On April 23, 1932, the Party Central Committee adopted a resolution “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” which liquidated all those that existed in the 1920s. artistic groups and a single organization was created - Union of Artists of the USSR. The first definition of the method of socialist realism belongs to I. M. Gronsky, who was one of the founders of the Writers' Union (delegates to the first congress of which in 1934 were indeed many major writers of that time). The origin of the term is often attributed to Gorky, who proposed using the classical heritage to create works of new, socialist, humanistic content. In fact, the main style of the Soviet era was naturalism, but not critical, but varnishing, seeking to smooth out acute social problems and create an idealized image of modernity. And although the neoclassical trend is generally characteristic of European art, “tired” of the avant-garde, in the second third of the 20th century, socialist realism, like the art of the Third Reich and Mussolini’s Italy, sought to combine several disparate trends: monumentalism, naturalness in the rendering of natural forms, pathos and heroism in the interpretation of images. Art had to become understandable to the masses, it was supposed to “call and lead,” in essence, to follow the new, communist canon in the depiction of man and social reality. The main character of the works was supposed to be a man of labor, and the “working people” themselves were supposed to undergo “ideological remodeling in the spirit of socialism.” Realism was understood as detailed naturalism and cold neo-academicism (“art in forms understandable to the authorities,” as the famous joke goes). Speaking at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934 about the method "socialist realism "M. Gorky meant the creative use of the classical heritage of world culture, the connection of art with modernity, the depiction of modern life from the perspective of “socialist humanism.” Continuing the humanistic traditions of previous art, combining them with new, socialist content, “socialist realism” was supposed to represent new type artistic consciousness. At the same time, it was assumed that the means of expression could be very diverse even in the interpretation of the same topic - or so, in any case, it was said. In fact, for many decades to come it was officially authorized from above, “ideologically consistent” (which is the main thing), the only possible direction in art, gravitating towards naturalism, a kind of diamatism and historical mathematics in science, prohibiting any dissent in artistic consciousness, with a well-functioning mechanism of state orders, planned (for artists acceptable to the party) exhibitions and awards. Themes of art in all types and genres seemed to suggest diversity: from the heroics of the revolution and civil war to everyday work, prompted and put forward by life itself. The portrait genre should have remained one of the leading ones, since realistic art is always and first of all a study of man, his soul, his psychology (and if writers are “engineers” human souls", then, probably, it was implied that artists are “builders” who embody their idea). Such was this rather vague, to put it mildly, sly in words and very tough in deeds program. How it was implemented - the next decade showed.
Of course, the same theme can be developed and revealed in different ways, as in the paintings of Petrov-Vodkin and Deineka, landscapes by Rylov and Nyssky, portraits of Konchalovsky and Korin, in the graphics of Lebedev and Konashevich, in the sculpture of Mukhina and Shadr, as in Subsequently, without deviating from the basic realistic principles of vision of nature, contemporary artists worked and are working in different ways: V. Popkov, Y. Krestovsky, V. Ivanov, V. Tyulenev, G. Yegoshin and others. But the “method of socialist realism”, unanimously adopted at the congress of “engineers of human souls” in 1934, did not imply any freedom at all. On the contrary, artistic creativity became more and more rigidly ideologized. As the Russian critic and literary critic V. M. Piskunov wrote (the author spoke about poets, but this fully applies to artists), “entire generations and periods were rejected with a single stroke of the authoritative pen,” and precisely the best of the masters “did not deserve to get in the socialist realist calendar." This should always be remembered when reading Russian history of the Soviet period.
Great efforts in the 1930s. were attached to formation of national art schools, the creation of "multinational Soviet art". Decades of national art and republican exhibitions, participation of representatives of different republics in thematic art exhibitions: "15 years of the Red Army", "20 years of the Red Army", "Industry of Socialism" (1937), " Best works Soviet art" (1940), in international exhibitions in Paris (1937) and New York (1939), in the organization of the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition (1939–1940) - a form of cultural communication between the peoples of the USSR in these years. The exhibition "Industry of Socialism" was especially large ". More than 700 artists from Moscow, Leningrad and other cities of the RSFSR and union republics took part in it. Along with already mature masters, young people made their debut at the exhibition. The works presented were dedicated to "the best people of the country, shock workers of the five-year plans, new buildings of the Soviet industry", which later became a mandatory component of any large-scale official exhibition.
In 1932, the All-Russian Academy of Arts, closed in the first years of the revolution, and later the Institute of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture were recreated.
It should be remembered that the 1930s. – one of the most controversial and tragic periods both in the history of our state and in its culture and art. Trampling on humanistic democratic principles in the life of society could not but affect the atmosphere of creativity. The basis of the creative process was violated - the freedom of expression of the artist. Behind the increasingly rigid affirmation of a single style and way of life, with the exclusion from reality of any manifestation of freedom of choice, a single art form. Since art was assigned the role of “explainer” of directives in a visual form, it naturally turned into illustrative and straightforward (“understandable”) art, losing all the completeness, complexity and versatility of expressive means.
