France is a country known throughout the world for its cultural heritage and rich national traditions, continues to be a trendsetter and a destination for gourmets and people with refined taste. What did the culture of France give to the world, and thanks to whom does the modern generation wait with bated breath to travel here?
Speaking about areas of activity where the French have achieved colossal success, one cannot fail to mention architecture, fine arts, literature, cinema and music. The history of France is closely intertwined with the history of other states that had a direct or indirect influence on the development of events in this country. However, despite the perception of the traditions of its neighbors, France is famous for its special style and way of life.
Artistic culture of France: architecture, painting, literature, music, cinema
One of the most striking styles in French architecture was the Empire style, a phenomenon that originated at the end of the 18th century, on the eve of the Great Revolution. The Empire style expressed the French tribute to the ancient period of history, closely intertwined with the motives of political struggle and revolutionary ideas. The founder of the style was the painter Jacques Louis David, who sought to express in his creations his love for humanity, freedom, equality and brotherhood.
Napoleonic Empire style
The culture of France in the 19th century, when the ambitious and self-confident Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte stood at the head of the state, especially clearly reflects the desire to show the greatness of the country.
The so-called Napoleonic Empire style was intended to awaken in citizens pride in their homeland and evoke a sense of greatness for the empire expanding its borders. However, this desire has led to the fact that buildings made in this style are, rather, a hard and cold embodiment of the original plans of the architects, focusing on monumentality and grandeur, rather than on the soft classical forms that underlie the Empire style.
The most monumental and significant monuments of that period were the Church of St. Mary Magdalene and Arc de Triomphe- a copy of the ancient arch of Septimius Severus (Roman emperor). Work on the arch was carried out under the direction of the architects Francois Fonguin and Charles Persier. The architectural landmark was installed opposite the Tuileries Palace on Place Carrousel and was a symbol of the emperor’s military victories.
The peculiarities of French culture at that period of history lay precisely in the need to exalt the ruler of the state, strengthening his internal influence for successful international politics.
Engineering style
The second half of the 19th century was marked by the change from the Empire style to the so-called engineering style, the founder of which was the architect Georges Eugene Haussmann. He took the initiative to redevelop the capital of France, as a result of which Paris acquired a modern look.
During the same period, one of the main attractions of the city, the Eiffel Tower, was erected.
20th century and modern
In the 20th century, French culture in the field of architecture was marked by the spread of fashion for another style - Art Nouveau, which reflected the modern vision of the embodiment of the ideas of architects. Representatives of Art Nouveau were the architects Hector Guimary (who became famous after the construction of the Béranger Castle apartment building) and Le Corbusier (who was mainly involved in designing villas in this style).
Painting of the 19th and 20th centuries
The 1860s became a landmark era in the development of French fine art. During this period, a qualitative breakthrough was made by representatives of a new style in painting - the impressionists. The first “swallows” were Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, Camille Pissarro, Edouard Manet, and Auguste Renoir, who received universal recognition.
In addition to impressionism, other movements arose that eventually spread to neighboring European countries or, conversely, came from there to France - neo-impressionism or pointillism (represented by Georges-Pierre Seurat and Paul Signac), post-impressionism (marked by the work of artists such as Paul Gauguin , Paul Cezanne, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec), Fauvism (led by Andre Derain and Henri Matisse), Cubism (represented by Georges Braque and Marcel Duchamp).
Of particular note is post-impressionism, which partly adopted artistic principles impressionism, while at the same time continuing to search for his own special style and ways of development in new forms. For artists of this trend, phenomena of the empirical world come to the fore - forms of reality, the desire to show a holistic picture of the world, and not a momentary impression.
The emergence of Fauvism, an artistic movement distinguished by dynamics, expressiveness of colors, bright colors, sharp strokes and purity, made an indelible impression on contemporaries. Representatives of this style were nicknamed “wild”, as their work was associated with the pressure and wildness of animals.
19th century literature
Particular attention should be paid to French literature of the 19th century. During this period, symbolism with its understatement, mystery, hints and symbols became widespread. Prominent representatives of the movement were Paul Verlaine, Charles Baudelaire, Arthur Rimbaud and Stéphane Mallarmé.
The mid-19th century is perhaps the most eventful period in the history of French literature, when such outstanding prose writers as Alexandre Dumas, Victor Hugo, Jules Verne, Honore de Balzac, Stendhal, Gustave Flaubert, Prosper Merimee, Guy de Maupassant.
The classic works “The Three Musketeers”, “Notre Dame de Paris”, “Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea”, “Père Goriot”, “Red and Black”, “Madame Bovary”, “Carmen”, “Dear Friend” still lead the way today lists of the most read and beloved works of world literature.
A landmark 20th century in French literature
The 20th century became a landmark for the history of French literature: fourteen writers were awarded the Nobel Prize for their works in the literary field. Among them are Romain Rolland, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre. No other country has seen such success.
In addition, in 1903, the Prix Goncourt was established in France, which is considered the most prestigious in this field for French authors. Among the outstanding writers of the 20th century who had the honor of being awarded this prize, it is worth highlighting Alphonse de Chateaubriand, Marcel Proust, Jean-Jacques Gautier.
The culture of France of the 20th century is an excellent example of how innovation and an unconventional approach make it possible to make a big leap in the spiritual development of the people and reconsider moral values and foundations, analyzing them, in particular, through the prism of literary views.
Musical art of the 19th and 20th centuries
Just like in literature, the musical art of France flourished in the 19th century.
Fame and glory came to such outstanding musicians as Hector Berlioz, Jacques Offenbach, Georges Bizet.
A new genre is also rapidly developing - grand French opera, the plots of which mainly reflect the history of France. The opera was accompanied by lavish staging and large choral scenes, which were used to great effect. A colorful example of the new genre was the work of its founder, Daniel Ober, “The Mute from Porichi”.
In the second quarter of the XIX century, grand French opera turns into a leading genre on the stage of theaters. The works of the composer Jacques François Fromental Elie Halévy “The Jew”, Giacomo Meyerbeer’s operas “The Prophet” and “The Huguenots” became classics.
The last third of the 19th century revealed the main trends in music. Mass forms of concert and theater life, symphonic and chamber concerts, became increasingly widespread. Significant role in revitalization musical life This period was played by the National Society, created in 1871. Its goal was to promote the works of French composers. Over the course of 30 years, more than 300 concerts were held on the initiative of the society.
From classic to modern
The national culture of France in the 20th century was formed under the influence of global trends. Thus, French chanson became especially popular, glorifying the unsurpassed Edith Piaf, Charles Aznavour, Georges Brassin and Serge Gainsbourg.
Pop music, represented by Joe Dassin, Dalida, Mireille Mathieu and Patricia Kaas, is also gaining popularity.
Generally speaking, French musical culture boasts a commitment to classical genre. This is evidenced by numerous concert venues, halls, and theaters, which host classical music festivals and various concerts both in the 19th and 20th centuries, and today.
French cinema
What else, besides architecture, painting, literature and music, is France proud of? The culture and traditions of this country are so rich that it would take a long time to list the achievements of the French. One of the most significant contributions is considered to be the creation in 1895 of an apparatus for filming and projecting images onto a screen by the Lumière brothers. This event was a turning point in the development of both French and world cinema.
The 40s and 50s of the 20th century introduced the world to the best film adaptations French classics - “Red and Black”, “The Parma Abode”. Brilliant actors - Jean Marais, Gerard Philip, Louis de Funes - gained worldwide fame.
The next two decades of the 20th century were no less significant, revealing to the world amazing masters of their craft - Jean-Paul Belmondo, Jean Moreau, Catherine Deneuve, Gerard Depardieu, Annie Girardot, Alain Delon and Pierre Richard.
The country's government actively supports the development of cinema. Thus, in 1976, the national film award “Cesar” was established. The world famous Cannes Film Festival is also held annually in France.
The culture of France has made a significant contribution to the development of world culture, giving life to many directions and trends in various fields of knowledge and leaving a legacy modern generations a rich arsenal for further development.
A message about France for grades 3 and 4 will tell you about the amazing homeland of Napoleon, the Little Prince and the Three Musketeers.
Brief message about France
The report about France should begin with the fact that it is located in western Europe. It also includes the island of Corsica, located in the Mediterranean Sea. France is often called the Hexagon due to its hexagonal shape.
France borders Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg in the northeast, Italy and Monaco in the southeast, and Andorra and Spain in the southwest. The country is washed by the Mediterranean and North Seas, the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel and Pas de Calais.
France Square- 551 thousand km 2.
Largest rivers France- Seine, Loire, Rhone, Garonne and Rhine.
Capital of France— Paris
Big cities in France— Paris, Marseille, Lyon, Toulouse, Nice
Population of France— 66.7 million people (2016)
Form of government- presidential-parliamentary republic
The territory of France is mainly hilly, with extensive hills, lowlands and mid-altitude mountains. The exceptions are two high mountain ranges in the southeast in the form of the Alps and in the southwest in the form of the Pyrenees. The highest point in the country is Mont Blanc, its height is 4807 m.
The climate is completely dependent on the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. In the north the climate is milder, humid and maritime, while in the south the climate is warm and Mediterranean. The climate in the mountains is characterized by low temperatures. There is more rainfall here. Snow cover remains at high altitudes.
All over the world they know that French wines are the best in the world. France has also become famous for its fashionable clothing, perfumes and cosmetics. France is rightfully considered the fashion capital of the world.
Today, in all countries, people use planes, carriages and cars (Citroen, Peugeot and Renault) made in France.
Religion of France
Approximately 4/5 of the country's population professes Catholicism. About 12% of the population consider themselves atheists. 3% of the population profess Islam, 2% Protestantism, 1% Judaism.
Sights of France
In France, more than 5 thousand castles have been preserved from ancient times.
Notre Dame, Disneyland, the forest of Fontainebleau, the Sacré-Coeur Basilica, the flea market in Paris Saint-Ouen, the Rouen naval armada, the Eiffel Tower, Versailles Palace, the Louvre, the Pompidou Center, Notre Dame Cathedral are all tourists want to visit.
Famous Frenchmen glorified their country throughout the world - Honore de Balzac, Voltaire, Victor Hugo, Jules Verne, Emile Zola, Albert Camus, Stendhal, Jacques Cousteau, Pablo Picasso and others.
We hope the information provided about France has helped you. And you can leave your short story about France using the comment form.
France is a country that is relatively homogeneous ethnically. About 9/10 of its population are French. The official language of the country is French, which belongs to the Romance group of Indo-European languages.
Church and state have been separated since 1905, but the Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of religion. In France The predominant religion is Catholicism. 90% of the French are Catholics, including those who broke with this religion, but were baptized in the Catholic rite from birth. About 5% are Muslims, 3% of the French are Protestants, 1.3% are Judaists, the rest of the believing population belongs to various sects.
In the northeast, in Alsace and northeastern Lorraine, Alsatians live (1.3 million); the western regions of the Brittany peninsula are inhabited by Bretons (1 million). In northern France, near the border with Belgium, Flemings live (100 thousand). The island of Corsica is inhabited by Corsicans (300 thousand), and finally, in the foothills of the Pyrenees in the west there are Basques (130 thousand), and in the east Catalans (200 thousand). The ridge of the Pyrenees divides the area of their settlement into two unequal parts; the bulk of these peoples live in Spain.
About 5 million foreigners are registered in France, mainly immigrants from Africa, overseas possessions (Martinique) and Indochina.
At the beginning of the 19th century, France was the first country in foreign Europe in terms of population. In 1801, it was inhabited by more than 28 million people. Now in terms of population (53 million) it ranks 4th after Germany, Italy and Great Britain. The fact is that in France, earlier than in other countries of foreign Europe, the process of falling birth rates began, and during the crisis of the 30s, mortality even exceeded birth rates. In addition, the heavy loss of life during the First and Second World Wars took its toll.
