions. In 1722-1723 The western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea, which previously belonged to Persia, passed to Russia.

Thus, Russian foreign policy evolved towards an imperial policy. It was under Peter I that the Russian Empire was created and imperial thinking was formed, which persisted for almost three centuries.

The reforms of Peter I are a huge conglomerate of government activities carried out without a clearly developed long-term program and determined by both the urgent, momentary needs of the state and the personal preferences of the autocrat. The reforms were dictated, on the one hand, by the processes that began to develop in the country in the second half of the 17th century, on the other, by the failures of Russia in the first period of its war with the Swedes, and on the third, by Peter’s attachment to European ideas, orders and way of life.

The economic policy of the early 18th century was decisively influenced by mercantilism concept. According to the ideas of mercantilism, the basis of the wealth of the state is accumulation of money through an active trading balance, export of goods to foreign markets and restrictions on the import of foreign goods into their market. This involved state intervention in the economic sphere: encouraging production, building factories, organizing trading companies, and introducing new technology.

Another important stimulator of active government intervention in the economy was the defeat of Russian troops at the initial stage of the war with Sweden. With the outbreak of war, Russia lost its main source of iron and copper supplies. Possessing large financial and material resources for that time, the state took upon itself the regulation of industrial construction. With his direct participation and with his money, state-owned manufactories began to be created, primarily for the production of military products.

The state also seized trade - by introducing monopolies for the procurement and sale of certain goods. In 1705, a monopoly on salt and tobacco was introduced. Profit on the first doubled; for tobacco - 8 times. A monopoly was introduced on the sale of goods abroad: bread, lard, flax, hemp, resin, caviar, mast wood, wax, iron, etc. The establishment of a monopoly was accompanied by a strong-willed increase in prices for these goods and regulation of the trading activities of Russian merchants. The consequence of this was the disorganization of free, market-based entrepreneurship. The state achieved its goal - revenues to the treasury increased sharply, but violence against entrepreneurship systematically ruined the most prosperous part of the merchant class.

Towards the end of the Northern War, when victory was obvious, certain changes took place in the government's trade and industrial policy. Measures have been taken to encourage private entrepreneurship. The Berg Privilege (1719) allowed all residents of the country and foreigners, without exception, to search for minerals and build factories. The practice of transferring state-owned enterprises (primarily unprofitable ones) to private owners or companies has become widespread. The new owners received various benefits from the treasury: interest-free loans, the right to duty-free sales of goods, etc. The state abandoned its monopoly on the sale of goods on the foreign market.

However, entrepreneurs did not receive real economic freedom. In 1715, a decree was adopted on the creation of industrial and trading companies, the members of which, having contributed their capital to a common pot, were bound by mutual responsibility and bore general responsibility to the state. The company actually did not have private property rights. It was a kind of lease, the terms of which were determined by the state, which had the right to confiscate the enterprise in case of violation. Fulfilling government orders became the main responsibility of the plant owner. And he could only sell the surplus on the market. This reduced the importance of competition as the main incentive for business development. The lack of competition, in addition, hampered the improvement of production.

Control over domestic industry was exercised by the Berg and Manufactory Collegiums, which had exclusive rights: they gave permission to open factories, set prices for products, had a monopoly on the purchase of goods from factories, and exercised administrative and judicial power over owners and workers.

The government of Peter I was very attentive to the development of its own industry, protecting it from hopeless competition with products from developed European countries. The quality of products from Russian manufactories was still inferior to foreign ones, so Peter banned the import into the country of those foreign goods whose production had been mastered in Russia. Thus, according to the customs tariff of 1724, a huge - 75% - duty was imposed on those European products, the demand for which could be satisfied with home remedies. The same duty was imposed on unprocessed raw materials exported from Russia. Mercantilism policy In the first quarter of the 18th century, it became a powerful weapon in the hands of the government and a reliable protection of domestic entrepreneurship.

Active government intervention in the economic sphere deformed social relations. First of all, this was manifested in the nature of the use of labor. During the Northern War, the state and the owners of manufactories used both civilian labor, “runaways and walkers,” and assigned peasants who worked off state taxes at the factories. However, in the early 20s. In the 18th century, the labor problem intensified: the fight against peasant escapes intensified, the mass return of runaways to their previous owners began, an audit of the population was carried out with subsequent registration social status each person by assigning them forever to the place of registration in the tax cadastre. “Free and walking” were placed outside the law, who were equated to fugitive criminals.

In 1718-1724. Was held capitation census. The unit of taxation, instead of the peasant household, became the “male soul,” which could be an infant or a decrepit old man. The dead were included in the lists (“fairy tales”) until the next audit. The poll tax was paid by serfs and state-owned peasants, and townspeople. Nobles and clergy were exempt from paying the poll tax. In 1724 it was established passport system. Without a passport, peasants were forbidden to move further than 30 miles from their place of residence. In 1721, Peter signed a decree allowing the purchase of serfs to factories. Such peasants began to be called possessional (ownership). Peter I clearly understood that the treasury alone could not solve grandiose problems. Therefore, government policy was aimed at involving private capital in industrial construction. A striking example of such a policy was the transfer in 1702 of the Nevyansk plant in the Urals, which had just been built by the treasury, into private hands. By this time, Nikita Demidov was already a famous and major entrepreneur in the Tula Arms Settlement. The justification of such a step is confirmed by the mutually beneficial terms of the deal: the manufacturer was supposed to significantly increase production, supply military supplies to the treasury at preferential prices, “build schools for children, and hospitals for the sick” and much more, and in return he was allowed to search for ores in the vast territory of the Urals “and build all sorts of factories.” The Demidovs fulfilled their obligations and created a grandiose farm. Hundreds of people rushed to build factories. Many have failed, but mid-17th century In the 1st century there were already more than 40 private factories in the Urals, and large ones also emerged “iron-making complexes of the Stroganovs, Demidovs, Mosolovs, Osokins, Tverdyshevs and Myasnikovs”.