Despite the demagogic glorification of the “simple worker” - “the builder of a bright future”, the very right of man to freedom of spirit, to his own vision of the world, and finally to doubt - a necessary incentive for personal improvement and creative creation - was denied. For what could be more destructive for creativity than the implantation of dogmatically uniform forms of glorifying one figure or several figures, or several figures, or one – and false – idea, not righteously elevated above a multi-million people? This led to the fact that the paths and destinies of the artists diverged more and more. Some seem to have – or in fact – sunk into oblivion, others have become “leading artists of the era”. The fate of some was silence, obscurity and tragic oblivion; inevitable falsehood and deliberate lies accompany the glory of others. Countless works appeared, like paintings by V. Efapov and G. Shegal about the “leader, teacher and friend” who “presided” at congresses, countless portraits of the “leader of the peoples.” The life of the village was depicted falsely optimistically in the large festive canvases of S. V. Gerasimov " Collective farm holiday "(1937, Tretyakov Gallery; see color insert), A. A. Plastova "Holiday in the village ", painted in 1937 (and both were gifted painters, especially the last one). All these and similar paintings were presented as the genuine “truth of life.” They were full of that cheerfulness that did not even remotely correspond to the truth, but Gorky It was “historical optimism” that he called one of the defining properties of “socialist realism.” The most popular genres in fine art - and this quite naturally followed from the essence of the “method” - thematic painting and portrait - should always interpret the image of a contemporary only in an optimistic way. village life was optimistically depicted in the large festive canvases of S. V. Gerasimov " Collective farm holiday "(see color insert), A. A. Plastova" Holiday in the village" painted in 1937 (and both were gifted painters, especially the latter). “Collective farm holiday” - a sun-drenched feast against the backdrop of an endless summer landscape - in the painting of the Russian impressionist Sergei Gerasimov, became one of the official symbols of socialist realism art. After a terrible famine in the early 1930s. this joy of being, which will be replicated in the fine arts and cinema of the 1930s–1950s, will become both a varnish stamp and a kind of sublimation of the real desires and hopes of the Soviet man, who is always lacking and deprived of the most basic amenities.
Falsification of history and humanistic ideas led to psychological breakdown creative personality. In turn, the artist, creating a false, false image, but built on the principles of visual verisimilitude, forced the masses, who were full of sincere (and in the 1930s especially pronounced) desire for the universal happiness of working humanity, to believe in him. I think this is the greatest tragedy of Soviet art and time in general.
At the same time, in the art of the period under review, many names of remarkable masters can be named: K. S. Petrov-Vodkin, P. P. Konchalovsky, M. S. Saryan, V. A. Favorsky, P. D. Korin (let’s say, however, that the most important painting in Korin’s life, “The Passing Rus',” never “came to pass,” and the reason for this, as we know seems to be the artistic atmosphere of those years). A school-workshop Π operated in Leningrad since 1925. N. Filonova. Under his leadership, the design of the famous publication was completed Finnish epic"Kalevala", scenery for "The Inspector General" by N.V. Gogol. But in the 1930s. the workshop becomes empty, the students leave the master. The exhibition of Filonov’s works, prepared back in 1930 at the State Russian Museum, never opened; it was destined to take place only 58 years later.
Other artists become presenters. Among them, the main place belongs to Boris Vladimirovich Ioganson(1893–1973), back in the 1920s. who wrote such works as "Rabfak you go, "Soviet court", "Uzlovaya railway station in 1919" (all – 1928), who presented the painting “15 years of the Red Army” at the 1933 exhibition Interrogation of communists" and at the 1937 exhibition "Industry of Socialism" - a large canvas "At the old Ural plant" (TG). In two latest works Ioganson seems to be striving to follow the traditions laid down by Russian artists, primarily Repin and Surikov. And indeed, the artist knows how to depict “conflict situations”, clashing characters: with the general “splendor” of endless “collective farm holidays” and countless images of “leader, teacher and friend”, this is already the dignity of a master. It is reflected primarily in the compositional decision: in “Interrogation of Communists” this is a clash of two different forces, prisoners and enemies, in “Ural Demidovsky” (the second title of the painting “At the Old Ural Factory”) - a worker and a factory owner, whose views are at the will of the artist crossing just like the views of the red-bearded archer and Peter I in Surikov’s “The Morning of the Streltsy Execution.” The process of work itself - Ioganson moved from descriptive fragmentation, verbosity and overload of composition to a more concise and strict solution, where the entire dramatic conflict is built on the collision of two worlds hostile to each other - is traditional. Even the replacement of the location of the female figure - in search of a more typical situation - from the foreground in the early version to the male one - in the final one ("Interrogation of the Communists") is somewhat reminiscent of I. E. Repin's search for a solution in his painting "They Didn't Expect". Great potential coloristic possibilities are revealed in these paintings, especially in the first, where the contrasts of chiaroscuro, sharp flashes of deep blue, brown-red, and white enhance the mood of the tragedy of what is happening. But in the end - a complete loss. The artist simply changes his taste, because he turns to satire and caricature, which are so inappropriate in a painting. If they are communists, then even in the hands of the enemy they fearlessly approach him; if “White Guards” - then there will certainly be hysterics (upturned shoulder, disgustingly red back of the head, raised whip, etc.); if a breeder, then his gaze is hateful, but also insecure; if a worker, then it is full of superiority, dignity, anger and inner strength. And all this is deliberate, excessive, pedaled - and because of this it loses its meaning and becomes false. Like Brodsky’s historical-revolutionary paintings, like Rizhsky’s portraits, these works by Ioganson expressively illustrate the development of Russian art and it is in this sense that they can truly be considered “classics of Soviet art.”