After World War II, the population of France began to increase significantly. During 1946-1975, the country's population grew by 13 million people, i.e. by 1/3. This was due not only to natural growth, but also to the migration of foreign workers and the return of Frenchmen from colonies that gained independence. However, the current demographic situation in France is again alarming: if in the early 60s, 18 births were registered annually per 1000 inhabitants, then in recent years this number has decreased to 13-14. This is explained by the growing crisis in the country, rising unemployment and prices, the difficult economic situation of a significant part of the population, and the aggravation of social contrasts.
In France, men usually tie the knot by age 26, and women by age 23. Statistics show that the strength of marriages is weakening. The number of divorces is rapidly increasing. However, in France, spouses divorce less often than in the UK and Germany.
In terms of mortality rate (10-11 people per 1000 per year), France is not much different from other European countries. The average life expectancy for men is 75 years, and for women - 82. There are 1.1 million fewer men than women in the country. France has almost the lowest infant mortality rate on the globe.
The natural population growth in France is small: 3-4 people per 1000 inhabitants per year, and in the economically backward areas of the Massif Central and the southwest of the country, where young people leave and where the majority of the population is elderly, mortality even exceeds the birth rate.
France was less likely to experience mass emigration than most other European countries. Currently, the country is home to about 4 million foreigners and more than 1.5 million naturalized persons, that is, foreigners who have received French citizenship. Foreign workers, mainly Algerians, Portuguese, Spaniards, Italians, make up about 1/10 of the country's economically active population. They are used mainly in the most difficult jobs - in mines and construction sites; they are employed in low-skilled labor in metallurgical and chemical plants, as well as in the service sector.
Over the past decades, the employment structure of the population has changed significantly. The agricultural population, as a result of the ruin of small farms and increased concentration and mechanization of production, has decreased by almost 2.5 times over the past 20 years; During the same time, due to the crisis in the coal industry, the number of workers in the mining industry decreased by 1/3. The number of people employed in manufacturing and transport is almost stable, as the volume of production in these industries increases mainly due to increased labor productivity.
Half of the active population are women - 25 million. In construction and especially in the non-production sector, the number of employees is growing rapidly; About half of the workforce – 65% – work in trade, financial institutions, the government apparatus, and the service sector. 6% of the working population is employed in agriculture, 30% in industry, 4% in construction and communications.
There are many social strata and population groups in France, and the social structure of society continues to become more complex. At the same time, the contradictions between the monopoly bourgeoisie and all other strata of society are intensifying, and the proletarianization of all new groups of the population is taking place.
The middle and semi-proletarian strata of the population are numerous in France. More than 6 million people are employees and over 4 million are small city and village owners.
Economic and political power belongs to the monopoly bourgeoisie, the industrial-financial oligarchy and the political elite of the ruling class closely associated with it. This is the smallest social stratum, but it owns all the main means of production and completely subordinates the state to its interests as an instrument of its class domination.
In the country there is an extremely large difference in the level of income of the bourgeois elite of society and the bulk of the population. The housing problem is extremely acute. The number of unemployed is very large, and among them there are especially many young people and women. Inflation and rising prices for food and utilities have a hard impact on the lives of the French people.
France has a high population mobility. More than 1 million people change their place of residence every year. The main direction of migration is from villages to cities. Flight from the countryside led to the depopulation of many backward agrarian regions and increased the contrasts in the distribution of the population.
France is not only densely populated, like other major capitalist powers, its average density is just over 100 people per square meter. km. , whereas, for example, in Great Britain - 230, in Germany - 240. In mountainous regions and in other areas with infertile soils, the population density does not reach 20 people. Only the Paris region has a high concentration, absorbing about 20% of all residents of the Republic. In the areas of Paris, Lyon and northern France, that is, where the largest number of cities and industrial enterprises is, the population density reaches 300-500 or more people.
The capital of France is Paris with a population of more than 2 million people. Together with the suburbs it forms Greater Paris, which is home to more than 10 million people. The next largest cities - without suburbs - are Marseille (803 thousand), Lyon (414 thousand), Toulouse (359 thousand), Nice (348 thousand).
Today, 80% of the population lives in large urban centers. For the densely populated Greater Paris, statistics predict that by the year 2000 the population will increase to 16 million people.
Typically, cities are considered to be those communes whose centers have at least 2 thousand inhabitants. 70% of all residents are concentrated in such urban communes.
Few urban settlements appeared in the 20th century. These are mainly so-called unloading cities - satellites of large cities. In addition, several young cities have been built near new mining sites, new nuclear centers and tourism centers in the mountains and on the seashore.
Small and medium-sized cities are typical for France, and there are fewer large cities with a population of over 100 thousand here than in the UK or Germany, which is explained by a lower level of industrialization and concentration of production.
City boundaries in France rarely change, and in many cases they are very outdated. Most large cities have long outgrown their administrative boundaries and are overgrown with suburbs, which, however, retain their legal independence. As a result, agglomerations became the main form of urban settlement in France. They are usually formed around one large city. But in the industrial regions of the North and Lorraine, many agglomerations consist of several nearby small towns and villages that have grown up around mines, mines and factories. Vast areas with a semi-urban-semi-rural population have formed around large agglomerations; improved transportation now allows many people working in cities to live in rural areas.
In France, as in Great Britain, the importance of the capital is exceptionally great, which stands out sharply in terms of the number of inhabitants among other centers. More than 10 million people, or almost 1/5 of the country's population, are concentrated in the Paris agglomeration, together with the surrounding urban area. The government is pursuing a policy of curbing the growth of Paris (in particular, the construction of new factories is prohibited here) and is spending large amounts of money on the development of the centers of economic regions: Lyon, Marseille, Lille, Bordeaux, Nantes, Nancy, Toulouse, Strasbourg.
The average city in France usually has 20-30 thousand inhabitants. Its history is reflected in the central quarters, where there is often an ancient castle or monastery, next to the city square with the city hall, church, and market. From here the streets radiate away. Near the center there are houses of the local aristocracy, shops and restaurants. Around the old city are newer neighborhoods, where industrial chimneys can be seen among the quiet buildings.
In large cities of France, one or another industry is well developed, but there are almost no large, typically industrial cities, where more than half of the working population would be employed in industry, in France, unlike Great Britain (excluding Roubaix and Saint-Etienne). More often, medium and small urban settlements have a pronounced industrial character, especially in the north and northeast.
There are many resort cities in France - Deauville, Vichy, Nice and others. In southern cities, a significant part of the population is employed in agriculture.
The most populous rural settlements, with 1,000 or more inhabitants, are in the Paris Basin and in northeastern France, where communal traditions have been preserved.
Village residents are not always involved in agriculture. Settlements are sometimes located at enterprises, railway or automobile stations, and sometimes they are centers of fishing and tourism. Only half of rural residents live on income from agriculture.
If you are lucky and you lived in Paris in your youth, then no matter where you are later, it will remain with you until the end of your days, because Paris is a holiday that is always with you.
Ernest Hemingway
France is a piquant, sophisticated and romantic country of lovers, a country that never ceases to attract and delight us. Anyone who has visited this country at least once, came into contact with its culture, felt the breath of time and history, plunged into French carelessness and “savoir vivre”, will return here again and again, discovering something new for themselves each time.
France- a country where you can enjoy amazing natural landscapes, the fruits of the historical past and rich cultural heritage, the best wines and cuisine in numerous restaurants, bars and cafes.
Geographical location of France
France (French Republic, Republique Française) is located in the western part of Europe, belongs to Western European countries and ranks first among Western European countries in terms of area. The total area of the country is 551,500 km2 (land area - 545,630 km2). France owns the island Corsica V Mediterranean Sea.
The country's territory is almost a regular hexagon. Even ancient historians and geographers noted the unusually convenient geographical location France. Strabo wrote that “Providence itself raised mountains, brought seas closer, laid river beds to create here the most prosperous place on earth.”
From UK France separated by a narrow strait Pas de Calais. France in the south it borders with Spain (border length 623 km) and Andorra (60 km), in the southeast with Monaco(4.4 km), in the northeast with Belgium (620 km) and Luxembourg(73 km), in the east with Switzerland (573 km) and Italy (488 km), with Germany (451 km) - in the east and northeast.
Western and northern regions France- plains ( Parisian pool etc.) and low mountains; in the center and east there are medium-high mountains ( Massif Central, Vosges, Yura). In the southwest - Pyrenees, in the southeast - Alps(highest point France And Western Europe- mountain Mont Blanc, 4807 m).
Climate
Climate France temperate maritime, transitional to continental in the east, subtropical in the Mediterranean. Summer is quite hot (in July-August from +20°C to +25°C), winter is mild (in January from 0 to +3°C) and quite damp, although it rarely snows. Best time to visit Paris- May and September-October, Riviera- September. Mountain areas have their own microclimate, characteristic of high-altitude areas.
On Corsica long and hot summer - from May to October +21-27°C. Winters are quite cold (from +6 to 14°C in the valleys and up to -6°C in the mountains); snow remains on the mountain slopes until June. The influence of winds is very great, each of which has its own name - “libecchio”, “mistral” (northern and western), “sirocco” (southwestern), “Levante” (eastern), “Grecale” (northeastern) and “tramontane” (northern) and has its own influence on the weather. Best months to relax on Corsica- May-June and September-October.
Population of France
France inhabited mainly by the French. However, due to the powerful flow of migration, the ethnic composition of the country has changed significantly. The country is home to many Portuguese, Italians, Spaniards, Moroccans, Turks, Algerians, and people from other African countries. The vast majority of the population (more than 80%) professes Catholicism. The official language is French, which is spoken by most of the population. The population of many countries uses French Africa, Haiti, French Guiana. English is also used (widely only in Paris), if you speak English in the suburbs or in the outback, you may not be understood.
Features of France
Main tourism centers: - this is the capital of the country - Paris, with its numerous museums and monuments; valley Loire, where magnificent medieval castles and palaces have been preserved ( Blois, Cheverny, Chambord, Chaumont-sur-Loire, Amboise, Chenonceau, Lange, Azay-le-Rideau, Villandry, Usse, Valence, Chinon And Angers); Cote d'Azur with its world famous resorts ( Cannes, Nice etc.); Alpine and Pyrenean mountain and ski resorts; island Corsica with its warm sea and almost untouched landscapes; the Basque country with its distinctive culture and Atlantic resorts ( Biarritz etc.); regions Normandy, Brittany, Burgundy, Languedoc, Provence and a picturesque valley Rhone. Balneological resorts based on healing mineral waters, which are especially numerous in the southern and central parts of the country, are also of particular interest for tourism and recreation.
Paris- the capital of France, starting from the 10th century. AD. Together with the suburbs ( Versailles, Saint Denis, Ivry etc.) forms “Greater Paris”. There is hardly a person in the world who would not like to visit Louvre And Versailles; climb on Eiffel Tower, wander through the halls of the station d'Orsay and center Pompidou. Nothing beats the French capital! A special spirit reigns here, here you are surrounded by history itself, associations with novels you once read Dumas, With Latin Quarter, described Hemingway and other writers. Paris- this is a “holiday that is always with you”!
The main attractions of Paris stretch towards the city center, towards Seine. Not far from the island Cité, which is often called the “heart of Paris”, is located Louvre- one of greatest museums peace. If you go from the Louvre to Champs Elysees then in the garden Tuileries You can see the small buildings of the Museum of Impressionism and the Orangerie. Large museums are also located on the left bank Seine- this is the Gare d'Orsay Museum of Impressionism, the Museum of Medieval Art Cluny, Museum Rodin and Atelier Bourdelle. The architecture of Paris is diverse in centuries and styles. Main architectural ensembles: Notre Dame Cathedral, Eiffel tower, Champs Elysees, Arc de Triomphe, Sorbonne, Louvre.
For many decades now France- the most popular tourist attraction. Every year there are as many tourists in the country as there are French people. According to the French themselves, there are the most exquisite wines, the best cuisine in the world, beautiful architecture - Notre Dame Cathedral, the Eiffel Tower, royal castles, Versailles and Disneyland, great story, the Louvre and the Musee d'Orsay, the famous Cannes Festival and the glitter of high society... France is a trendsetter, the birthplace of champagne and cognac, the best perfumes and the most delicious cheeses in the world are made here.