A feature of the development of Russian industry in the first half of the 18th century was the widespread use of forced labor. This meant the transformation of industrial enterprises, where the capitalist structure could have arisen, into enterprises of the feudal economy. In the first quarter of the 18th century, a relatively powerful economic base was created - about 100 manufacturing enterprises, and at the beginning of the reign there were 15. By the 1740s, the country smelted 1.5 times more pig iron than England.

Having come to power in 1689, Peter inherited the traditional system of government of the 17th century with the Boyar Duma and orders as central institutions. As autocracy grew stronger, the Boyar Duma, as a narrow class body, lost its significance and disappeared at the beginning of the 18th century. Information about the meetings of the Boyar Duma ceased in 1704. Its functions began to be performed by "consultation of ministers"- Council of heads of the most important government departments. In the activities of this body, elements of management bureaucratization are already visible - working hours, strict distribution of responsibilities, introduction of regulated office work.

Education Senate in 1711 became the next step in organizing a new management apparatus. The Senate was created as the highest governing body, concentrating in its hands administrative, managerial, judicial and legislative functions. Introduced in the Senate principle of collegiality: Without general consent, the decision did not enter into force. For the first time, a personal oath was introduced in a state institution, as well as in the army.

The reform of the administrative system continued at the turn of the 10-20s. XVIII century. It was based on principles of cameralism- the doctrine of bureaucratic management, which assumed: a functional principle of management, collegiality, clear regulation of the duties of officials, specialization of clerical work, uniform staffing and salaries.

In 1718 it was adopted "Register of Collegiums". Instead of 44 orders, collegiums were established. Their number was 10-11. In 1720 it was approved General Regulations collegiums, according to which each collegium consisted of a president, vice-president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors. In addition to the four collegiums in charge of foreign, military and judicial affairs (Foreign, Military, Admiralty, Justice Collegium), a group of collegiums dealt with finances (income - Chamber Collegium, expenses - State Office Collegium, control over the collection and expenditure of funds - Revision -collegium), trade (Commerce Collegium), metallurgy and light industry (Berg Manufactory Collegium, later divided into two). In 1722, the most important control body was created - prosecutor's office. Prosecutor General P. I. Yaguzhinsky became the unofficial head of the Senate. Overt government surveillance was supplemented by covert surveillance through the introduction of a system fiscals who carried out secret surveillance of the activities of the administration at all levels. Peter released the fiscal officials from liability for false denunciation. The phenomenon of denunciation is firmly established in the state system and in society.

Became a special board Holy Synod, created in 1721. The position of patriarch was abolished. A government official was placed at the head of the Synod - chief prosecutor. The church actually turned into an integral part of the state apparatus. This meant for Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to state ideology. The Church moved away from believers, ceased to be a protector of the “humiliated and insulted,” and became an obedient instrument of power, which contradicted Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the entire age-old way of life. The abolition of the secret of confession, the ban on hanging icons over the door of a house, the persecution of monasticism and other “reforms” allowed many contemporaries to call Peter the king-antichrist.

The General Regulations and other decrees of Peter I consolidated the idea of ​​the service of the Russian nobility as the most important form of fulfilling duties to the sovereign and the state. IN 1714 was accepted Decree on unified inheritance, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the estate. He contributed to the completion of the process of uniting the estates of feudal lords into a single class-estate, which had certain privileges. But the title of nobility could only be privileged when its holder served. Table of Ranks (1722) introduced a new hierarchy of ranks. All military and civilian positions were divided into 14 ranks. To get the next rank you had to go through all the previous ones. A military or civil official who reached the eighth rank, corresponding to collegiate assessor or major, received hereditary nobility. The new position of the bureaucracy, other forms and methods of its activity gave rise to a very special psychology of bureaucracy. Peter I's idea that a person would receive a rank corresponding to his knowledge and diligence, and according to his rank - a position, did not work from the very beginning. There were many more employees who received the same ranks than the positions for which they applied. Instead of the old, boyar, a new, bureaucratic localism began to flourish, expressed in promotion to a new rank according to seniority, that is, depending on who had previously been promoted to the previous class. A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster. Peculiar "bureaucratic revolution"- the main result of the imposition of the European idea of ​​rationalism on Russian soil. The principle of birth in appointment to the civil service was finally replaced by the principle of seniority. If in the West service was a privilege, then in Russia it was a duty. The “emancipation” of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. XVIII century.