In the 1930s A. A. Deineka works a lot. Laconism of details, expressiveness of silhouette, restrained linear and color rhythm are the main principles of his art. Former "Ostovites" remain generally true to their traditions. The subject matter becomes more diverse: genre, portrait, landscape. But no matter what they write, signs of the times appear in everything. For the exhibition "20 Years of the Red Army" Deineka wrote one of the most poetic and romantic works "Future pilots "(1938, GG): three naked boyish figures (depicted from the back), on the seashore, looking at a seaplane in the blue sky - future hundred conquerors. This romanticism is also expressed in color - a combination of dark blue water, gray-blue sky , sunlight, flooding the embankment. The viewer cannot see the faces of the boys, but the entire structure of the picture conveys a feeling of thirst for life and spiritual openness. Many of Deineka’s paintings these years are dedicated to sports. The many-sided world of Europe and the New World was revealed in his watercolors, painted after a trip abroad in 1935: " Tuileries ", "Street in Rome" and others (of course, do not forget, from the position of a Soviet man who has “his own pride”).
Officially recognized artists created an illusory image of a jubilant festive life, which was so inconsistent with reality. But many of them knew how to choose such subjects and moments that allowed them to remain completely sincere. Of course, the easiest way to do this was in landscape. Thus, the feeling of a new life under construction will be conveyed by Yu. I. Pimenov in the film "New Moscow" (1937, Tretyakov Gallery). Impressionist tendencies are vividly felt in the immediacy of the impression, skillfully conveyed through the figure of a woman sitting behind the wheel, whose face we do not even see, in the richness of light and air, and the dynamism of the composition. The bright festive colors also emphasize the image of the “new” Moscow.
During these years, such wonderful artists as N. continued to work. P. Krymov, A. V. Kuprin, each of whom, with his own individual means, creates either a subtly lyrical or epically majestic image of the Motherland (N. P. Krymov. "River" (1929), "Summer day in Tarusa" (1939/40); A. V. Kuprin. "Tiam Valley" (1937); all - PT). Many of A. V. Lentulov’s Crimean and Central Russian landscapes are picturesquely generous and romantic. Full of life and a hundred still lifes (for example, "Still life with cabbage" 1940). With the entire pictorial and plastic structure of the canvas, G. G. Nissky sought to express the spirit of modernity, the intense rhythms of new life, depicting (we admit, not without false romance) battleships standing on the roadstead, sailing ships flying in the sea, railway lines stretching into the distance ("On the tracks" 1933).
We can say that in comparison with the previous decade, the 1930s. expand the geographical scope of landscape as a genre. Artists travel to the Urals, Siberia, the Far North, and Crimea. The Motherland, this vast territory of a multinational state, gives rich impressions to painters, in whose landscapes one idea prevails: the nature of our country, represented by masters in all its generosity and whimsical variability of lighting at different times of the day and year, is not just a symbol of the beauty of our native land, but also a symbol of time, it is one way or another renewed by the work of millions of people.
Artists from national republics lovingly capture the signs of what is new in their country. M. S. Saryan paints beautiful landscapes, portraits (for example, the architect A. Tamanyan, the poet A. Isahakyan) and still lifes. Green valleys, dazzling snow-capped mountains of Armenia, its ancient temples and new construction sites invading its harsh landscapes ("Alaverdi Copper Smelter", 1935; "Vintage", 1937; "Flowers and Fruits" 1939) are magnificent, illuminated by the brilliant talent of a born painter, his amazing decorative generosity. The landscapes of G. M. Gyurjyan and F. P. Terlemezyan testify to the new look of Armenia. The image of the new Georgia is given in the paintings of A. G. Tsimakuridze, U. V. Japaridze, E. D. Akhvlediani.
Intensively developing in these years portrait. Π. P. Konchalovsky painted a whole series of beautiful portraits of cultural figures: "V. Sofronitsky at the piano " (1932), "Sergei Prokofiev" (1934), "Vsevolod Meyerhold" (1938). In the latter, as always with Konchalovsky, the color is open, sonorous, but it is given in contrast with Meyerhold’s intense gaze and his pose - this introduces something disturbing into the image (which is not surprising: there are few days left before his arrest and death).
After almost 15 years of silence, M. V. Nesterov spoke with a number of portraits of the Soviet intelligentsia (“Artists P. D. and A. D. Corina”, 1930; "Sculptor I. D. Shadr ", 1934; "I.P. Pavlov" 1935;"Surgeon S. S. Yudin", 1935; "Sculptor V. I. Mukhina ", 1940; all - Tretyakov Gallery). Whoever Nesterov portrays: be it Pavlov with his youthful enthusiasm, strong-willed, collected, spiritual (the laconic and expressive gesture of his hands only more sharply emphasizes his irrepressible, dynamic, “explosive” nature); sculptor Shadr standing in concentrated thought at a giant marble torso; the surgeon Yudin or the artist Kruglikova - the artist first of all emphasizes that these people are creators, and the meaning of their life is in creative pursuits in art or science. Nesterov’s portraits have a classical measure, simplicity and. clarity, they are executed in the best traditions of Russian painting, especially V. A. Serov.
His student follows Nesterov’s path in the portrait Pavel Dmitrievich Korin(1892–1971). He also emphasizes the intellect, the inner complexity of a person, but his style of writing is different, the form is tougher, clearer, the silhouette is sharper, the drawing is more expressive, the coloring is more severe.