National cuisine of France
French national cuisine is distinguished by its diversity, which is due to the wide range of products used and the different methods of their preparation. It should be borne in mind that different regions of France have their own favorite dishes that have original technology. Thus, in the southern regions of the country, food is distinguished by its spiciness and the use of wine and spices for its preparation, especially garlic and onions. Residents Alsace residents of coastal areas consume more pork and cabbage, residents of coastal areas consume more seafood, etc. These differences can also be seen in the consumption of one or another type of fat used for cooking. For example, in the northern and central regions they use more butter, in the south - olive oil.
Despite regional differences, French national cuisine has characteristic features. This is, first of all, the widespread use of vegetables and root crops. Potatoes, various varieties of onions (including shallots, which give food a specific taste), green beans, spinach, cabbage of various varieties, tomatoes, eggplants, celery, parsley, salads are used for preparing appetizers, first and second courses, and also as side dishes . Vitamin-rich vegetables such as asparagus, artichokes, leeks, and lettuce are especially popular. A prominent place is given to vegetable salads - both fresh and canned. Main meat courses are usually served with green salad and cabbage salad.
Compared to other countries Western Europe French cooking uses less milk and dairy products. The exception is cheeses. They are used to prepare various dishes, including first courses. Cheese must be served before dessert. Cheese with bread and wine is the usual breakfast of a French worker. France produces dozens of types of cheese. Among them are such well-known ones as Roquefort, Gruyere, Camembert, etc.
Another feature of French cuisine is a wide variety of sauces. There are over three thousand of them. Sauces are widely used in the preparation of meat dishes, salads, and various cold appetizers; they have a lot of variety in their food.
French national cuisine is also characterized by the use of wine, cognac and liqueur in the preparation of many dishes. In this case, the wine, as a rule, undergoes significant digestion, as a result of which the wine alcohol evaporates, and the remaining composition gives the food a specific taste and pleasant aroma. Only natural red and white dry and semi-dry wines are used. In order to reduce acidity, very acidic wines are boiled before drinking.
French customs
The French are proud of their democratic traditions, so they are sensitive to what they see as highlighting social and racial inequality. A Frenchman's contempt can be aroused by hinting at skin color or by calling the waiter a "garçon." The French traditionally treat Russians kindly.
The usual tip size is 5-10% (at your discretion, of course). It is customary to tip waiters, maids, hotel porters, and taxi drivers. Sometimes a restaurant bill says “service compris,” which means “tips are included in the price.”
Transport system of France
France has an extensive railway network and the fastest Europe system high speed trains TGV. The fare depends on the distance, train class, travel time and passenger age. When entering the platform, you need to validate your train tickets; there are also ticket inspectors on the trains themselves. Urban transport in France is the metro (in Paris, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse And Rouen), buses and in some cities trams. The Paris metro consists of 16 lines and operates from 5:30 to 00:30. Tickets for travel can be purchased at all stations, as well as at some tobacco kiosks. Buses generally run from 06:30 to 00:30 in major cities and until 20:30 in the provinces. Tickets can be purchased at tobacco kiosks, special ticket sales points, as well as on the bus itself. Taxis can usually be found at special stands or ordered by phone. It is almost impossible to catch a taxi on the street. Outside the front window of each taxi there is a counter with a flag: raised - the taxi is free, lowered - busy. There are two payment rates: a weekday rate and a rate for weekends, holidays and nights. Taxi boarding and luggage are additionally paid. To rent a car you need to have an international driving license, a passport and credit card. The driver must be at least 21 years old and have at least a year of driving experience. Offices of rental companies are located in hotels, airports, train stations and city centers.
Time in France
The entire territory of the country is in a single time zone - GMT+1. France practices daylight saving time, so the time difference with Moscow is minus 3 hours, and from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October - minus 2 hours.
French customs regulations
The number of imported and exported means of payment is not limited. Cash and securities worth more than 7.5 thousand euros (or other currency equivalent) must be declared. Foreign currency converted into euros can only be re-translated into foreign currency up to the equivalent of 800 euros.
In addition to personal items, you can import up to 1 liter of strong alcoholic beverages duty free, drinks with an alcohol content of less than 22° - up to 2 liters, 2 liters of wine, 200 pcs. cigarettes, 500 g of coffee (or 200 g of coffee extracts), up to 50 g of perfume (eau de toilette - up to 250 g), tea - 100 g (or 40 g of tea extracts), as well as food (fish - up to 2 kg, caviar - 250 g, animal products - up to 1 kg) and other goods (for persons over 15 years old) in the amount of 15 euros (for children - 10 euros).
Attention! Labeling expiration dates on food products is mandatory.
The import and export of drugs, objects of historical value, weapons and ammunition, as well as animals and plants listed as endangered species is prohibited. When importing medicines for personal use, no permit is required, but you must have a prescription issued by a doctor or lawyer.
Plants, animals and plant products must be presented to quarantine officials. Animals must have a certificate of vaccinations, as well as a medical certificate for French, issued no earlier than five days before departure.
Export discount in France
You will be able to take advantage of the French VAT exemption - “TVA”, provided that, 1) the value of your purchases in the same store is 300 € (in some stores starting from 250 €); 2) upon purchase, you will fill out a “bordereau” - an inventory for export; 3) you will leave European Community within 3 months. On the day of departure, you need to present the bordereau received in the store to the customs service (together with the purchased goods - for possible inspection). You will receive your refund upon return to your country by check by mail or transfer to a credit card, or at the airport at a specially authorized bank, or at a special “Tax Free for Tourists” kiosk. This system does not apply to food, alcoholic beverages and tobacco
Telephone codes, internet, electricity in France
France - 33, city codes: Paris - 1, Bordeaux - 56, Cannes - 93, Strasbourg - 88, Marseille - 91, Lyon - 78, Nice - 93. You can call from payphones using telephone cards, which are sold in post offices or tobacco kiosks. There are discounts on calls: from 22.30 to 08.00 on weekdays and from 14.00 on weekends.
Police - tel: 17
Ambulance - tel.: 15, in Paris - 48-87-27-50
Fire brigade – 18
Information desk in Russian: 01-40-07-01-65
International roaming is provided by all major mobile operators.
The Internet is available everywhere - at airports, train stations, hotels, shopping centers, regular cafes and Internet cafes.
Mains voltage 220 V, 50 Hz, European type sockets.
Sights of France
Embassy and Consulate of Russia in France
Address: Paris, Boulevard Lannes, metro station "Avenue Foch", tel.: 01-45-04-05-50.
Photo galleries
- Ski town Club Med Arcs Altitude (now the Club mmv Altitude hotel)
- Club Med Cargese town, Corsica
- Club Med Opio en Provence, France
- Ski town Club Med Valmorel (France)
- Hotel Plaza Athénée Paris
- Ski town Club Med Chamonix Mont-Blanc
- Club Med Valmorel
- Town renovation Club Med Opio en Provence
- Club Med Grand Massif Samoens Morillon
- Club Med Les Arcs Panorama
The official name is the French Republic (Republique Francaise, French Republic). Located in the western part of Europe. Area 547 thousand km2, population 59.7 million people. (2002). The official language is French. The capital is Paris (9.6 million people). Public holiday - Bastille Day on July 14th. The monetary unit is the euro (since 2002, before that the French franc).
An integral part of France are the overseas territories (French Polynesia, Southern and Atlantic Territories, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna Islands), overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique) and territorial communities(Mayotte, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon). The total area is 4 thousand km2, the population is 1.8 million people.
Member of the UN (since 1945), IMF and World Bank (since 1947), NATO (1949-66), ECSC (since 1951), OECD (since 1961), EU (since 1957), OBSS (since 1973), G7 "(since 1975), EBRD (since 1990), WTO (since 1995).
Sights of France
Geography of France
Located between 42°20’ and 51°5’ north latitude; 4°27 'west and 8°47' east longitude. In the north, the territory of France is washed by the North Sea straits of Pas de Calais and the English Channel, in the west - by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean, in the south - Mediterranean Sea. The length of the coastline is 3427 km. France borders Andorra, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Monaco, Italy, and Switzerland.
All types of Western European landscapes are found in France. The central, eastern and southern parts are distinguished by hilly or mountainous terrain. The largest mountain region in area is the French Massif Central (the highest point is Mount Puy de Sancy, 1886 m) - basalt plateaus alternating with volcanic cones, plateaus, and rivers of the Loire basin. In the southeast stretch the high-altitude Alps (Mont Blanc, 4807 m), framed in the west by mid-altitude ridges - the Pre-Alps, which continue in the north with the Jura and Vosges mountains (Ballon de Guerbiller, 1423 m). The southwest is occupied by the Pyrenees (Vinmal, 3298 m).
North and west, almost 2/3 of France, low and high plains; the largest of them is the Paris Basin. In the southwest, parallel to the Bay of Biscay, stretch the coastal plains of Aquitaine (Landes) with a chain of dunes up to 100 m high. In the northwest, the plains pass into the Armorican Upland, washed by the straits of the North Sea. In the southwest and south, the Rhône and Languedoc lowlands merge. A small part of the Upper Rhine Lowland enters the territory of France.
The main rivers are: Loire (1000 km), Rhone (812 km, including 522 km in France), Seine (776 km) and Garonne with its mouth called the Gironde (650 km). In the east lies part of the middle course of the Rhine. The southern part of Lake Geneva is also located in France.
20% of France's territory is covered by forests, concentrated mainly in the western regions of Aquitaine, in the eastern part of the Paris Basin, in the Alps and the Pyrenees. The upper limit of forests is 1600-1900 m above sea level in the Alps, 1800-2100 m in the Pyrenees. Higher up they turn into subalpine shrubs, and at an altitude of 2100-2300 m into alpine meadows. Shrub thickets and sparse forests (evergreen species of oak and pine) are typical for the Mediterranean south. The characteristic landscape of the north-west is heathland and meadows.
The main representatives of the fauna of France are concentrated in forested areas, especially in the mountains. Mammals: wild forest cat, fox, badger, ermine, red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boar, squirrel, hare; in the highlands - chamois, mountain goat, alpine marmot. There are numerous birds: hawks, kites, partridges, hazel grouse, snipe. Common river fish include perch, pike, pike perch, and trout; in the seas washing France - tuna, mackerel, sardine, cod, flounder.
In the depths of France lie a variety of minerals. Reserves of gas, iron ore, bauxite, uranium, and potassium salts are identified.
France has several climate zones. The western part is dominated by a maritime climate; in the central and eastern regions - transitional from maritime to continental. Stable snow cover persists in winter in the Massif Central, the Alps and the Pyrenees. In the mountains, the climate changes significantly with altitude up to the alpine climate. The south of the Rhone Lowland and the Mediterranean coast are dry subtropics.
Population of France
Population density 107 people. per 1 km2, which is 2-3 times lower than in neighboring countries, although in some areas (Paris Basin, Provence, Côte d'Azur) the density is several times higher than average. 75% of the population lives in cities (2002).
France's population movement has historically been characterized by alternating long-term sharp rises and strong declines. The demographic increase for 1896-1946 was only 0.3 million people, and for 1946-2002 - 20 million people. The bulk of the increase occurred in the 1950-70s, in 1980-2002 - only 4.9 million people.
Natural population growth is 4% with a birth rate of 13% and a death rate of 9%. The persistence of a relatively high level of natural growth is explained by long-term positive changes in the population reproduction regime and the expansion of immigration. The improvement in the reproduction regime is manifested in a fairly high (for a European country) birth rate, despite a decrease in the number of marriages and an increase in divorces, an increase in the average age of marriage, and an increase in women’s participation in social production. There is a steady decline in mortality rates due to a decrease in infant mortality (4 people per 1000 births) and an increase in average life expectancy. The latter is 79.05 years (including 75.17 years for men and 82.5 years for women), one of the first places in the world.
The ratio of men to women is 48.6: 51.4. The age structure is characterized by a pronounced tendency towards aging. The proportion of people aged 0-14 years is 18.5%, 15-64 years old - 65.2%, 65 years old and older - 16.3% (2002).