One of the central places in Peter's reforms was the creation of powerful armed forces. At the end of the 18th century, the Russian army consisted of soldier regiments (in 1689 - 70% of the total number), streltsy regiments and noble militia. The soldier regiments were only the beginning of a regular army, since the treasury could not fully support them, and in their free time from service, the soldiers were engaged in crafts and trade. The Sagittarius increasingly turned into a police force and an instrument of palace intrigue. By the middle of the 17th century, the noble cavalry had largely lost its combat effectiveness. The most combat-ready part of the army were the so-called “amusing” regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - the basis of the future guard. Without access to ice-free seas, Russia did not have a fleet. The central issue of creating a regular army was the question of a new system for recruiting it. In 1705 it was introduced conscription: from a certain number of households of tax-paying classes, recruits had to be supplied to the army. Recruits were enrolled in the class of soldiers for life. Nobles began serving with the rank of private in the guards regiments. This is how it was created regular army, which had high fighting qualities. The army was rearmed, taking into account foreign and domestic experience, strategy and tactics were changed, Military and Naval regulations. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia had the strongest army in Europe, numbering up to 250 thousand people, and the world's second navy (more than 1000 ships).

However, the downside of the reforms was the increasing pace of militarization of the imperial state machine. Having taken a very honorable place in the state, the army began to perform not only military, but also police functions. The colonel oversaw the collection of per capita money and funds for the needs of his regiment, and also had to eradicate “robbery,” including suppressing peasant unrest. The practice of professional military personnel participating in public administration has spread. The military, especially the guards, were often used as emissaries of the tsar, and were endowed with extraordinary powers.

From the above it is clear that in Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century a powerful military-bureaucratic system was formed. At the top of the cumbersome pyramid of power was the king. The monarch was the only source of law and had immense power. The apotheosis of autocracy was the awarding of the title of emperor to Peter I.

The middle and second half of the 18th century went down in Russian history as a continuation of the “St. Petersburg period,” as the time of our country’s transformation into a great European power. The reign of Peter the Great opened new era. Russia acquired Europeanized features of the state structure: administration and jurisdiction, the army and navy were reorganized in a Western manner. This time was a period of great upheaval (mass unrest of peasants in the middle of the century, the Plague Riot, Pugachev's uprising), but also serious transformations. The need to strengthen the social basis of “autocratic absolutism” forced the Russian monarchs to change the forms of cooperation with class structures. As a result, the nobility were given class management and guarantees of property.

The history of Russia in the second quarter and mid-18th century was characterized by an intense struggle between noble groups for power, which led to frequent changes of reigning persons on the throne and reshuffles in their immediate circle. WITH light hand IN. Klyuchevsky’s term “the era of palace coups” was assigned to this period. IN. Klyuchevsky associated the onset of political instability after the death of Peter I with the “arbitrariness” of the latter, who decided, in particular, to break the traditional order of succession to the throne. Previously, the throne passed through a direct male descendant, but according to the manifesto of February 5, 1722, the autocrat was given the right to appoint a successor for himself at his own request. “Rarely has autocracy punished itself so cruelly as in the person of Peter with this law on February 5,” wrote Klyuchevsky. Peter I did not have time to appoint an heir for himself: the throne turned out to be given “to chance and became its plaything” - it was not the law that determined who should sit on the throne, but the guard, which was the “dominant force” at that time.

After the death of Peter I, the contenders for supreme power were Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna, wife of the late sovereign, and his grandson, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, 9-year-old Pyotr Alekseevich. Catherine was supported by the guard and the new nobility that emerged under Peter I - HELL. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy and others. Peter Alekseevich was supported by representatives of the old aristocracy led by the prince D.M. Golitsyn. Strength was on the side of the first party. With the support of the guards regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - Catherine I (1725-1727) ascended the throne.

Empress Catherine practically did not engage in government affairs. All power was concentrated in Supreme Privy Council, created on February 8, 1726. The council included 7 nobles, the most influential of whom was His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov. The Supreme Privy Council reduced the size of the poll tax and abolished the participation of the army in its collection. The official duties of the nobility were eased, the nobles were given the right to trade in all cities and on the piers (before this, only merchants had this right). After death Catherine I and accession to the throne Peter II The struggle between the leaders and those who were not members of the Supreme Privy Council intensified. Against A.D. Menshikov was intrigued by princes Dolgoruky, vice-chancellor Osterman and others. As soon as His Serene Highness fell ill, he was sent into retirement, and then into exile in the Siberian city of Berezov, where Menshikov died two years later. However, Peter II did not reign for long - on January 19, 1730, he died of smallpox.

Disputes began in the Supreme Privy Council over the issue of a candidate for the Russian throne. Prince D.M. Golitsyn put forward a proposal to invite the niece of Peter the Great - Anna Ioannovna, widow Duchess of Courland. Anna satisfied everyone, since she was not associated with either the guard or court groups. Having invited Anna Ioannovna to the throne, the nobles offered her written conditions (conditions), which were supposed to significantly limit the autocracy. According to these conditions, the future empress was not supposed to marry, appoint an heir to the throne, or decide the most important state affairs without the consent of eight members of the Supreme Privy Council; the army and guard were to submit to the Privy Council.

Anna Ioannovna initially signed the conditions. However, the nobility was dissatisfied with the dominance of the family aristocracy from the Supreme Privy Council. On February 25, noble representatives, primarily from the guard, submitted a petition to Anna asking her to cancel the rules and restore autocracy. The Empress immediately, in the presence of a crowd of nobles, broke her condition. Soon the Supreme Privy Council was abolished; its members were subjected to exile and execution. The former Senate was restored, which, however, did not play a significant role in public administration under Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740). In 1731 it was created Cabinet of three ministers, which was actually headed by A.I. Osterman. Subsequently, the decrees of the Cabinet were equated to imperial ones; in essence, the Cabinet took over the functions of the Privy Council.

At court, the Courland nobles who arrived with Anna Ioannovna, who headed government institutions, army and guards regiments, acquired increasing power. The favorite of the empress enjoyed omnipotent influence E.I. Biron, whom she later made Duke of Courland.