Interest in the creative intelligentsia back in the 1920s. Georgian artist K. Magalashvili also shows (portraits of the sculptor "Ya. Nikoladze", 1922, painter's Elena Akhvlediani" 1924, pianists "I. Orbeliani" 1925). In 1941 she painted a portrait of a pianist "V. Kuftina." Azerbaijani artist S. Salam-zadeh chooses as his theme the image of a working man (portrait of a cotton picker "Kerimova Mania" 1938).
1930s were a certain stage in the development of all types monumental art. The opening of the All-Union Agricultural Exhibition, the Moscow Canal, the construction of the metro in the capital, clubs, palaces of culture, theaters, sanatoriums, etc., the participation of Soviet artists in international exhibitions brought to life many works of monumental sculpture, monumental painting, and decorative and applied arts. Artists from Moscow, Leningrad, other cities of the RSFSR and national republics, who preserved and creatively reworked the traditions and forms of national art, considered the main problems of the synthesis of arts. In monumental painting leading place belongs to A. A. Deineke, E. E Lansere. The latter developed as an artist even before the revolution. In the 1930s he performs paintings in Kharkov, Tbilisi. The painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazansky railway station in Moscow is dedicated to friendship and unity of peoples, talks about the natural resources of the country; The painting of the restaurant hall of the Moscow Hotel is based on the traditions of Italian illusory ceiling painting, primarily by the Venetian Tiepolo. During these years, V. A. Favorsky, A. D. Goncharov, and L. A. Bruni were also engaged in monumental painting. In the painting of the House of Models in Moscow (graffito, 1935, not preserved), Favorsky achieved a true synthesis of architecture and painting, this work had a huge influence on his students.
IN sculpture Both the old masters, who made their mark in the first years of Soviet power, and the young ones worked a lot. It should be noted that during the period under review, in all types and genres of sculpture - in portraits, statuary compositions, reliefs - a tendency towards the idealization of nature became noticeable. This was especially reflected in monumental sculpture, presented in competitions for numerous monuments.
It is significant that in the competition for the monument to V. I. Chapaev (for the city of Samara) and T. G. Shevchenko (for Kharkov) the winner was Matvey Genrikhovich Manizer(1891 – 1966), successor of the academic school of Russian sculpture with its tendency towards narrative and idealization. IN monument to Shevchenko Manizer presented the poet primarily as a fighter, an exposer of autocracy. This idea is strengthened by the fact that his figure is contrasted with the sad image of a farm laborer, conventionally named later by the name of the heroine of his poem " Katerina " (one of 16 figures personifying "stages of the struggle of the Ukrainian people for their liberation").
The monument is designed for all-round viewing and is placed at the entrance to the park (the author of the pedestal is architect I. Langbard). In 1936–1939 Manizer performs (together with his students) a number of statues for the Moscow Metro station "Revolution Square". This work can hardly be called successful, especially since the limited space and low arches prevented the organic synthesis of architecture and sculpture.
A. T. Matveev continues to work in lyrical sculpture, skillfully modeled, deeply poetic. Deep in characterization of the work of Ya. I. Nikoladze (portrait "G. Tabidze" 1939; bust "I. Chavchavadze", 1938). Creates subtly psychological or poignant images in portrait sculpture S. D. Lebedeva ("Girl with a Butterfly" bronze. 1936; "Chkalov" sketch, bronze, 1937).
Of great importance for the development of Soviet monumental sculpture was the participation of the USSR in the international exhibition "Art, Technology and modern life", arranged in Paris. The Soviet pavilion was built according to the design of B. M. Iofan. The sculptural group for it was made by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889–1953). Back in 1922–1923, according to the plan of monumental propaganda, she performed a full of passionate, stormy movement a figure personifying the “flame of revolution.” In 1927, she created an easel sculpture of a peasant woman, the weighted and tightly knit volumes, the laconic, expressive plasticity of which indicate a constant interest in the monumental generalized image. In the portraits of the 1930s, she found quite. modern language realistic sculpture based on classic designs. But most of all the master was interested in the principles of synthesis of architecture and sculpture. One of the original solutions was given by Mukhina in her work for the International Exhibition: Iofan’s building ended with a gigantic pylon raised 33 m high, which was completely organically crowned with a sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman" (1937, former VDNH). They hold a hammer and sickle in their outstretched hands. It would have been difficult to find a more comprehensive, comprehensive solution to this topic than Mukhina found. A powerful movement emanates from the sculptural group, which creates a rapid rush of figures forward and upward. The folds of clothes and scarves are interpreted expressively. The apparent lightness and silvery shine of the stainless steel in which the sculpture is made further enhances the dynamic impression. The innovative sculptor Mukhina managed to embody the “ideal of the era” in this work. Collaboration Mukhina with the architect Iofan led to the artistic unity of simple, structurally integral architecture and plastically rich, laconic, complete sculptural forms. Moreover, the role of sculpture here is predominant: the building, lined with marble with stainless steel rods, is, in fact, just a pedestal for it. The sculpture naturally completed the vertical architectural rhythms and gave the building an architectural completeness. This is one of the rarest monuments in terms of expressiveness, executed in accordance with the once conceived “plan for monumental propaganda.” Placed later on a low pedestal near VDNKh, it lost all its monumentality. Mukhina works a lot in decorative sculpture ("Bread", bronze, 1939, PT), and also completes the work of I. D. Shadra on monument to Maxim Gorky (bronze, granite, 1951), which was installed in Moscow in front of the Belorussky railway station.