Due to the rapid increase in the importance of older generations, the growth of the economically active population lags behind the overall population growth. Number of employees: 26.6 million people. Only 45.8% of the economically active population is in the most working age (20-60 years), and 40.6% of this group are people aged 40 years and older.
According to forecasts, if current demographic trends continue, the population of France will increase by only 5 million people by 2050. At the same time, at least 1/3 of the population will be over 60 years old, and only 20% will be under 20. The economically active population will grow until 2006, and then begin to decline (by 2020 by 750 thousand people compared to 2002).
An important component of the demographic situation in France is immigration, which ensured the 2nd half. 20th century OK. 1/4 of population growth. In the 1980s - mid. 90s the annual influx of immigrants amounted to 100 thousand people, from the middle. 1990s as a result of government restrictions, it decreased to 50 thousand people. In 2002, there were 3.3 million resident foreigners in France, i.e. residents who have not received citizenship rights. It is purchased annually approx. 100 thousand people; Official statistics classify their children and grandchildren as French. Taking into account such categories, at least 15 million people from other countries now live in France - almost 25% of the population.
In 2002, 40.3% of immigrants were Europeans (mainly from Portugal, Spain and Italy), 43% were Africans (mainly from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Immigrants, especially those from African countries, have low industrial skills; the possibility of their employment in the conditions of the current stage of scientific and technological revolution is small, and adaptation to the norms of life of their new homeland is difficult due to deep intercultural differences. The socio-economic problems that arise in this regard (unemployment, crime) are manifested in political life by the accelerated growth of the influence of far-right parties.
France is characterized by a high level of educational preparation of the population. In 2002, the education system covered 14 million 390 thousand pupils and students, St. 1 million teachers, professors. 6.6% of residents have higher education, 15.1% have specialized secondary education. In 2002, 79% of lyceum graduates became bachelors. In terms of the total amount of spending on education and their share in GDP, France is one of the first places in the world.
The overwhelming majority of the population are French. Several small ethnic minorities arose historically in border areas, many of which formerly belonged to other countries. Now minorities do not exceed 6.5% of the country's population. The largest are the Alsatians, as well as the Bretons, Flemings, Corsicans, Basques and Catalans. Their cultural characteristics, traditions, and languages are considered in France as important elements of the common cultural heritage and are carefully preserved.
By religion, the vast majority of French people are Catholics (83-88%). The second largest denomination is Muslims, far ahead of Protestants and Jews (5-10, 2 and 1% of the population, respectively).
History of France
The territory of France has been inhabited by people since ancient times. The first known people to settle on it were the Celts (from the 6th-5th centuries BC). Their Roman name - Gauls - gave the name to the country (the ancient name of France is Gaul). In mid. 1st century BC Gaul, conquered by Rome, became its province. For 500 years, the development of Gaul went under the sign of Roman culture - general, political, legal, economic. In the 2nd-4th centuries. AD Christianity spread in Gaul.
In con. 5th century Gaul, conquered by the Germanic Frankish tribes, became known as the Frankish Kingdom. The leader of the Franks was a talented military leader, an intelligent and prudent politician, Clovis from the Merovingian dynasty. He basically preserved Roman laws and established social relations, the first of the Germanic leaders in the former Roman Empire to form an alliance with the Roman Catholic Church. The mixing of the Franks with the Halo-Roman population and the merging of their cultures created a kind of synthesis - the basis for the formation of the future French nation.
Since the death of Clovis in the beginning. 6th century The Frankish kingdom was subject to continuous divisions and reunifications, and was the scene of countless wars of various branches of the Merovingians. K ser. 8th century they have lost power. Charlemagne, who gave the name to the new Carolingian dynasty, founded a huge empire consisting of almost all of modern France, part of Germany and, as tributaries, Northern and Central Italy and the Western Slavs. After his death and the division of the empire (843), the West Frankish kingdom emerged as an independent state. This year is considered the starting point of French history.
K con. 10th century the Carolingian dynasty was interrupted; Hugo Capet was elected king of the Franks. The Capetians (their various branches) that originated from him reigned until the Great French Revolution (1789). In the 10th century their kingdom became known as France
France of the era of the first Capetians, formally united, was actually divided into a number of independent feudal estates. The kings' desire for centralization ensured gradual overcoming feudal fragmentation and the formation of a united nation. The hereditary possession of the kings (domain) expanded through dynastic marriages and conquests. Endless wars and the needs of the growing state apparatus required more and more financial resources. K con. 13th century taxation of the clergy caused a sharp protest from Pope Boniface. Trying to enlist the support of the population in the fight against the pope, King Philip IV the Fair (1285-1303) convened the Estates General in 1302 - representation of all 3 estates. So France became a class monarchy.
To the beginning 14th century France was the most powerful state in Western Europe. But its further development was slowed down due to the Hundred Years' War with England (1337-1453), which took place entirely on French territory. By 1415, the British had captured almost all of France and threatened its existence as a sovereign state. However, under the leadership of Joan of Arc, French troops achieved a turning point in military operations, which ultimately led to the victory of the French and the expulsion of the British.
K con. 15th century the completion of centralization determined the autonomy of the royal financial apparatus from class representation and the actual cessation of the activities of the Estates General. The transformation of the class monarchy into an absolute monarchy began.
In con. 15 - mid. 16th century France, trying to achieve hegemony in Europe and annex Northern Italy, fought the Italian Wars (1494-1559) with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Without bringing any political results, they completely depleted France's financial resources, which led to a sharp deterioration in the country's economic situation. The growth of social protest was closely intertwined with the spread of reform ideas. The split of the population into Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) resulted in the long Wars of Religion (1562-91), which culminated in the massacre of Huguenots in Paris (St. Bartholomew's Night, 1572). In 1591, a representative of the younger branch of the Capetians, Henry Bourbon, a Huguenot leader who converted to Catholicism, was proclaimed king of France under the name of Henry IV. The Edict of Nantes (1598), which he issued, equalized the rights of Catholics and Huguenots, putting an end to confrontation on religious grounds.
17th century was a time of strengthening of French absolutism. In the 1st third of it, Cardinal Richelieu, who actually ruled the country under Louis XIII, basically eradicated the noble opposition; its last manifestation was the Fronde - a mass movement led by the princes of the blood (1648-53), after the defeat of which the great nobility lost political significance. Absolutism reached its peak during the years of independent rule Louis XIV(1661-1715). Under him, the nobility was not allowed to govern the country; it was carried out by the “Sun King” himself, who relied on secretaries of state and the Comptroller General of Finance (this post was held for 20 years by J.-B. Colbert, an outstanding financier and mercantilist who did a lot for the development of French industry and trade).
In the 17th century France waged wars in Europe aimed either at eliminating the dominance of other states (the Thirty Years' War) or at ensuring its own hegemony (with Spain in 1659, the Dutch Wars in 1672-78 and 1688-97). All territorial gains gained during the Dutch Wars were lost as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14).
From the 2nd half. 18th century Absolutism, which had become obsolete, was experiencing an acute spiritual and economic crisis. In the spiritual sphere, its expression was the appearance of a galaxy of philosophers and writers who rethought the acute problems of social life (the Age of Enlightenment). In the economy, persistent budget deficits, prolonged increases in taxes and prices, coupled with prolonged crop failures, caused mass impoverishment and starvation.
In 1789, in an atmosphere of sharp aggravation of the socio-economic situation, under pressure from the Third Estate (merchants and artisans), the Estates General was convened after a many-year break. Deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves a National Assembly (June 17, 1789), and then a Constituent Assembly, which adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The rebellious people took and destroyed the symbol of the “old regime”, the royal prison Bastille (July 14, 1789). In August 1792, the monarchy was overthrown (King Louis XVI was executed); in September, the Republic was proclaimed. The uprising of the extreme left of its supporters led to the establishment of the bloody Jacobin dictatorship (June 1793 - July 1794). After the coup of July 27-28, 1794, power passed to the more moderate Thermidorians, and in 1795 to the Directory. A new coup, which led to the fall of the Directory (November 1799), turned France into a Consulate: the government was concentrated in the hands of 3 consuls; Napoleon Bonaparte assumed the functions of First Consul. In 1804 Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor, France turned into an empire.
During the period of the Consulate and the Empire there were continuous Napoleonic wars. Constant conscription into the army, rising taxes, and the unsuccessful Continental Blockade depleted France's strength; The defeat of Napoleonic troops (Great Army) in Russia and Europe (1813-14) accelerated the collapse of the empire. In 1814 Napoleon abdicated the throne; The Bourbons returned to power. France became a (constitutional) monarchy again. Napoleon's attempt to regain his throne (1815) was unsuccessful. By decisions Congress of Vienna(1815) France was returned to the borders of 1790. But the main achievements of the revolution - the abolition of class privileges and feudal duties, the transfer of land to peasants, legal reforms (Napoleonic Civil and other codes) - were not canceled.
In the 1st half. 19th century France was rocked by revolutions. The July Revolution (1830) was caused by attempts by Bourbon supporters (royalists) to restore the “old regime” in its entirety. It cost the power of the main branch of the Bourbons, who were finally overthrown by the revolution of 1848. Napoleon's nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, became the president of the newly proclaimed Second Republic. After the coup d'état of 1851 and the subsequent year of military dictatorship, Louis Napoleon was crowned emperor under the name Napoleon III. France became an empire again.
The Second Empire (1852-70) was a period of rapid development of capitalism (mainly financial speculative), the growth of the labor movement and wars of conquest (Crimean, Austro-Italian-French, Anglo-French-Chinese, Mexican, Indochina War). Defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the unfavorable Peace of Frankfurt (1871) were accompanied by a failed attempt to overthrow the government (Paris Commune).
In 1875 the Constitution of the Third Republic was adopted. In the last quarter of the 19th century. power in France has stabilized. This was an era of widespread external expansion in Africa and southeast Asia and the formation of the French colonial empire. The question of the optimal form of government, not fully resolved by the nation, resulted in a fierce struggle between clerical monarchists and anti-clerical republicans. The Dreyfus Affair, which sharply aggravated this conflict, brought France to the brink of civil war.
In the 20th century France entered as a colonial empire, at the same time having an agrarian-industrial economy that lagged behind the leading industrial powers in industrial development. The rapid growth of the labor movement was expressed in the formation in 1905 of the Socialist Party (SFIO, the French section of the Socialist International). That same year, anti-clericals won a long-term dispute: a law on the separation of church and state was passed. In foreign policy, rapprochement with Great Britain and Russia marked the beginning of the Entente (1907).
On August 3, 1914, France entered World War I, which it ended 4 years later, in November 1918, as a victorious power (along with Great Britain and the USA). The Treaty of Versailles of 1918 returned Alsace and Lorraine to France (which had gone to Prussia in the Frankfurt Peace). She also received part of the German colonies in Africa and large reparations.
In 1925, France signed the Locarno Treaties, which guaranteed Germany's western borders. At the same time, colonial wars were fought: in Morocco (1925-26) and in Syria (1925-27).
The war, having significantly pushed the development of the previously lagging French industry, ensured acceleration economic development. Positive structural changes in the economy - the transformation of France into an industrial-agrarian power - were accompanied by the growth of the labor movement. In 1920 the French Communist Party (PCF) was founded. The Great Depression began in France later than in other countries and was less acute, but longer lasting. OK. 1/2 of wage earners turned out to be underemployed, almost 400 thousand were unemployed. Under these conditions, the labor movement intensified. Under the leadership of the PCF, the Popular Front association was created, which won the parliamentary elections of 1936 by a large margin. On June 7, 1936, trade unions and employers signed the Matignon Agreements, which provided for a wage increase of 12%, 2-week paid holidays, the conclusion of collective agreements, the introduction of 40 -hourly working week. The Popular Front was in power until February 1937.
In 1938, French Prime Minister Daladier, together with N. Chamberlain, signed the Munich Agreements, aimed at postponing the war in Europe. But on September 3, 1939, F., fulfilling its allied obligations towards Poland, declared war on Germany. The “strange war” (an inactive stay in the trenches on the fortified Franco-German border - the Maginot Line) lasted several months. In May 1940, German troops bypassed the Maginot Line from the north and entered Paris on June 14, 1940. On June 16, 1940, Prime Minister P. Reynaud transferred power to Marshal A. Petain. According to the truce concluded by Petain, Germany occupied ca. 2/3 of French territory. The government, which moved to the city of Vichy, located in the unoccupied zone, pursued a policy of cooperation with the fascist powers. On November 11, 1942, German and Italian troops occupied the unoccupied part of France.