Before her death, Anna Ioannovna declared her successor baby John VI Antonovich(1740-1741), son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna and Prince Anton-Ulrich of Brunswick(representatives of this family were called the “Brunswick surname”). Biron became regent under John. However, the commander of the Russian army, Field Marshal B.-H. Minich on the night of November 9, 1740, Biron was arrested. The former temporary worker was exiled to the Siberian city of Pelym. The emperor's mother, Anna Leopoldovna, became the ruler. A year later followed by a new one palace coup.

In 1741, as a result of a palace coup, the daughter of Peter the Great ascended to the Russian throne Elizaveta Petrovna. The coup was carried out by the forces of the Guard. On the night of November 25, Elizabeth appeared at the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and addressed the soldiers. 300 guards followed her to the imperial palace. Representatives of the ruling “Brunswick family” were arrested. The infant Emperor John Antonovich was subsequently imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress. His mother, the ruler, with her husband and other children were sent into exile in Kholmogory. Here in 1746 Anna Leopoldovna died. John Antonovich was killed by the guards of the Shlisselburg fortress in 1756 during an attempt by officer V. Mirovich to free the prisoner.

Those who helped Elizaveta Petrovna ascend the throne were generously rewarded. The 300 guardsmen who carried out the military coup formed a special privileged detachment, a “life company.” All of them received noble dignity and estates. The Germans surrounding Anna were replaced by Russian nobles.

Elizaveta Petrovna preferred to spend her time in court entertainment; She left the government to her ministers. Of the nobles close to the empress, they enjoyed great influence Razumovsky brothers, who came from simple Little Russian Cossacks. The eldest of the brothers, Alexei Grigorievich, who in his youth was a court singer, rose to prominence thanks to the merciful attention of Elizabeth Petrovna, and became a field marshal and count. The younger one, Kirill, became hetman of Little Russia. The Shuvalovs occupied a prominent position at court. One of them, Ivan Ivanovich, provided significant services to the state with his concerns about public education and earned the fame of a Russian philanthropist. He patronized the famous M.V. Lomonosov; Through his efforts, the first Russian university was founded. A prominent role during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was played by Chancellor Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who was in charge of foreign affairs.

The first important order of Elizabeth Petrovna in matters internal management was the destruction of the Cabinet of Ministers created by Anna Ioannovna, and the return to the Senate of the importance that was given to it by Peter I.

During the reign of Elizabeth, city magistrates were restored. In 1752, the Naval Cadet Corps was founded in St. Petersburg (instead of the Maritime Academy). Two loan banks were established - one for the nobility, the other for the merchants. The loan was made against collateral of movable and real estate subject to payment of 6%. In 1754, at the suggestion Peter Ivanovich Shuvalov internal customs and petty fees, which were restrictive for trade, were destroyed. At the same time, duties on foreign goods imposed by the tariff of Peter I were significantly increased. In criminal proceedings it was abolished the death penalty. But in general, legal proceedings and administration under Elizaveta Petrovna were in a rather disordered state. As the famous Russian historian D.I. wrote. Ilovaisky, “the regional administration was still a discordant mixture of the old Moscow order with the institutions of Peter I.” The lack of public safety measures was especially severe. The oppression of landowners and the injustice of governors and officials continued to serve as a source of internal unrest and disaster. The peasants responded with uprisings, continuous escapes and participation in bandits. The Volga, whose deserted banks abounded in convenient channels and creeks, was especially famous for its robberies. Gangs gathered here under the command of the most famous atamans (“lower freemen”). They were sometimes very numerous, had cannons on their boats, attacked convoys of ships and even entered into open battle with military detachments.

A significant change took place in the upper strata of society: the German influence, which had dominated since the time of Peter I, under Elizabeth was replaced by the influence of French culture. At court and in the houses of the nobility, the era of the dominance of French morals and Parisian fashions begins.

Having removed the descendants of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich from power, Elizabeth tried to strengthen the Russian throne for the descendants of Peter I. The Empress summoned her nephew, the Duke of Holstein, to Russia Karl-Peter Ulrich(son of Elizabeth’s elder sister Anna Petrovna), and declared him her heir. Karl-Peter received the name at baptism Peter Fedorovich. From birth, the boy grew up without a mother, lost his father early and was left in the care of educators who turned out to be ignorant and rude, cruelly punished and intimidated the sickly and weak child. When the Grand Duke turned 17, he was married to the princess of the small Anhalt-Zerbst principality Sofia August Frederick, which received the name in Orthodoxy Ekaterina Alekseevna.

Everything connected with Russia was deeply alien to Peter, who was raised in Protestant Holstein. He knew little and did not strive to study the language and customs of the country in which he was to reign; he disdained Orthodoxy and even the outward observance of Orthodox ritual. The Russian prince chose the Prussian king Frederick II as his ideal, and considered his main goal to be a war with Denmark, which had once taken Schleswig from the Holstein dukes.

Elizabeth did not like her nephew and kept him away from government affairs. Peter, in turn, sought to oppose the empress’s court with his “small court” in Oranienbaum. In 1761, after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, Peter III ascended the throne.