In the 1930s Animalistic sculpture is developing interestingly, where the names of two masters undoubtedly stand out - Vasily Alekseevich Vatagin(1883/84–1969), who perfectly knows not only the characteristics, but also the psychology of animals, who works a lot in wood ( "Himalayan bear" 1925) and bronze ( "Tiger", 1925), and Ivan Semenovich Efimov(1878–1959), who performed his works in the most different materials more generalized, decorative than Vatagin, and endowing the beast with features of anthropomorphism ( "Cat with a ball" 1935, porcelain; "Rooster", 1932, forged copper). In subsequent years, Vatagin continued to work successfully in the animalistic genre ( "Penguin with chick" tree, 1960).
Efimov, having become interested in puppet theater back in 1918, developed the innovative principle of “cane” puppets, creatively developing the plots of traditional “parsley puppets”, turned to the theater of silhouettes, and created witty multi-figure installations.
The most precious part of the work of both is their drawings. Vatagin created illustrations for Mowgli (The Jungle Book) by Rudyard Kipling (1926) and other books about animals. Efimov also acted as a master book graphics mainly in the field of literature for children.
IN graphics These years, book illustrators continue to occupy a leading place. V. A. Favorsky, who himself works very intensively (wood engravings for “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign”, for “Vita Nova” by Dante, for “Hamlet” by Shakespeare), heads an entire school of graphic artists. Among the hundred students, Andrei Dmitrievich Goncharov (1903–1979), the author of highly professional, deeply insightful illustrations for Smolett and Shakespeare, deserves special attention. In general, however, wood engraving is overshadowed by lithography, as well as drawing - charcoal and black watercolor.
The Leningrad school introduces a new note into the art of printed graphics (mainly woodcuts) and drawing, in which there is a lot of grace that comes from the “World of Art” traditions. These are works by L. S. Khizhinsky, who began his creative career in Ukraine, G. D. Epifanov, and N. Alekseev, who died early. Masters of easel graphics, singers of elegiac watercolor landscape there were V. Pakulin and N. Tyrsa, the rhythms of the new, industrial Leningrad are captured in N. Lapshin’s watercolors. Since the mid-1930s. G. Vereisky works almost exclusively in the technique of etching and lithography (he portrayed the actor V. P. Ershov more than 50 times, achieving depth psychological characteristics). In the most different techniques and genres, the brilliant draftsman K. Rudakov worked (illustrations for Zola and Maupassant, easel graphic images of the life of Western Europe, portraits of contemporaries, for example, a portrait of the artist “Ya. K. Kolesova", watercolor, 1936).
A. D. Goncharov. Caliban. Illustration for the play "The Tempest" by W. Shakespeare. Woodcut
A galaxy of young graphic artists perform illustrations for Russian and Soviet classics. Dementy Alekseevich Shmarinov (1907-1999), a student of D. N. Kardovsky, makes illustrations for “Crime and Punishment” by F. M. Dostoevsky (1935–1936), full of harsh, tragic feelings, elegant and simple drawings for “Belkin’s Tales” by A. S. Pushkin (1937), a series of drawings for “Peter I” by Alexei Tolstoy (1940), illustrations for “A Hero of Our Time” by M. Yu. Lermontov (1939–1940). The drawings for “Peter I” are, in fact, entire historical compositions with bright characters, excellent transmission in a sketchy manner of the very spirit of Peter the Great’s era. Shmarinov bypassed many everyday details to give the series a high epic style.
Evgeny Adolfovich Kibrik (1906–1978) performs lithographs for “Cola Brugnon” (1936), full of captivating simplicity and a subtle sense of the Gallic spirit, which delighted the author of the work, Romain Roldan; heroic illustrations for "The Legend of Ulenspiegel" by Charles de Coster (1938). Later, Kibrik wrote: “All my life I have strived to embody one image. This is the image of a kind, brave, cheerful person. He loves life and people. He fights evil. I want to imitate him. This image appeared in my work either in the person of a Burgundian or a Flemish , then Ukrainian, then Russian."
E. A. Kibrik. "Lasochka". Illustration for R. Rolland's story "Cola Brugnon"
S. V. Gerasimov creates temperamental and strong characters heroes of “The Artamonov Case” by A. M. Gorky (1938–1939); Kukryniksy (a union of three artists - M.V. Kupriyanov, P.N. Krylov, N.A. Sokolov), back in the 1920s. who have declared themselves as satirical artists, illustrate mainly satirical works(illustrations for “The Golovlevs” by M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin) or individual (satirical) episodes in literary works(illustrations for “Klim Samgin” by Gorky). Leningrad artists K. I. Rudakov, N. A. Tyrsa work on Western and Russian classics, V. V. Lebedev and E. I. Charushin work on children's literature, each maintaining his own creative personality. Around “Detgiz”, headed by V. Lebedev, a whole group of remarkable Leningrad graphic artists of high culture was organized: Yu. Vasnetsov, V. Kurdov, V. Konashevich and many others.
The 100th anniversary of Pushkin’s death in 1937 brought to life a whole “Pushkiniana” (drawings and watercolors by N. P. Ulyanov dedicated to Pushkin’s places, series by L. S. Khizhinsky, lithographs by P. A. Shillingovsky). “What a great happiness that Russia has Pushkin. All our lives he shines above us like the never-setting sun!” – later wrote the extraordinary graphic artist, master of sharp drawing N. Kuzmin, who illustrated “Eugene Onegin” in the “Pushkin manner”.