From the beginning of the occupation, the Resistance movement operated in France, the largest organization of which was the National Front created by the PCF. General Charles de Gaulle, who served as Deputy Minister of Defense before the war, spoke on the radio from London on June 18, 1940, calling on all French people to resist the Nazis. De Gaulle, through great efforts, managed to create the Free France movement in London (from July 1942 - Fighting France) and ensure the accession of military units and the administration of a number of French colonies in Africa to it. On June 3, 1943, while in Algeria, de Gaulle formed the French Committee for National Liberation (FCNL). On June 2, 1944, the FKNO, recognized by the USSR, Great Britain and the USA, was transformed into the Provisional Government of the French Republic.
With the landing of Allied troops in Normandy (June 6, 1944), Resistance units went on the offensive throughout the country. During the Paris Uprising (August 1944), the capital was liberated, and in September all of France.
After liberation, the extremely difficult economic situation, combined with the high prestige of the communists and socialists, who did a lot for victory, guaranteed them massive voter support. The left was in power from 1945-47. In 1946, the Constitution of the IV Republic was adopted, which provided for the responsibility of the government to parliament (parliamentary republic). The Constitution proclaimed, along with civil liberties, socio-economic rights: to work, rest, health care, etc. Widespread nationalization was carried out. In May 1947, when the communists left the government and were replaced by representatives of the Rally of the French People party created by de Gaulle, the government course moved to the right. In 1948, an agreement on Franco-American cooperation (Marshall Plan) was signed.
In 1946-54, France fought a colonial war in Indochina, which ended with the recognition of the independence of the former colonies. From the beginning 1950s The national liberation movement intensified in North Africa. Morocco and Tunisia were granted independence (1956). Since 1954, fighting has been going on in Algeria, where France could not achieve success. The war in Algeria again split the country, parties and parliament, causing continuous governmental leapfrog. The attempt of the government of F. Gaillard to grant independence to Algeria caused a revolt of the Algerian French - supporters of its preservation as part of France, supported by the command of the French troops in Algeria. They demanded the creation of a government of national salvation headed by de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, the National Assembly granted de Gaulle the appropriate powers. By September 1958, his team had prepared a draft of a new Constitution, which provided for a radical change in the balance of power between the branches of government in favor of the executive branch. The project was put to a referendum on September 28, 1958; it was approved by 79.25% of the French who took part in the vote. Thus began a new period in the history of France - the V Republic. Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), one of the outstanding political figures of the 20th century, was elected president of the country. The party he created, the RPR, which in 1958 was transformed into the Union for a New Republic (UNR), became the ruling party.
In 1959, France announced recognition of the Algerian people's right to self-determination. In 1962, the Evian Agreements on the cessation of hostilities were signed. This meant the final collapse of the French colonial empire, from which all the colonies in Africa had left even earlier (in 1960).
Under de Gaulle's leadership, France pursued an independent foreign policy. She came out of the military
NATO organization (1966), condemned the US intervention in Indochina (1966), took a pro-Arab position during the Arab-Israeli conflict (1967). After de Gaulle's visit to the USSR (1966), a Franco-Soviet political rapprochement emerged.
In the economic sphere, the course was taken towards the so-called. dirigisme is large-scale government intervention in reproduction. The state often tried to replace business and viewed it as a junior partner in economic activities. This policy, which ensured industrialization from the end. 1950s, towards the end. The 1960s turned out to be ineffective - France began to lag behind both in economic development and social transformations. In May 1968, the country was rocked by an acute socio-political crisis: violent student unrest and a general strike. The President dissolved the National Assembly and called early elections. They showed the strengthening of the position of the UNR (since 1968 - the Union of Democrats for the Republic, YDR), which won St. 70% of mandates. But de Gaulle's personal authority was shaken. In an effort to strengthen it, the president decided to hold a referendum on administrative-territorial reform and Senate reform (April 1969). However, the majority of French people (53.17%) opposed the proposed reforms. On April 28, 1969, de Gaulle resigned.
In 1969, JDR candidate J. Pompidou was elected president of France, and in 1974, after his death, the leader of the center-right party National Federation of Independent Republicans V. Giscard d'Estaing was elected. During their reign, the government was headed by the Gaullists (including J. Chirac in 1974-76). From the end 1960s a gradual shift away from dirigisme began, a number of social reforms were carried out aimed at satisfying the demands put forward during the crisis of 1968. In the field of foreign policy, France continued to pursue an independent line, which, however, was distinguished by less rigidity and greater realism. Relations with the United States normalized. With the lifting of the veto on Britain's accession to the EU (1971), France's efforts to expand European integration intensified. Soviet-French relations continued to develop; France maintained its focus on détente and strengthening security in Europe.
The first “oil shock” of 1973-74 reversed the trend of accelerated economic development in France; the second (1981) - the “trend of power”: it passed from the right, in whose hands it had been since 1958, to the socialists. In the modern history of France, a modern period has arrived - a period of “coexistence”, political and economic instability, strengthening the position of business, and gradual modernization of society.
Government and political system of France
France - indivisible, secular, democratic and welfare state with a republican form of government. Administratively, France is divided into 22 regions, 96 departments, 36,565 communes. The largest cities are Paris, Lyon (1.3 million), Lille (1.0 million), Nice (0.8 million), Toulouse (0.8 million), Bordeaux (0.7 million).
The Constitution is in force, adopted by referendum in 1958, with amendments in 1962 (on the issue of electing the president), 1992, 1996, 2000 (in connection with the signing of the Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice treaties, respectively) and 1993 (on the issue of immigration).
The form of government since 1958 has been a semi-presidential republic: the Constitution clearly outlines the principle of priority of the president, who is not responsible to parliament, but is not the head of government. Since 1995, the President of France has been J. Chirac (re-elected in 2002), a representative of the center-right party “Union for the Unity of the People” (SON), heir to the Gaullist parties.
In the French political system, the president is a key figure. The President is elected for a 5-year term on a majority basis by direct universal suffrage (all citizens have the right to vote upon reaching the age of 18).
The main function of the president is to monitor compliance with the Constitution, performing the role of a national arbiter, ensuring the regular and proper functioning of the executive branch and the continuity of the state. The President is the guarantor of national independence and territorial integrity, France's compliance with its international obligations, he is the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, represents the country in the international arena, and appoints senior civilian and military officials. Appoints the Prime Minister, forms a cabinet together with him and terminates the latter’s powers upon his resignation. The President presides over cabinet meetings and approves its decisions.
The president is elected independently of parliament and has the right to dissolve it with the obligatory condition of announcing the date of early elections. The president is deprived of the right of legislative initiative, but can issue decrees and decrees that have the force of laws, and organize referendums on issues of domestic and foreign policy. The President enjoys the right of suspensive veto on parliamentary decisions. Finally, the Constitution grants the president emergency powers when there is a “serious and imminent threat” to the territorial integrity of the country and a disruption to the “normal activities of public authorities.” In general, presidential power in France is comprehensive and has no definite boundaries.
The prime minister is appointed by the president for an indefinite term from among the deputies of the party that received the majority in the elections. In 2002, this post was taken by J.-P. Raffarin. The Prime Minister is responsible to both the President and Parliament. He directs the activities of the government and is responsible for it, ensures the implementation of laws, and is responsible for the defense capability of the country. If necessary, instead of the president, he conducts meetings of the Supreme National Defense Council, as well as in exceptional cases, meetings of the Council of Ministers (if there are special powers from the president in a particular area). The prime minister, together with the president, participates in developing the government's economic program if they belong to different parties (otherwise it is the president's mission).
The Prime Minister enjoys the right of legislative initiative: he and members of the cabinet can issue by-laws on economic and social issues. Approximately 20% of the bills considered by parliament are developed by the government, and the overwhelming majority of them (4/5 or more) are adopted.
The French parliament consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies of the National Assembly are elected on a majority basis by direct, universal, equal and secret ballot for a 5-year term. Since 1986, the number of deputies of the National Assembly is 577 (previously 491). There is 1 deputy mandate per 100 thousand voters. Parties whose candidates overcome the 5% threshold in all 96 departments enter parliament. Members of parliament do not have the right to hold positions in the executive branch. A normal annual parliamentary session lasts at least 120 days. It is possible to convene an emergency session at the request of the Prime Minister or a majority of members of the National Assembly to discuss issues of special national importance; its opening and closing is carried out by special decree of the president of the country. At the parliamentary elections of 2002, the 12th Legislature of the National Assembly was elected as follows: SON 355 seats, French Socialist Party (FSP) 140, Union for the Defense of Democracy (UPD) 29, FCP 21, Radical Party 7, Greens 3, others 22 .
Chairman of the National Assembly - R. Forney (SON). The chairman, representing the parliamentary majority, is elected for the term of the legislature. Its main task is to ensure the normal functioning of the lower chamber. 6 of his deputies are heads of leading parliamentary parties. The agenda of parliamentary meetings is determined by the government, which thereby controls the current activities of the National Assembly.
The scope of legislative activity of the National Assembly is fixed in the Constitution and is limited to 12 areas (including ensuring civil rights and freedoms of citizens; basic issues of civil and criminal law; national defense; foreign policy; legal regulation of property relations; nationalization and privatization, taxation and monetary emission and, of course, budget approval). Review and approval of the budget is the main ability of parliament to control the activities of the government; Moreover, deputies are prohibited from making proposals leading to an increase in budget expenditures. Lawmaking is carried out within the framework of 6 standing committees (the number established by the Constitution). They include 60-120 deputies; They are invariably chaired by representatives of pro-government parties.
The National Assembly has the right to seek the resignation of the government. The procedure is as follows: when rejecting a government program as a whole or a separate bill, the government raises a question of confidence; in response, the lower house is empowered to adopt a special resolution of censure. With the support of at least 50% of deputies, the cabinet is obliged to resign. However, the president has the right, having accepted the resignation of the prime minister, to immediately reappoint him to this post. Or, on the contrary, remove the prime minister, despite the support of the majority of parliamentarians.
The upper house of parliament - the Senate (317 members) is elected by two-stage voting and is renewed by a third every 3 years. The structure of the Senate is identical to that of the National Assembly. The Senate, unlike the lower house, cannot shut down the government; In relation to laws adopted by the National Assembly, the Senate has the right of suspensive veto. Composition of the Senate as of May 2003: SON 83 mandates, FSP 68, Union of Centrists 37, Liberal Democrats 35, Union of Democrats for Socialism and Europe 16, FCP 16, other 66 mandates.
Based on the Constitution of 1958, a quasi-judicial body was created in France - the Constitutional Council. It reviews acts issued by the legislative and executive branches of government for their compliance with the Constitution. The Council has 9 members. The president of the country, the heads of the National Assembly and the Senate (3 members each) have the right to nominate them. The appointment is for a nine-year term and cannot be repeated. The Chairman of the Council is appointed by the President of France from among the Council members.
Since 1982, local executive power has been elected (previously it was exercised by prefects appointed by the prime minister). At the departmental level, the elected bodies are general councils, at the regional level - regional councils.
France has a democratic and multi-party system. Valid approx. 25 games; 16 of them participated in the 2002 elections. However, only 3-4 parties have a real influence on political life. This is primarily the center-right Union in Support of the Republic (OPR), transformed into SON in 2002, and the center-left FSP. In con. 1980s The far-right National Front (NF) entered the category of major parties. In the 1990s. There was a strengthening of tripartism, associated mainly with the growth of the electoral successes of the NF against the backdrop of the stabilization of the right center and the weakening of the socialists.