Having barely ascended the throne, Peter III irrevocably turned against himself public opinion. He informed Frederick II of Russia's intention to make peace with Prussia separately, without allies France and Austria. On the other hand, despite the brevity of his reign, Peter III managed to make very important and beneficial orders. First of all, wonderful "Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility", which eliminated the obligation civil service for the nobility. Now it could serve only of its own accord. The nobles were given the opportunity to live on their estates, freely travel abroad, and even enter the service of foreign sovereigns. But at the same time, the military or civil service of the nobles was encouraged by the state. Secondly, there followed a decree on the secularization of 2 church lands: all estates were confiscated from the church and transferred to the jurisdiction of a special state College of Economy, and officer-administrators were appointed to the estates. Former monastic peasants received land that they cultivated for the monasteries; they were exempted from taxes in favor of the church and were subject to state taxes, like state peasants. Thirdly, Peter III abolished the Secret Investigative Office. The Secret Chancellery was engaged in political investigation and made extensive use of denunciations. As soon as any informer uttered the phrase “word and deed,” a political investigation immediately began with interrogations and torture. True criminals sometimes used “word and deed” to gain time and avoid deserved punishment; others spoke it out of malice and slandered innocent people. Peter III forbade the utterance of the hated “word and deed.” The functions of political investigation were transferred to the Secret Expedition, which was part of the Senate.

Peter III forbade the persecution of Old Believers, and those of them who fled abroad were allowed to return; they were allocated land in Siberia for settlement. The peasants who disobeyed the landowners were forgiven if they repented. Many nobles exiled during the previous reign were returned from Siberia, including the famous Field Marshal B.-Kh. Minich, Duke E.I. Biron and others.

At the same time, the decrees of Peter III on the equal rights of all religions and the allocation of money for the construction of a Lutheran church gave rise to rumors about the imminent closure Orthodox churches. It is clear that the decree on secularization did not contribute to the growth of Peter’s popularity among the Russian clergy. Peter's commitment to the Germans, immoderate worship of Frederick II, the strict military discipline established by the tsar - all this aroused the displeasure of the guard. Attempts to transform the army along the Prussian model and the creation of a special commission for this, the liquidation of the “life company” confirmed the long-standing suspicion of Peter III’s intention to liquidate the guards regiments. The Emperor's Holstein relatives and Oranienbaum officers crowded the old nobility at court and made them worry about the future. Clever Catherine skillfully took advantage of the displeasure of the guard and the excessive self-confidence of her husband, and Peter III had to give up the throne to her.

Russia in the second half of the 18th century. Catherine II

The era of Catherine II (1762-1796) constitutes a significant stage in the history of Russia. Although Catherine came to power as a result of a coup, her policies were closely linked with those of Peter III.

Catherine's real name was Sophia-Frederica-Augusta, she was born in Prussian Pomerania, in the city Stettin, in 1729. Sophia's father, a general in the Prussian service, was the governor of Stettin, and subsequently, when his cousin, the sovereign prince of Zerbst, died, he became his successor and moved to his small principality. Sophia's mother was from a Holstein family, therefore, Sophia was a distant relative of her future husband, Pyotr Fedorovich. Frederick II, who hoped in this way to enter into a close alliance with Russia, was the one who was most concerned about the marriage of the future empress. At the age of 14, Sophia came with her mother to Russia; the bride converted to Orthodoxy, and in 1745 her marriage to the heir to the throne took place.

Having been baptized into Orthodoxy, Sophia-Frederica-Augusta received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna. Gifted by nature with various abilities, Catherine managed to develop her mind through literary pursuits, especially by reading the best French writers of her time. By diligently studying the Russian language, history and customs of the Russian people, she prepared herself for the great task that awaited her, that is, to govern Russia. Catherine was characterized by insight, the art of taking advantage of circumstances and the ability to find people to carry out her plans.

In 1762, as a result of a conspiracy by guards officers, in which Catherine herself took part, her husband Peter III was overthrown from the throne. Catherine's main assistants in carrying out the coup were Orlov brothers, Panin, Princess Dashkova. A spiritual dignitary also acted in favor of Catherine Dmitry Sechenov, Archbishop of Novgorod, who relied on the clergy, dissatisfied with the secularization of church estates.

The coup was carried out on June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in his beloved Oranienbaum castle. On this morning, Catherine arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg. The guard immediately swore allegiance to her, and the entire capital followed the example of the guard. Peter, having received news of the events in the capital, was confused. Having learned about the movement of troops led by Catherine against him, Peter III and his retinue boarded a yacht and sailed to Kronstadt. However, the Kronstadt garrison had already gone over to Catherine’s side. Peter III finally lost heart, returned to Oranienbaum and signed an act of abdication. A few days later, on July 6, he was killed by the guards officers guarding him in Ropsha. It was officially announced that death was due to “hemorrhoidal colic.” All prominent participants in the events of June 28 were generously rewarded.

Historians have certain disagreements about the motivations for the activities of Catherine II. Some believe that during her reign the empress tried to implement a well-thought-out program of reforms, that she was a liberal reformer who dreamed of cultivating the ideas of enlightenment on Russian soil. According to another opinion, Catherine solved the problems that arose before her in the spirit of Russian tradition, but under the cover of new European ideas. Some historians believe that in reality Catherine’s policy was determined by her nobles and favorites.

From the perspective of the 18th century, the monarchical form of government and the ideas of enlightenment did not contain a contradiction at all. The Enlightenmentists (C. Montesquieu and others) fully accepted a monarchical form of government, especially for countries with such a vast territory as Russia. Moreover, it was the monarch who was entrusted with the task of caring for the welfare of his subjects and introducing principles of legality consistent with reason and truth. How young Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation that is to be governed. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect among its neighbors.”