E. I. Charushin. Illustration for his own book “Vaska, Bobka and the Rabbit” (Detgiz, 1934)
Professional composing in the concert, philharmonic and musical theater genres also underwent significant changes in the 30s. Naturally, they could not help but be associated with those transformations of social life that led to the establishment of a new, centralized state system. On April 23, 1932, a resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was adopted “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations.” This party document emphasized that the framework of literary and artistic organizations that emerged in the 1920s “is already becoming narrow and hampering the serious scope of artistic creativity" Among such organizations liquidated in accordance with the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks was also RAPM, which had long ago turned into a group that put its “clan” interests above the truth. The text of the party document pointed out the danger of transforming this kind of associations “from a means of maximizing the mobilization of Soviet writers and artists around the tasks of socialist construction into a means of cultivating circle isolation, separation from the political tasks of our time and from significant groups of writers and artists who sympathize with socialist construction.”
Despite the fact that the decree of April 23, 1932 actually abolished the right of artists to establish free associations and associations, it was received with enthusiasm by the overwhelming majority of them. Many of them hoped for beneficial changes, for the abolition of previous discrimination against so-called “fellow travelers” and approved the idea of uniting into single creative unions based on professional affiliation. The very idea of equality in similar unions absolutely all masters of art, regardless of their artistic positions and stylistic preferences, seemed to open up broad prospects for free development in its practical implementation creative individuals under one indispensable condition - their support for socialist construction in the country. Otherwise, everything seemed to be left to the discretion of the artists themselves, who freely chose the ways to achieve truth in art and the means that they used to solve the problems they set for themselves.
The organizational association of creative workers was consolidated by the creation of unified creative unions. Among them was the Union of Soviet Composers (later the Union of Composers of the USSR) - an association of composers and musicologists, created on a common ideological basis, then recognized by all creative unions. In her statement decisive role played at the First All-Union Congress of Writers, held in 1934 under the leadership and with the active participation of A. M. Gorky. The method of socialist realism became the theoretical basis for the consolidation of the country's creative figures.
The essence of the method was formulated in the charter of the Union of Writers of the USSR in 1934: “Socialist realism requires from the artist a truthful, historically specific artistic image reality in its revolutionary development." This formula in fact did not imply a reflection of life in art as it is, in its complex contradictions, but the construction of an ideal model, a role model, the recreation of reality as it should be in order to correspond to the Stalinist ideal of socialism."
From the very first attempts to comprehend the artistic process from the standpoint of socialist realism, significant difficulties arose. Living practice did not fit into the Procrustean bed of the method, so it was necessary either to artificially adjust the works to criteria that had acquired the force of law, or to completely separate these works and their creators from Soviet art in general. The irreparable harm caused by the forced introduction of this method stemmed from the claims of its followers to a monopoly. In addition, a significant substitution took place: the principle of realism was proclaimed in words, while the followers of the new method in fact created a romantic myth with the dual world characteristic of romantic artists. The horrors of the old world, which appeared to be the focus of all conceivable vices and oppressions perpetrated by those in power, were countered by an uplifting harmony new society builders and fighters - knights without fear or reproach. Of course, this model was never presented in its unclouded purity in the most talented creations, but it served as a kind of guideline, an ideal to which one should strive. Hence the insistent demand for optimism, optimism on command, as soon as Soviet reality became the object of artistic depiction; hence the suspicious attitude towards tragic theme and to artists with a tragic worldview.
In music, the inculcation of socialist realism immediately encountered significant difficulties. “Socialist realism is not a ready-made standard form of musical creativity,” wrote the prominent Soviet critic V. Gorodinsky “hot on its heels.” This method, according to the critic, does not at all limit the artist’s initiative and is by no means something established once and for all, incapable of development, and always and everywhere the same. But what exactly the music had to contain in order to meet the criteria of the method remained unclear. It is no coincidence that conversations about the essence of socialist realism in music soon died out, and the matter was limited to simply repeating the ritual formula without seriously trying to figure out whether it was generally applicable to the art of intoned sound images.
If we move on to the real state of affairs that has developed in different types art in the 30s, it should be emphasized that in literature, fine arts, theater, cinema - everywhere a process of relative stabilization has emerged. It was associated with a departure from the aesthetics of the 20s, from the extreme trends of the then artistic avant-garde. Poster symbolism and the straightforward propaganda of speeches designed to be delivered oratorically in front of people filling open spaces are a thing of the past, just as the practice of mass theatrical performances has died out. Even leaders of proletarian organizations put forward the slogan “ living person”, rejecting calls for the “demification” of fiction. Experimental movements, which were now seen as an expression of leftist extremes and bourgeois-aesthetic excesses, disappeared. They were subject to criticism of the formal school in literary criticism - the label of “formalism” for a long time became a common means of reprisal against those areas where the task of updating linguistic means was set. Orientation towards the classics began to determine the development of almost all manifestations of artistic creativity.