The OPR, which emerged in 1976 as the successor to the South Democratic Republic, in foreign policy continued the Gaullist tradition of the “special path” of France - a great power and an international mediator. In the 1990s. with the complication of relations between industrial and developing countries, with the liquidation of the Soviet bloc, the need for French mediation sharply decreased; the rudiments of Gaullism remained in the form of France’s “special approach” to almost all problems of world politics and European construction. In the economic sphere, the OPR, unlike the center-right parties of other industrial countries, has not switched to neoliberalism. The position of the OPR on major economic issues (the role of the state in the economy, attitude towards business, the fight against unemployment) before the 2002 presidential and parliamentary elections was reminiscent of the views of European Social Democrats. From the beginning 1980s in presidential and parliamentary elections, the OPR consistently gained 20-22% of the votes. In the 1st round of the 2002 presidential elections, the candidate from the OPR, J. Chirac, received 19.7%, overtaking the leader of the FN, J.-M. Le Pen, by only 2%.
In the face of the threat of victory for the NF, the OPR set the task of uniting the center-right forces. The movement created around her, the Rally in Support of the President, became an important factor in the victory of the center-right in the elections (in the 2nd round, J. Chirac received 81.96%). Subsequently, the movement was transformed into SON, whose leader was the famous OPR figure Alain Juppe. The SON economic program, while still not openly proclaiming the principles of neoliberalism, provides for a reduction in the functions of the state and increased support for business. In the political sphere, SON aims to preserve and maintain the role of a great power, the leader of European politics (this was manifested in the position of France during the war in Iraq in 2003).
The second main party in France, the FSP, formed in 1971 on the basis of the SFIO, sees its task as the gradual transformation of society in the direction of socialism while maintaining a market economy. In the 2002 presidential elections, the FSP was defeated; its candidate, Prime Minister L. Jospin, gained only 16.2% of the votes and did not make it to the 2nd round. The defeat of 2002 continued the failures of the socialists, which began in the middle. 1980s and caused by their sharp shift to the right. In 1972, the FSP, which was in deep opposition, put forward the slogan of a “break with capitalism” through large-scale nationalization, the introduction of directive planning, “fair distribution” of income through radical tax reform, etc. With this program, the FSP and its leader F. Mitterrand won a landslide victory in the presidential and parliamentary elections of 1981. However, a significant deterioration in the economic situation caused by the implementation of measures to “break with capitalism” forced the FSP to turn to practice, and then to theories from the arsenal of the right . In the next program of the socialists (1991), society was no longer offered a “non-capitalist path of development,” but just another model of economic management. As a result, the FSP began to quickly lose the electorate, which shook its position of power. The powers of the socialists were full-scale only in 1981-86 and 1988-93, and in other years they were limited to either the executive or the legislative branch, which led to the coexistence, respectively, of either a left-wing president with right-wing governments (1986-88, 1993-95), either a right-wing president with a left-wing government (1997-2002), or to the complete transfer of power into the hands of the right (1995-97). In the 1990s - early. 2000s the socialists lost all elections - from municipal to European (except for the parliamentary 1997).
Constant defeats weakened the function of the FSP as a “bearing element” of the party structure and, as a consequence, the position of the entire left group of the French party system, already complicated by the sharp deterioration in the position of the communists. Until the beginning 1990s The PCF managed to maintain a stable 8-10% electorate. But then it shrank: to one part of the voters the positions of the PCF seemed too traditional and dogmatic, to the other, the largest part, not radical enough. In the 2002 presidential elections for Secretary General Only 3.4% of voters voted for FKP R.Yu. The PCF, which has finally lost its position as a significant political force, lags behind the extreme left parties in popularity, whose leaders in the 1st round of the 2002 presidential elections collectively gained 11.2% of the votes (including Labor - 5.7%, Communist revolutionary league - 4.3%). The total percentage of supporters of the FSP and FKP in 1981-2002 decreased from 37 to 19.6%.
The loss of positions by traditional left parties is largely due to profound changes in French society: the transition to the post-industrial stage of development, the growth of educational levels, the elimination of the most glaring forms of inequality, the erosion of former large social groups and their political subcultures, the passing into the past of generations that considered class as the central problem. confrontation, presidential or parliamentary versions of the republican system. All this leads to an increase in voting not based on social affiliation, but on the basis of personal political preferences and interests. Hence the emergence of multiple small parties and the fragmentation of the electorate.
In modern France, a situation has arisen where the small number of supporters of the newest world social projects (neoliberalism, modernization, integration) does not allow the formation of a large party in their support. On the contrary, a significant segment of voters, demanding changes, understands them as a backward movement, a kind of counter-reformation. The most consistent and active opponents of neoliberalism and integration are the electorate of right-wing and left-wing extremist parties: 1/3 of the French voting.
The rise to power of the far-right National Front began in 1974 (0.9% in presidential elections). For a long time the NF did not appear to be a significant political force. Its importance began to grow rapidly in the 1990s, when France was gripped by a deep and protracted economic crisis.
The ideological constructs of SF are very primitive. The long-term deterioration of the French economy is explained by the influx of immigrants occupying jobs and the conspiracy of large foreign capital and “Brussels technocrats” who are alien to the interests of France. The proposed recipes are strengthening presidential power and security forces, stopping immigration, leaving the EU, including abandoning the euro.
The NF is not yet able to transform an increase in electoral influence into an increase in political influence. The majoritarian electoral system and the refusal of the central organizations of the OPR and the FSP from electoral agreements with the NF have so far contributed to the fairly successful repulsion of attempts by the far right to penetrate various government bodies, incl. to the National Assembly. Therefore, the third main party of France is so far “a force without power”, which does not influence domestic and foreign policy.
Modern France is characterized by a relatively low importance of trade unions. The trade union movement, like the party movement, is distinguished by the multiplicity of organizations that form it. The main ones are: the General Confederation of Labor (CGT), traditionally close to the PCF; the socialist-oriented French Democratic Confederation of Labor (FDCT), the independent CGT-Force Ouvrier and the General Confederation of Personnel. The French trade unions, formerly truly mass organizations that united St. 30% of wage earners now claim 1.5 million members (10% of the wage labor force). However, of this number, the overwhelming majority are functionaries working for hire (for example, in the FDKT - 810 thousand out of 865 thousand declared members).
Among business associations, the largest is the Movement of French Companies (Medef), which groups 750 thousand companies. Medef takes an active part in the development of economic policy, gives recommendations to the government on foreign economic issues, and, along with trade unions, participates in regulating the labor market and in managing the social sphere.
Domestic policy since the 1980s. was characterized by significant instability. In conditions when the 2 main ruling parties offered society diametrically opposed options for social structure and development models, the course directly depended on the party affiliation of the prime minister and changed dramatically with his change. When this post was occupied by socialists, domestic policy had a pronounced social orientation and redistributive character; these features were lost when representatives of the government were at the head of the government, seeking to support business by reducing redistribution. The frequent change of ruling parties at the helm of the board deprived both the OPR and the FSP of the opportunity to complete the reforms started by each of them, which negatively affected the state of the economy. The course was more consistent in other areas of public life, where the reforms carried out were not canceled with the change of government. So, in the 1980-90s. the death penalty was abolished; carried out administrative reform, which united 96 departments into 22 larger regions; The powers of local authorities have been expanded. In the social sphere, there were: a reduction in the retirement age from 63 to 60 years, an increase in the duration of vacations to 5 weeks, a reduction in the working week from 40 to 39, and then to 35 hours, expansion of trade union rights, etc.
One of the main directions of the domestic policy of the government of J.-P. Raffarin is the fight against crime, which really increased noticeably in the 1990s. with the worsening economic situation and rising unemployment, especially among immigrants. Reducing the crime rate was the central slogan of the election campaign of J. Chirac, who in this regard insisted on the need to strengthen the relevant security forces. In the 2nd half. In 2002, police reform was carried out: its staff was expanded (which was at the level of 1945 - with a 20 million population growth) and the powers of police officers were expanded. Another direction of domestic policy is administrative reform, which provides for decentralization and giving greater independence to local authorities.
The main direction of French foreign policy in the last quarter of the 20th century. 21st century European construction appeared. The creation of a Common Economic Space, common political power, and a joint defense system is invariably proclaimed as the main goals of all presidents and all governments. France supported all measures to unite Europe: the Schengen Agreement of 1990, the Maastricht Treaty (although only 50.8% of voters voted in its favor at the national referendum), the Amsterdam (1997) and Nice (2000) treaties. She supported the entry into the EU of Greece, Spain and Portugal and a new stage of expansion in the Eastern European direction, scheduled for 2004, although with reservations regarding the distribution of agricultural subsidies.
The foreign policy course of France is characterized by constant anti-Atlanticism, especially clearly expressed in the position of Charles de Gaulle, which became muted after his departure, but did not completely disappear. France constantly contrasts its position with the American one on almost all issues of international life. The latest example was France's attitude towards American actions in Iraq, which caused another deterioration in Franco-American relations.
From ser. 1990s There have been changes in relations with developing countries, expressed in the refusal to maintain priority zones of strategic influence in the former colonies and in a more global approach, providing for the reorientation of assistance towards the poorest countries, regardless of their former colonial affiliation.
Having been a member of NATO since its founding, France left military organization in 1966. She has not returned to it to this day, although in 1995 she again became a member of the NATO Defense Committee, and in 1999 she participated in the operation in Kosovo. This return is becoming increasingly problematic given France's desire to create an independent EU Armed Forces.
The French Armed Forces include the Army, Navy, Air Force, and Corps of Gendarmes. The number of Armed Forces is 390 thousand people. (including Navy 63 thousand people and Air Force 83 thousand people). The transition to a professional army (since 2000) was carried out as part of the military reform carried out since 1996, the completion of which is scheduled for 2015. Its main tasks are the revision of military doctrine with a shift in emphasis to rapid response to suppress hotbeds of conflict anywhere in the world, increasing the effectiveness of the armed forces reducing their number to approximately 300 thousand people, as well as reducing military spending. Their share in the state budget for 1992-2002 decreased from 3.4 to 2.57%, while maintaining and even expanding funding for priority programs in the field of the latest weapons. In terms of military spending, France is noticeably superior to Germany, Great Britain, and Italy. France also has higher expenditures on military R&D and arms purchases (in the 2002 budget - 28% of military expenditures).
France is one of the most powerful military powers in the world. Its military-industrial complex provides national armed forces modern types weapons, and also carries out their widespread export abroad. In 2002, France ranked 3rd in the world in exports of conventional weapons. France is a nuclear power; its army has 348 nuclear warheads. They are equipped with land-based aircraft and aircraft of the Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier, as well as 2 submarines (the third is planned to be launched in 2004).
France has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. France recognized the USSR on October 28, 1924.
Economy of France
Economic evolution of France in the 2nd half. 20th century was distinguished by an unusually wide scale of state activity. This intervention, which allowed France to overcome its historical lag in the economic sphere, until the middle. 1960s was relatively effective. But subsequently, attempts to expand the participation of the state in production, to preserve the “redistributive economy” and the “welfare state” were an anachronism, which led to the deterioration of the state of the French economy and a decrease in the dynamics of its development. With the transfer of executive and legislative power to the center-right, liberalization reforms began in the economic and social sphere.
France's GDP is 1520 trillion euros (2002). France ranks fourth in terms of share in global GDP and exports. However, the share of F. in the GDP and exports of developed countries in the 1980-90s. decreased: respectively from 6.9 to 6.04%, and from 8.86 to 8.11%. Per capita GDP 25.50 thousand euros (2002). Unemployment 9.1%, annual increase in consumer prices 1.8% (2002).
Economic growth 1980s - early 2000s characterized by unevenness. Main macro indicators grew slowly at the beginning of both decades, especially in 1991-95; favorable conditions developed in the 2nd half. 1980s and in 1996-2001. A new decline was noted in 2002 and was largely due to a decrease in global demand and rising energy prices. A way out of the crisis was outlined in mid. 2003.