What life circumstances influenced this educational program and subjugated it? Firstly, the nature and national specificity of those state tasks that the empress had to solve. Secondly, the circumstances of accession to the throne: without any legal rights, elevated to the throne by her own mind and the support of the nobility, Catherine had to express the aspirations of the nobility, and correspond to the ideal of the Russian monarch, and demonstrate her moral - due to personal qualities and merits - right to reign. German by birth, Catherine aspired to become a good Russian empress. This meant being a continuator of the work of Peter I and expressing Russian national interests.

Many events of Catherine II, in to the greatest extent imbued with the spirit of liberalism and enlightenment, they turned out to be unfinished and ineffective, rejected by Russian reality. This applies in particular to the attempt to develop new legislation based on Enlightenment principles. Peter I also made an attempt to draw up a new set of laws, since the code of his father (the Council Code of 1649) did not satisfy the new needs of the state. Peter's successors renewed his attempt and appointed commissions for this purpose, but the matter did not move forward. Meanwhile, the difficult state of finance, legal proceedings and regional administration caused an urgent need to improve legislation. From the very beginning of her reign, Catherine began to develop a project for a new government system. In 1767, a commission was convened to revise Russian laws, which received the name Stacked; it was headed A.I. Bibikov. The commission was composed of deputies from different class and social groups - nobility, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks. All deputies came to the commission with instructions from their electors, which allow them to judge the problems, needs and demands of the local population.

Before the commission began its work, Catherine addressed it with an eloquent message, “Instruction,” which used the educational ideas of Montesquieu and the Italian lawyer Beccaria about the state, laws, duties of a citizen, the equality of citizens before the law and the presumption of innocence. On June 30, 1767 in Moscow, in the Chamber of Facets, the grand opening of the commission took place. At the initiative of Catherine II, one of the liberal nobles raised the issue of abolishing serfdom. But the majority of noble deputies rebelled against this. Representatives of the merchant class also made claims to the right to own serfs.

In December 1768, due to the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish War, the general meeting of the commission ceased its work, and some of the deputies were dissolved. Individual commissions continued to work on projects for another five years, but the main goal set for the commission - the development of a new Code - was never achieved. However, the commission, as Catherine II claimed, “gave me light and information about the entire empire, with whom we are dealing and about whom we should care.” The debates that continued throughout the year introduced the empress to the real state of affairs in the country and the demands of the estates, but did not produce any practical results. The commission provided the government with information about the internal state of the state and had a great influence on the subsequent government activities of Catherine II, especially on her regional institutions.

An important part of the domestic policy of Catherine II was the reform of government bodies. In 1762, Catherine rejected N.I.’s proposal. Panin on the creation of the Imperial Council, which was to become the legislative body under the Empress. In 1763, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined functions and under the leadership of the Attorney General appointed by the monarch. The Senate became a body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court, but lost its main function - legislative initiative; the right of legislative initiative actually passed to the empress.

In 1775 there was regional reform carried out, which increased the number of provinces from 23 to 50. The size of the new provinces was determined by the size of the population; each of them was supposed to have a population of 300 to 400 thousand souls, the provinces were divided into districts of 20-30 thousand inhabitants each. 2-3 provinces were entrusted to the governor-general or governor, who was invested with great power and supervised all branches of government. The governor's assistants were the vice-governor, two provincial councilors and the provincial prosecutor, who made up the provincial government. The vice-governor headed the treasury chamber (treasury income and expenses, state property, tax farming, monopolies, etc.), the provincial prosecutor was in charge of all judicial institutions. In cities, the position of mayor, appointed by the government, was introduced.

Simultaneously with the establishment of provinces, a system of estate courts was created: for each estate (nobles, townspeople, state peasants) their own special judicial institutions were introduced. In the districts, district courts were introduced for nobles, city magistrates for merchants and townspeople, and lower reprisals for foreigners and state peasants. In some of the new courts the principle of elected assessors was introduced. Power in the district belonged to the police captain elected by the noble assembly. From district institutions, cases could move to higher authorities, that is, to provincial institutions: the upper zemstvo court, the provincial magistrate and the upper justice. In provincial cities, the following were established: a criminal chamber - for criminal proceedings, a civil chamber - for civil proceedings, a state chamber - for state revenues, a provincial government - with executive and police powers. In addition, conscientious courts, noble guardianship, orphans' courts and public charity orders (in charge of schools, shelters, hospitals) were established.

Provincial reform significantly strengthened the administrative apparatus, and therefore the supervision of the population. As part of the centralization policy, the Zaporozhye Sich was liquidated, and the autonomy of other regions was abolished or limited. The local government system created by the provincial reform of 1775 was preserved in its main features until 1864, and the administrative-territorial division introduced by it remained until 1917.

The government of Catherine II cared a lot about the appearance of cities, that is, about holding direct wide streets and construction of stone buildings. Economic growth resulted in an increase in population; up to 200 expanded villages received the status of cities. Catherine took care of the sanitary condition of cities, the prevention of epidemics, and as an example for her subjects, she was the first to vaccinate with smallpox.