However, it would be wrong to say that soviet art The 1930s completely abandoned any quest, any setting of new artistic goals. In a number of works, both previous trends - developments - harmoniously merged classical tradition and the search for a new language in tune with modern times. Perhaps this combination has not manifested itself anywhere with such clarity and artistic perfection as in music. But it also affected the development of theatrical art quite clearly and noticeably. In the 30s, the prestige of academic theaters increased significantly, where the Moscow Theater came to the forefront Art Theater: headed by K. Stanislavsky and V. Nemirovich-Danchenko, it presented a number of outstanding performances, marked by an innovative interpretation of the classics (“Anna Karenina” by L. Tolstoy, “The School of Scandal” by R. Sheridan and others). But the former antipode of the Moscow Art Theater, as V. Meyerhold’s theater proclaimed itself for many years, also turned to the classics and contributed to the renaissance of A. Ostrovsky, with which the 30s were associated (the production of the play “The Forest”).
Despite the totalitarian control of the state in all areas cultural development society, the art of the USSR in the 30s of the 20th century did not lag behind the world trends of that time. The introduction of technological progress, as well as new trends from the West, contributed to the flourishing of literature, music, theater and cinema.
A distinctive feature of the Soviet literary process During this period, there was a confrontation between writers into two opposing groups: some writers supported Stalin’s policies and glorified the world socialist revolution, others resisted the authoritarian regime in every possible way and condemned the inhumane policies of the leader.
Russian literature of the 30s experienced its second heyday, and entered the history of world literature as the period of the Silver Age. At this time, unsurpassed masters of words were creating: A. Akhmatova, K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Mayakovsky.
Russian prose also showed its literary power: the works of I. Bunin, V. Nabokov, M. Bulgakov, A. Kuprin, I. Ilf and E. Petrov have firmly entered the guild of world literary treasures. Literature during this period reflected the full reality of state and public life.
The works highlighted the issues that worried the public at that unpredictable time. Many Russian writers were forced to flee from totalitarian persecution by the authorities to other states, however, they did not interrupt their writing activities abroad.
In the 30s Soviet theater was going through a period of decline. First of all, theater was seen as the main instrument of ideological propaganda. Over time, Chekhov's immortal productions were replaced by pseudo-realistic performances glorifying the leader and the Communist Party.
Outstanding actors who tried in every possible way to preserve the originality of the Russian theater were subjected to severe repression by the father of the Soviet people, among them V. Kachalov, N. Cherkasov, I. Moskvin, M. Ermolova. The same fate befell the most talented director V. Meyerhold, who created his own drama school, which was worthy competition for the progressive West.
With the development of radio, the age of birth began in the USSR pop music. Songs that were broadcast on the radio and recorded on records became available to a wide audience of listeners. Mass song in the Soviet Union was represented by the works of D. Shostakovich, I. Dunaevsky, I. Yuryev, V. Kozin.
The Soviet government completely rejected the jazz direction, which was popular in Europe and the USA (so in the USSR the work of L. Utesov, the first Russian jazz performer, was ignored). Instead, musical works that glorified the socialist system and inspired the nation to work and exploits in the name of the great revolution were welcomed.
Film art in the USSR
The masters of Soviet cinema of this period were able to achieve significant heights in the development of this art form. D. Vetrov, G. Alexandrov, A. Dovzhenko made a huge contribution to the development of cinema. Unsurpassed actresses - Lyubov Orlova, Rina Zelenaya, Faina Ranevskaya - became the symbol of Soviet cinema.
Many films, as well as other works of art, served the propaganda purposes of the Bolsheviks. But still, thanks to the skill of acting, the introduction of sound, high-quality scenery Soviet films and in our time they evoke genuine admiration from their contemporaries. Such films as “Jolly Fellows”, “Spring”, “Foundling” and “Earth” became a real treasure of Soviet cinema.
The beginning of the 30s was marked by the appearance of the most important party documents that stimulated the unification and development of creative forces. The resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of April 23, 1932 also had a beneficial effect on musical culture.
The Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians (Association modern music actually disintegrated earlier), paths for the further development of realistic music are outlined, and the democratic traditions of Russian classical musical art are affirmed.
In 1932 the Union was organized Soviet composers, which laid the foundation for the unification of musicians based on the method of socialist realism. Soviet musical creativity moved to a new stage.
Song creativity is gaining enormous scope. The genre of mass song becomes a laboratory for new means of melodic expression, and the process of “song renewal” covers all types of music - opera, symphony, cantata-oratorio, chamber, instrumental. The themes of the songs are varied, as are their melodies.
Among the works of the song genre, the fighting songs of A. Alexandrov, the songs of I. Dunaevsky with their sonorous joy, youthful energy, bright lyrics (such as the world famous “Song of the Motherland”, “Song of Kakhovka”, “March of the Merry Men”) especially stand out at this time. guys”, etc.), original songs by V. Zakharov, dedicated to the new life of the collective farm village (“Along the Village”, “And Who Knows Him”, “Seeing Off”), songs of the Pokrass brothers (“If Tomorrow is War”, “Cavalry”) , M. Blanter (“Katyusha”, etc.), S. Kats, K. Listov, B. Mokrousov, V. Solovyov-Sedogo.
The song genre developed in close collaboration between composers and poets M. Isakovsky, V. Lebedev-Kumach, V. Gusev, A. Surkov and others. The widespread popularity of Soviet songs was facilitated by the emergence of sound films. Once off the screen, they long outlived the films for which they were written.
The Opera Theater in the 30s was enriched with realistic works on modern themes, accessible in language, truthful in content, although not always free from shortcomings (weak dramaturgy, incomplete use of broad vocal forms, developed ensembles).