Shifts in GDP by production consisted of a decrease in the importance of agriculture and industry while increasing the service sector. The share of the agricultural sector decreased in 1980-2002 from 3.7 to 3.1%, industry, including construction, from 42.0 to 26.4%. Accordingly, services increased from 54.3 to 70.5%. The current structure of GDP in terms of production is fully consistent with similar proportions in other developed countries. This also applies to the French employment structure, where changes have followed similar directions. During this period, the proportions of employment were redistributed from agriculture and industry with construction (a drop from 8.7 to 4.5% and from 34.2 to 23.1%, respectively) to the service sector (an increase from 57.1 to 72.4% ).
French industry (without construction) accounts for 22.2% of GDP, 3.93 million employed, 20% of total investment, 94% of merchandise exports, 1/3 of direct foreign investment. Quite sluggish development of this area in the 1980s - mid. 90s in the last five years of the 20th century. gave way to rapid growth (3.8% on average annually). Investments grew by 7-8%, incl. in intangible assets (training of specialists, R&D, purchase of computer programs, advertising) - by 10-12% per year. The acceleration was facilitated by good global conditions, increased domestic demand due to the dissolution of unemployment, and a general improvement in the position of French private business, which strengthened by the end of the century. The low exchange rate of the franc during the transition to a single euro currency played an important role. French industry survived the 1997-98 crisis without damage. The reaction to the early crisis was worse. 21st century: in 2001, production growth was only 0.6%, in 2002 - 1.6%.
In the 1980-90s. deep structural transformations continued in industry, consisting of concentrating efforts on several advanced industries - automobile manufacturing, production of telecommunications equipment, pharmaceuticals and perfumes, aerospace engineering, nuclear energy. The total share of these 5 industries in industrial turnover is 43.8%.
The leading position is occupied by the automotive industry (17.7% of general industrial turnover). From the end 1980s annual car production remains stable at 3 million units. (2002 - 3,100 million, 5.4% of world production, 20.3% of Western European production). Export of cars is 42.6% of the total volume of their production. 99% of the industry's production belongs to 2 groups - Peugeot-Citroen and Renault. They approximately equally control over 60% of the national market and 23.8% of the Western European market, where they are still noticeably inferior to German manufacturers.
In 2nd place in terms of production volume are pharmaceuticals and perfumes (in total industrial turnover 13.2%). In terms of the cost of manufactured pharmaceuticals, France ranks 4th in the world, and in terms of their per capita consumption - 3rd (after the USA and Japan). Export industry 30% of production. The main producers are the Rhone-Poulenc concerns (6th place in the world), Elf-Atosham and Air Liquide.
Paris is the recognized perfume capital of the world, where such famous manufacturers of expensive cosmetics as Chanel, Ricci, and Saint Laurent operate. More mass-produced products are produced by L'Oreal - 13% of the world's perfume turnover, 1st place in the world. French perfumers export 38.5% of their products abroad.
Electrical and electronic engineering is quite a bit inferior to pharmaceuticals and perfumery (13.0% of general industrial turnover). More than 1/2 of the industry's products (54.6%) are office equipment and computers, long-distance communication equipment and electronic components. 48.8% of products are exported (including 59.8% of electronic components). The main manufacturer, the Alcatel concern, is one of the top three global manufacturers of telecommunications equipment. It accounts for 39.6% of the national industry market; for the Thomson group (the world's second largest manufacturer of military electronic equipment) - 23%.
In the field of aerospace production, France is a recognized Western European leader. The Aerospatiale company is one of the leading participants in the Airbus Industry European consortium (the main supplier of civil aircraft to the European market), where it owns 37.9% of the shares. It also owns a 70% stake in the Eurocopter association (1st place in the world in the production of civilian and 2nd place in military helicopters). The Arianespace concern controls approximately half of the global market for commercial launches of artificial Earth satellites.
In the last decades of the 20th century. Nuclear energy has become the basis of the French energy industry, now accounting for 10.5% of total industrial turnover. This was facilitated by the presence of its own large reserves of uranium. With the growth of primary energy consumption in 1980-2002 from 56 to 134 million tons of standard fuel, the share of nuclear power plants in it constantly grew: in 1980-2002 from 6.6 to 38% of national consumption. The share of other energy carriers over these years either decreased (coal from 18.1 to 4%, oil products from 54.4 to 36%, hydropower from 8.6 to 3%) or increased slightly (gas from 7 to 14%, alternative views energy - up to 7%). In 2002, nuclear power plants generated 77% of electricity (1st place in the world).
As in other developed countries, the transition to the post-industrial stage of development was accompanied in France by a further decline in the share of agriculture in the main national economic structures. The share of food in national exports also decreased (9.6% in 2002). In absolute terms, agricultural production increased by 87% during this period. And although French politicians no longer aim to turn the country into the “breadbasket of Europe”, as in the time of de Gaulle, France accounts for 23.7% of Western Europe’s agricultural production (1st place in the EU).
In the 1980-90s. The process of concentration continued in the industry. France has traditionally, since Napoleonic times, been a country of small farms with fragmented land ownership. Although the average farm area has almost doubled compared to the beginning. 1980s (42 and 23 hectares, respectively), 49% of farms are small and tiny (including 29.1% with an area of less than 5 hectares). Only 1/3 of farms own agricultural areas of 50 hectares and above (including 12.2% from 100 hectares). It is these large landowners who provide 75.7% of agricultural production.
An important factor in the development of agricultural production is the growth of technical equipment. From the end 1980s the number of tractors in the French agricultural sector has decreased, but mainly due to less powerful ones (up to 80 hp), while the share of more powerful ones has increased from 16.2 to 33.8%. Many other machines and mechanisms are actively used. The industry is completely electrified.
Unlike most other European countries, whose agriculture is focused on livestock, the French agricultural sector is multidisciplinary. Crop production, which is considered the main activity of 39.8% of farms, occupies half of the arable area and provides 48.9% of the total value of agricultural products. Its traditional specialization is the production of soft wheat. France is one of the great grain powers of the modern world (3rd place among developed countries and 1st in Western Europe, half of Western European cereal exports). Wheat accounts for 64% of the production of cultivated grains (55% - soft). In terms of wheat exports, France ranks 2nd-3rd in the world (with Canada after the USA).
Other grain crops include oats, barley, rye, and corn. Viticulture, oilseed production, horticulture and gardening play an important role. 13.9% of farms operate in viticulture. 2.9% of arable land is occupied by vineyards, but this industry produces 28.5% of agricultural products. France is the world's main wine producer (shares 1st-2nd place in the world with Italy). Production volume 62.93 million hectoliters (2002). More than a thousand varieties of wine are produced, 1/4 of which are vintage. OK. 20% of wines are exported. The oilseeds sector provides 6.3% of agricultural output. France accounts for 39.2% of European oilseed production. Vegetable and horticultural products account for 10.5% of the total value of agricultural products. In terms of average per capita consumption of vegetables, France is the leader in modern world. It ranks 2nd in the world in apple harvesting, 1st-2nd in Western Europe in apricot and pear harvests.
Livestock farming accounts for 51.1% of the value of agricultural products, incl. cattle breeding - 16.1%. In terms of its livestock, France ranks 1st in Western Europe and 6th in the world (20.3 million heads). This is approximately 1/4 of the EU population. France also accounts for 10% of the EU's sheep population and 12.9% of its pig population (15.93 and 9.32 million heads, respectively). It is the leading European meat producer and is among the top five global meat producers (3,755 million tons in 2002). Dairy farming is also developed (18% of the value of agricultural products). France is the world's 2nd producer of cheeses (over 2 million tons) and butter, the 2nd EU country in the production of whole milk products. Poultry farming is developing well: here too, France is 2nd in the world after the USA and 1st in Europe.
France is one of the most powerful transport powers in the world. Road and air transportation, as well as rail transport, have reached a high level. These industries account for 7.3% of GDP and 7.9% of employment. In 2002, the total volume of land transport reached 215.3 billion tkm; 79% of it (169.8 billion) was carried by road transport. France has a dense network of roads with artificial turf (1.1 million km - 2nd place in the world after the USA). In terms of the quality of the road surface and the availability of signage, French roads in continental Europe are comparable, perhaps, only to German ones. Cargo is transported by 9.2 million trucks, 10% of transportation is combined.
The length of railways reached its maximum in the 1930s. and then decreased (2002 - 32 thousand km). Freight turnover is 50.4 billion tkm. Passenger transportation 48.9 billion passengers/km. 2/3 of their volume in terms of the number of passengers falls on the Paris hub. Its exclusive dominance over a highly centralized railway network has been a characteristic feature of French railway construction since the 19th century.
French railways are actively electrifying. The length of electrified lines is 13,570 km. High-speed transport (350 km/h) is widely available. France is one of the world leaders in its development and implementation. The first high-speed line was opened in 1981 between Paris and Lyon. Now such lines connect the capital with Marseille, Strasbourg, Nice, La Rochelle, as well as Brussels and London (Channel Tunnel). In the future, there is an extension of the line to Brussels to Amsterdam and Cologne, the La Rochelle line to Bordeaux, and the Lyon line to the territory of Italy and Switzerland.
In 2002, 79.6 million passengers and 1.9 million tons of cargo were transported by air. The bulk of traffic falls on the Paris complex, where there are 2 large airports: Roissy-Charles de Gaulle and Orly (together 67.3% of all national domestic and international passenger traffic and 89% of cargo traffic). Le Bourget, formerly the capital's main airport, now serves only business aviation. Regional airports - Nice, Satolya (Lyon) and Toulouse - together transport 19.7 million passengers per year, 6.3% of the national cargo volume.
Meaning water transport in domestic and external transportation is small. The tonnage of the merchant fleet is 4.5 million tons. France has 89 seaports with a total cargo turnover of 300 million tons. 90% of it falls on 6 ports, incl. 48% - to Marseille and Le Havre (113 and 47.4 million tons, respectively); the remaining traffic goes through Dunkirk, Calais, Rouen and Bordeaux. The length of inland shipping routes is 8.5 thousand km, but only 5.5 thousand are used. Freight turnover river transport 181.6 billion tkm (2001).
1990s became a period of exceptionally rapid development of the communications sector (more precisely, information and communication services); in 1996-2000 the average annual increase in its production was 20%. The growth was combined with enormous qualitative shifts, which made it possible not only to eliminate the long-term gap in the field of telephone installation from other Western countries, but also to create by the beginning. 21st century one of the most modern electronic digital communication systems in Europe. The shifts were primarily due to the rapid expansion of mobile telephony and the increase in the number of Internet users. During 2001-02, the number of mobile subscribers increased from 31 to 37.3 million. This represents 62.5% of the population - still less than in the UK, Italy, Spain, and Scandinavian countries, but more than in the USA (50%).
In 1997, there were 500 thousand Internet users in France, by the beginning. 2002 - already 19 million people, 31.9% of the population (among managers and people engaged in intellectual work - 73.1%, among students and students - 73.3%). Of the planetary number of World Wide Web users, France accounted for 4% by 2002.
Trade plays an important role in the French economy (13.0% of GDP, 13.4% of employment). Major change since the 1980s. - transition from small retail to integrated organization, to modern complexes: super- and hypermarkets. A supermarket in France is considered to be a store with a trading area of 400-2500 m2, a hypermarket - from 2500 m2, more than 1/3 of the turnover of which comes from trade in food products (in contrast to a “large store” with a similar area, but selling mainly manufactured goods). In the beginning 1980s the share of integrated trade accounted for 27% of retail turnover, in 2002 - 51.4%. In 1986-95, 350-450 super- and hypermarkets were opened in the country annually, in 1996-97 - up to 200, and in 1998-2002 - up to 100. According to this indicator, France is one of the first places in the EU, trailing only Finland, Ireland and Denmark. Now the market share of integrated trade is 66.7% for food and 20.4% for manufactured goods. In the latter area, specialized (non-food) stores dominate, although their share is gradually decreasing (only for 1995-2002 - from 41.9 to 40.4%).
France continues to be classical country petty trade. Retail outlets with an area of up to 40 m2, mainly selling food, account for at least 20% of the industry's enterprises. But their number is decreasing (in 1995-2002 by an average of 6% per year), and the market share is falling (from 28.5 to 24.1%).