The program documents of Catherine II were Letters granted to the nobility and cities. Catherine defined the meaning, rights and responsibilities of different classes. In 1785 it was granted Letter of grant to the nobility, which determined the rights and privileges of the noble class, which was considered after Pugachev’s rebellion main support throne. The nobility finally took shape as a privileged class. The charter confirmed the old privileges: the monopoly right to own peasants, lands and mineral resources; secured the rights of the nobility to their own corporations, freedom from poll tax, conscription, corporal punishment, confiscation of estates for criminal offenses; the nobility received the right to petition the government for their needs; the right to trade and entrepreneurship, the transfer of the title of nobility by inheritance and the impossibility of losing it except in court, etc. The diploma confirmed the freedom of nobles from public service. At the same time, the nobility received a special class corporate structure: district and provincial noble assemblies. Once every three years, these assemblies elected district and provincial leaders of the nobility, who had the right to directly address the tsar. This measure turned the nobility of the provinces and districts into a cohesive force. The landowners of each province formed a special noble society. Nobles filled many official positions in the local administrative apparatus; They have long dominated the central apparatus and the army. Thus, the nobility turned into the politically dominant class in the state.

In the same 1785 it was made public Letter of commendation to cities, which completed the structure of the so-called urban society. This society was made up of ordinary people belonging to the tax-paying classes, that is, merchants, petty bourgeois and artisans. Merchants were divided into three guilds according to the amount of capital they declared; those who declared less than 500 rubles. capital were called "philistines". Craftsmen by different activities were divided into “guilds” based on Western European models. City government bodies appeared. All tax-paying inhabitants gathered together and formed a “common city duma”; They elected the city head and 6 members from among themselves to the so-called six-voice Duma. The Duma was supposed to deal with the current affairs of the city, its income, expenses, public buildings, and most importantly, it took care of the execution of government duties, for the correctness of which all citizens were responsible.

City dwellers were assigned the right to engage in trade and entrepreneurial activity. A number of privileges were received by the top citizens - “eminent citizens” and the guild merchants. But the privileges of the townspeople, against the backdrop of the permissiveness of the nobility, seemed imperceptible; the bodies of city self-government were strictly controlled by the tsarist administration. In general, the attempt to lay the foundations of the bourgeois class failed.

Under Catherine II, attempts were made to resolve the peasant issue. In the first years of her reign, Catherine had the intention of beginning to limit the power of the landowners. However, she did not meet with sympathy on this issue from the court aristocracy and the mass of nobles. Subsequently, the empress, occupied primarily with foreign policy issues, abandoned the idea of ​​reforming the peasant class. New decrees were even issued that strengthened the power of the landowners. Landowners were given the right to exile peasants “for their insolent state” to hard labor (1765). Serfs were forbidden to file complaints against their masters under pain of whipping and exile to Nerchinsk for eternal hard labor (decree of August 22, 1767). Meanwhile, the number of serfs increased significantly due to the continued distribution of state peasants to dignitaries and favorites. The empress distributed 800 thousand serfs to her associates. In 1783, serfdom was legally formalized in Ukraine.

Under Catherine II, the government tried to return Old Believers to Russia, who were leaving in large numbers abroad. Those who returned were given complete forgiveness. Old Believers were exempted from the double capitation salary, from the obligation to wear a special dress and shave their beards. At Potemkin's request, the Old Believers in Novorossiya were allowed to have their own churches and priests (1785). Ukrainian Old Believers formed the so-called Edinoverie Church.

Catherine II completed the secularization of ecclesiastical estates, which was begun by Peter I and continued by Peter III. On the day of the coup in 1762, Catherine tried to attract the clergy to herself and promised to return to them the lands confiscated by Peter III. However, the empress soon “changed her mind” and appointed a commission to accurately inventory all church lands and income. By decree of February 26, 1764, all peasants belonging to monasteries and bishops' houses (more than 900 thousand male souls) were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economics. Instead of the previous taxes and duties, they were subject to a tax of one and a half rubles per soul. New staffs were drawn up for monasteries and bishops' houses and it was decided that they would receive salaries from the College of Economy. In addition, some lands were left to them. Secularization naturally caused displeasure on the part of many members of the clergy. Of these, the most famous is the Rostov Metropolitan Arseny Matseevich, deprived of his rank and imprisoned under the name of the defrocked Andrei Vral in the Revel casemate.

In 1773-1775 the entire southeast of Russia, the Urals, regions of the Middle and Lower Volga region, Western Siberia were engulfed in a peasant-Cossack uprising under the leadership of the Don Cossack Emelyan Pugachev, who declared himself miraculously saved from death by Emperor Peter III. On behalf of Peter III, Pugachev announced the abolition of serfdom and the liberation of all privately owned peasants. Soviet historians qualified this uprising as a peasant war, although in reality the social composition of the participants in the movement was complex, and the initiator of the uprising, as is known, was the Cossacks. The movement received wide support among the Yaik Cossacks, Russian peasants, the mining population of the Urals, non-Russian peoples: Bashkirs, Kalmyks, Tatars, Mari, Mordvins, Udmurts, dissatisfied with serfdom exploitation, the state’s attack on traditional rights and privileges. The rebels besieged Orenburg for a long time, they managed to burn Kazan and take Penza and Saratov.

However, in the end, the Pugachevites were defeated by government troops that were superior in equipment and training. The leader of the movement himself was captured, taken to Moscow and executed in 1775. To erase the memory of the Great Rebellion, Catherine II ordered the Yaik River to be renamed the Ural, and the Yaik Cossacks to be renamed the Ural Cossacks.

Internal political instability in the second quarter of the 18th century did not always make it possible to fully take advantage of the advantages that military victories gave Russia. Under Anna Ioannovna, Russia interfered in Polish affairs and opposed French candidates for the Polish throne ( War of the Polish Succession 1733-1735). The clash of interests between Russia and France in Poland led to a serious deterioration in Russian-French relations. French diplomacy tried to raise Turkey and Sweden against Russia.