During 1980-2002, the French economy experienced a sharp increase in the share of the service sector. The dynamics of services between 1980-2002 exceeded the rate of economic growth by 1.2 times. Services to enterprises developed especially quickly (+5.2% on average annually). The main part of this area is market services, incl. 60% - services to enterprises. These are two groups: consulting, which includes at least a dozen types of activities (legal, advertising, accounting, engineering, marketing, information, etc.), etc. operational services - rental, personnel selection, security measures, etc. 244.3 thousand enterprises are employed in consulting, 92.5 thousand in operational services. It is clear that the main users of these services are companies (80% of consumption). But they are also large consumers of services to the population, especially those provided by travel agencies (57%), real estate firms (41%) and the hotel and restaurant sector (39%). The market for market services is growing mainly due to the expansion of their consumption by companies.
The credit and financial system is represented by the French Bank, 412 commercial banks and 531 financial companies. Since joining the eurozone, the Bank of France has played a limited role in monetary policy. Monetary gold reserves in 2001 amounted to 97.75 million troy ounces; refinancing rate - 4.23%, interest rates for loans were 6.7%, for deposits - 2.63%. Banks are highly concentrated: the 8 largest of them account for 86% of loans issued and 74% of assets. As elsewhere in industrialized countries, in France there is an active process of universalization of banking and financial services, intensifying competition between various financial institutions.
France is the only major developed country, where in the 1980-90s. Neither monetarist theory nor liberal economic practice were officially adopted. The economic policy of the socialists during their periods in power was based on Keynesian methods of regulation, i.e. on stimulating demand. The right demonstrated attempts to stimulate supply, although rather limited.
In economic policy con. 20th century There are several milestones that mark these opposing trends. The first was the nationalization of the beginning. 1980s, unprecedented for the post-war period. A third of industry, 2 leading financial holdings, 36 large banks, and many insurance companies were in the hands of the state. At the same time, active price and exchange controls and a strict tax on large fortunes were introduced.
Through huge budgetary injections, the socialists achieved the recovery of state-owned companies. But the state budget deficit increased sharply, and businesses began to massively curtail production in France. The forced transition of the socialists to a policy of austerity swung the pendulum of electoral preferences to the right - and the OPR, which won the parliamentary elections, attempted to turn the economy “face to the market”, which became the next milestone in economic policy. The privatization of state-owned companies and deregulation of the financial sector began (the abolition of controls over foreign exchange transactions, over the movement of capital, the removal of numerous restrictions on financial markets, the elimination of price controls). The socialists who seized power in 1988 did not return to nationalization and did not make any changes in the financial sector. However, they practically stopped privatization and again stimulated demand using the expenditure side of the state budget. The increased tax burden has become a serious factor in reducing the profitability of enterprises. The ineffectiveness of this policy, especially in the early crisis. 1990s, contributed to another transition of (legislative) power to OPR. Formed from its representatives, the governments of E. Balladur and then A. Juppé again tried to “shift the steering wheel” to the right. But in the context of the ongoing economic crisis, the right was again given only a three-year sentence. In 1997, with the victory of the Socialists in the parliamentary elections (the government of L. Jospin), a new milestone was outlined in economic policy: another long turn to the left.
Foreign observers called Jospin's economic policy dirigisme, although it looked like such mainly in comparison with the economic course of the Anglo-Saxon countries. The state no longer provided direct support to individual companies or industries; government regulation was formally aimed at improving the general economic climate; indirect levers of influence were more often used. Jospin carried out a very large privatization (180 billion francs) in order to bring the budget into line with the requirements of the Maastricht Treaty. However, France retained large state ownership and state control over the prices of natural monopolies, tariffs for health care services, the dynamics of rents and the prices of 80% of agricultural products that fall under the provisions of European pricing. Socialists continued to stimulate demand by redistributing national income in favor of wage labor.
Redistribution measures carried out under the slogan of “equalizing the income of labor and capital” included reducing taxes on the population and increasing them on companies. In 1997-98, additional fiscal payments were imposed on companies: social income tax, general tax on polluting industries and a corporate tax surcharge for firms with a turnover of St. 50 million francs (for almost everyone except small businesses), etc. The total increase reached 4.5 billion euros. At the same time, the fiscal pressure on “rich” individuals was increased (additional taxation of income from transactions with securities, from savings, etc.), which included income recipients of the middle and upper groups.
Enormous amounts of tax revenue were used to improve the situation of low-income groups (in 2000-01 their tax payments decreased by 21 billion euros), as well as to expand employment by increasing jobs in the public sector (3 youth employment programs) and increasing labor market flexibility (reducing working week from 39 to 35 hours while maintaining unchanged wages in exchange for allowing previously prohibited overtime and Sunday work, night shifts, etc.). These measures, which coincided with an improvement in the global economic situation, had a positive effect: unemployment began to decline; the creation of 1 million jobs pushed up the movement of domestic demand and the dynamics of economic growth; the growth of tax revenues contributed to the reduction of the budget deficit, and the public debt decreased. But government policy worsened the situation of companies. Their level of taxation in France is still one of the highest in Europe: the corporate income tax rate is 42%, entrepreneurs pay 60% of total contributions to social funds (which is equal to 6% of GDP). The profitability of companies was at a low level - 15.6% even in the prosperous year 2000. The subsequent deterioration of the global market environment contributed to its further decline and, as a result, the stagnation of investments, the cessation of employment growth in the business sector, and then in the public sector of the economy, where employment programs exhausted. As a consequence of these processes, the volume of tax revenues to the budget decreased, the expenses of which remained at the same level. They could be reduced by reducing social items. The government tried to reduce spending on health care somewhat by tightening controls on public hospital spending, but backed down in the face of a huge wave of strikes by health workers. Likewise, the reform in the field of financing higher and secondary education failed. The pension reform, which had been debated for 5 years, was never started, the need for which was long overdue due to the progressive aging of the population. K con. In 2002, the state budget deficit reached 2.7% of GDP, which in 2003 increased to 4.0%, thereby exceeding the Maastricht maximum. The national debt also reached it (2003 - 61.2% of GDP).
The government of representatives of OPR (later SON) led by J.-P. Raffarin, formed in June 2002, sees its primary task in the economic sphere in supporting entrepreneurship, which should help improve both the general economic and social situation (resolving unemployment through the creation new jobs in the business sector). In this regard, motivating his actions by the need to streamline the state budget, Raffarin curtailed government employment programs and began to change the taxation system. The first measure was a 5% reduction in income tax, which should be followed by an increase in the lower limit of the tax base for large fortunes. State-owned companies will be privatized, incl. natural monopolies. The government plans to begin reforming the healthcare and higher education systems in the near future and has already announced the start of pension reform, which includes increasing length of service and increasing contributions to pension funds.
The announced reforms cause extreme dissatisfaction among the population, who see them as a threat to their standard of living. In 2001, the average monthly salary for a full-time worker in the private and semi-public sector after tax was 1,700 euros. Hourly wages for full-time workers were about 20% higher than for part-time workers. For management personnel and people with higher education, the average monthly salary was 2.6 times higher than for workers and employees; this gap has persisted since the beginning. 1990s Discrimination against women's labor is equally consistent: a woman in any position earns 25% less than a man. The income of the French also includes numerous and varied social benefits, which together provide on average at least 1/3 of the increase in wages.
In 2002, 16.7% of the population's income was allocated to savings, and 83.3% was spent. In the structure of consumer spending, 15.4% were expenses for housing maintenance and repairs, 12.9% for food, 9.6% for the purchase of clothing and footwear, 6.4% for durable consumer goods (incl. 2.9% - for cars). 6.3% each was spent on paying for electricity and healthcare services. The largest item of expenditure was leisure and telecommunications services (together 21.4%). More than 90% of families live in comfortable apartments or separate houses with all amenities. The same percentage of families own at least one car, almost 100% have a refrigerator, 67% have a freezer, 91% have a washing machine, 60% have a microwave oven, etc. Every 9th family owns a country house or dacha. Living conditions in rural areas differ little from urban ones.
Turn of the 20th-21st centuries. marked by a significant increase in the importance of the foreign economic sphere in economic life. The export quota in 2002 was 27.2%; 86% of exports and 79% of imports came from EU countries; 82.7% of exports are goods, incl. 69.7% - industrial products (machinery and equipment - 24.7%). At a rapid pace from mid. 1990s the export of capital grew, in which France had previously lagged noticeably behind. In 2001, the total volume of foreign direct investment amounted to 197 billion euros. Accumulated foreign investments exceeded 500 billion euros in 2001 (1/10 of the world total).
Science and culture of France
France is one of the world's leading scientific powers. National R&D expenditure €30,545 million, or 2.14% of GDP (4th in the world) (2001). 314.5 thousand people are employed in science, 48.9% of them are teaching staff of universities, of which there are approx. 20 (including the oldest in Europe, Paris - the Sorbonne and the University of Montpellier, founded respectively in the 13th and 15th centuries). 160 thousand people are directly involved in scientific research and development. (75% in the private sector). They are concentrated in various research and development companies, laboratories and technical centers (there were 5,373 of these out of 2000). The state's share in financing scientific activities was 21.7% (2001); the funds received were directed mainly to fundamental research, as well as to such industries as nuclear energy, various space programs, weapons production, transport and communications. The business sector concentrates its efforts in applied research, mainly in electronics, general mechanical engineering, automotive industry, and the chemical industry. These industries accounted for 46.7% of patents issued to residents. However, despite the considerable amount of funds allocated to R&D, French scientific thought in the technical field lags behind its main foreign competitors. Of the 160.0 thousand patents registered in France in 2001, residents received only 21.6 thousand (13.5%); the balance of trade in patents and licenses is persistently negative. World famous names belong to the French, primarily in the social sciences: in sociology F. Durkheim, C. Lévi-Strauss, M. Foucault, A. Touraine, in history - F. Braudel.
It is unlikely that there is another country that has had as powerful an influence on Western and world culture in the last 3-4 centuries as F. Castles on the Loire, parks and palaces of Versailles, paintings by old masters from Clouet to Poussin, Greuze, Chardin, the romantics of Delacroix and Courbet, the Impressionists, the musical creations of Berlioz and Ravel are world-class masterpieces. Paris has been considered the cultural capital of the world almost since the time of Louis XIV. In the 20th century this tradition was continued. Here, in the interwar and post-war years, artists from all over the world lived and worked - the Spaniards Picasso and Dali, the Italian Modigliani and the Dutchman Mondrian, the French Marche, Signac, Léger, who together represented almost all the numerous movements modern painting; France is the birthplace of modern abstract art and, along with the USA, op art and pop art.
French literature, first written monument which refers to 842, has always been one of the largest phenomena in world literature. The medieval tradition of literary creativity (The Song of Roland, works of troubadours and trouvères, urban fabliaux, poems by F. Villon) was continued in the 16th century. poets of the Pleiades, Rabelais and Montaigne, in the 17th century. - Racine, Corneille, Moliere, Lafontaine, in the 18th century. - Voltaire, Beaumarchais, encyclopedists. In the 19th century French literature was adorned by such great names as Hugo and Balzac, Stendhal and Flaubert, Zola and Maupassant, in the beginning. 20th century - M. Proust. In France, in the interwar years, the literary and philosophical movement of existentialism - the philosophy of existence (J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus, Simone de Beauvoir) arose. In the post-war period, the “family” and historical novels of F. Eria, E. Bazin, M. Druon became brilliant examples of critical realism. The creators of the “new novel” direction were A. Robbe-Grillet and Nathalie Sarraute. The names of A. Maurois, M. Eme, B. Viana are well known. Writers A. Gide, F. Mauriac, Saint-John Perse are Nobel Prize laureates in literature.
French cinematography is very popular in the world. The works of directors M. Carne, C. Christian-Jacques, R. Clair, R. Vadim starred such stars as J. Gabin, J. Philip, Bourville, Fernandel, L. de Funes, B. Bardot. French cinema is known primarily for the names of L. Besson, P. Richard, J. Depardieu, Annie Girardot. The undying tradition of French chanson after World War II was continued by Edith Piaf, Yves Montand, C. Aznavour, Dalida, J. Brel, Brassance, S. Adamo, Mireille Mathieu and others.