The Turkish government was dissatisfied with the entry of Russian troops into Poland and was actively looking for allies in a close war with Russia. The Russian government also considered war inevitable. In order to enlist the support of Iran, a neighbor of the Ottoman Empire, in 1735 Russia returned to it the provinces annexed to Russia as a result of the Persian campaign of Peter I. In 1735, the Crimean army, by decision of the Ottoman government, went through Russian possessions to the lands returned by Russia to Iran. Clashes began between the Crimeans and the Russian armed forces. The following year, Russia officially declared war on Turkey. Russian-Turkish War 1735-1739 was carried out mainly in Crimea and Moldova. Russian troops under the command of Field Marshal B.-H. Minikh won a series of important victories (near Stavuchany, near Khotin), occupied Perekop, Ochakov, Azov, Kinburn, Gezlev (Evpatoria), Bakhchisarai, Yassy. According to the Belgrade Peace Treaty of 1739, Russia slightly moved its border to the south, gaining steppe spaces from the Bug to Taganrog.

In 1741, war was declared on Russia, instigated by France and Prussia. Sweden, who dreamed of returning the part of Finland conquered by Peter I. But Russian troops under the command of P.P. Lassi defeated the Swedes. According to the peace concluded in 1743 in the town of Abo, Russia retained all its possessions and received a small part of Finland, up to the Kyumen River (Kyumenogorsk and part of the Savolaki province).

In the middle of the 18th century, the rapid increase in Frederick II (1740-1786) Prussia upset the European balance and dramatically changed the balance of power on the continent. The threat of Prussian hegemony in Europe united against it Austria, France, Russia, Saxony and Sweden. Great Britain became Prussia's ally. At the beginning of the war (1756-1757), Frederick II won a number of victories over Austria, France and Saxony. Russia's entry into the war in 1757 changed its character. East Prussia was occupied by the Russian army. In the same 1757, Russian troops took Memel and defeated the Prussian field marshal H. Lewald at Gross-Jägersdorf. In 1759, the Russian army under the command of General Count P.S. Saltykova, together with the Austrians, inflicted a decisive defeat on Frederick II at the Battle of Kunersdorf. The following year, Russian troops occupied Berlin. Prussia was brought to the brink of destruction. Only the death of Elizabeth Petrovna and the rise to power of Peter III, an admirer of Frederick II, saved Prussia. Elizabeth's successor concluded a separate peace with Frederick. Moreover, he wanted to send the Russian army to help Prussia against the recent Russian allies, but this intention caused the performance of the guard and a palace coup, which ended with the overthrow and death of Peter III.

Russia's participation in the war (1757-1762) did not give it any material gains. But the prestige of the country and the Russian army as a result Seven Years' War has grown significantly. It can be said without exaggeration that this war played an important role in the emergence of Russia as a great European power.

If the almost 40-year period between 1725 and 1762. (the death of Peter I and the coronation of Catherine II) was insignificant from the point of view of the immediate results of Russia's foreign policy in Europe, but for the eastern direction of Russian policy it was of great importance. The main milestones of the new Eastern policy were outlined by Peter I, who erected strongholds for it in the Middle and Far East. He tried to enter into relations with China and tried to establish relations with Japan. After the death of Peter, Russia concluded an eternal treaty with China (Treaty of Kyakhta, 1727). Russia received the right to have a religious mission in Beijing, which at the same time performed diplomatic functions. The result of Russian eastern policy was the successful acquisition of lands in the Far East and annexation to Russia in 1731-1743. lands of the Younger and Middle Kazakh zhuzes.

Peter organized the expedition V. Bering to study the junction of Asia and America. In St. Petersburg they did not know that this problem had already been solved by S.I. in 1648. Dezhnev. The first expedition of captain Vitus Bering in 1724-1730. did not give serious practical results. But in 1732, navigator Fedorov and surveyor Gvozdev stumbled upon the “Main Land” - Alaska - on the American continent. Over the next decade (1733-1743), the Russian government organized the so-called “Great Northern Expedition,” which was of enormous scientific importance and was one of the most outstanding enterprises in the history of science. In 1741, the ships of captains Bering and Chirikov reached the coast of America. From the islands near Alaska, Chirikov brought many valuable furs, which aroused the interest of Siberian merchants. The first “merchant sea voyage” was undertaken in 1743, and many others followed. Began Russian exploration of Alaska and formation Russian America, the only official colony in the history of the Russian Empire.

Catherine II completed the transformation of Russia into an empire, begun by Peter the Great. During her reign, Russia became an authoritative European and world power, dictating its will to other states. In 1779, with the mediation of Russia, a Treatise of Teshen, which ended the war between Austria and Prussia over the Bavarian succession. The Treaty of Teschen, of which Russia became the guarantor, demonstrated Russia’s increased international weight, which allowed it to influence the state of affairs in Europe. In modern Western literature, this event is viewed as a turning point, indicating the transformation of Russia from an Eastern European great power (from the beginning of the 18th century) into a great European power, which over the next century played not the last violin in the concert of European states.

Catherine's policy in Europe was closely connected with the Polish and Black Sea issues. First of all, she sought to decide the fate of the former Kyiv lands, most of which in the middle of the 18th century belonged to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and secondly, to expand the territory of Russia to the shores of the Black Sea.