I. Dzerzhinsky’s operas “Quiet Don” and “Virgin Soil Upturned” were distinguished by a bright melodic beginning and realistic characterization of the characters. The final chorus “From edge to edge” from “Quiet Don” has become one of the most popular popular songs. T. Khrennikov’s opera “Into the Storm” is also filled with dramatic characteristics, original melody, and expressive folk choirs.
Elements of French folk music received an interesting interpretation in D. Kabalevsky’s opera “Cola Breugnon,” marked by great professional skill and subtlety of musical characteristics.
S. Prokofiev’s opera “Semyon Kotko” was characterized by the rejection of mass songs and the predominance of recitative.
Various trends in the work of Soviet composers began in 1935-1939. the subject of discussions about the ways of development of opera art.
Composers who worked in the genre of operetta also turned to the modern theme - I. Dunaevsky, M. Blanter, B. Alexandrov.
In the ballet genre, realistic tendencies were represented by such significant works as “The Flame of Paris” and “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai” by B. Asafiev, “Laurencia” by A. Crane, and the musical and choreographic tragedy by S. Prokofiev “Romeo and Juliet”. The first national ballets appeared in Georgia, Belarus, and Ukraine.
Successes in the genre of symphonic music were also associated with the penetration of the song-melodic principle, the democratization of images, filling them with specific life content, strengthening programmatic tendencies, and turning to the song and dance melodies of the peoples of the USSR.
In the 30s, the creativity of the largest Soviet symphonists of the older generation flourished, and the talents of the young became mature. In symphonic music, realistic tendencies are strengthened and modern themes are reflected. N. Myaskovsky created ten symphonies during this period (from the 12th to the 21st). S. Prokofiev writes a patriotic cantata “Alexander Nevsky”, 2nd violin concerto, symphonic fairy tale“Peter and the Wolf”, D. Shostakovich - the 5th symphony, grandiose in concept and depth of content, as well as the 6th symphony, piano quintet, quartet, music for the film “The Counter”.
Many significant works in the symphonic genre were devoted to historical, revolutionary and heroic themes: the 2nd symphony of D. Kabalevsky, the symphony-cantata of Y. Shaporin “On the Kulikovo Field”. A. Khachaturian made a valuable contribution to realistic music (1st symphony, piano and violin concertos, ballet “Gayane”).
Other composers also wrote major symphonic works, including composers from the Soviet national republics.
The performing arts have risen to great heights. Outstanding vocalists A. Nezhdanova, A. Pirogov, N. Obukhova, M. Stepanova, I. Patorzhinsky and others were awarded the title people's artist USSR.
Young Soviet musicians E. Gilels, D. Oistrakh, J. Flier, J. Zak won first prizes at international competitions in Warsaw, Vienna, and Brussels. The names of G. Ulanova, M. Semenova, 0. Lepeshinskaya, V. Chabukiani became the pride of Soviet and world choreographic art.
Large state performing groups were created - the State Symphony Orchestra, the State Dance Ensemble, State Choir USSR.
Getting acquainted with the works of Soviet fine art, you immediately notice that it is very different from the previous period in the history of art. This difference lies in the fact that all Soviet art is permeated with Soviet ideology and was intended to be a conductor of all ideas and decisions of the Soviet state and the Communist Party, as the guiding force of Soviet society. If in the art of the 19th - early 20th centuries, artists seriously criticized the existing reality, then in the Soviet period such works were unacceptable. A red thread through everything Soviet fine arts the pathos of building a socialist state was attached. Now, 25 years after the collapse of the USSR, there is increased interest in Soviet art from viewers, and it is especially becoming interesting to young people. And the older generation is rethinking a lot about the past history of our country and is also interested in seemingly very familiar works Soviet painting, sculpture, architecture.
Art of the period of the October Revolution, the Civil War and the 20s - 30s.
In the first years after the revolution and during the civil war, he played a huge role combat political poster. They are rightfully considered classics of poster art. D.S. Moore and V.N. Denis. Moor's poster "Have you signed up to volunteer?" and now captivates with the expressiveness of the image.
In addition to the printed poster, hand-drawn and stenciled posters arose during the Civil War. This "ROSTA Windows", where the poet V. Mayakovsky took an active part.
During the Civil War he worked monumental propaganda plan, compiled by V.I. Lenin, the meaning of which was the construction of monuments throughout the country famous people, which in one way or another contributed to the preparation and implementation of the socialist revolution. The performers of this program include primarily sculptors N.A. Andreev I.D. Shadr.
In the 20s, an association was formed that played a significant role in the construction of a new Soviet society - Russia" (AHRR) "Association of Artists revolutionary Russia(AHRR).
In the 30s, a single Union of Artists of the USSR was created, uniting all artists who in their work had to follow the method of socialist realism. Older artists (B. Kustodiev, K. Yuon and others.) and younger ones sought to reflect the new in Soviet reality.
In creativity I.I. Brodsky The historical-revolutionary theme was reflected. The same theme in the works M. Grekova and K. Petrova-Vodkina has a sublimely romantic character.
In these same years the epic began "Leniniana" who created countless works during the Soviet period dedicated to V.I. Lenin.
Genre painters (masters of the everyday genre) and portrait painters of the 20s-30s should first of all be called M. Nesterov, P. Konchalovsky, S. Gerasimov, A. Deineka, Y. Pimenov, G. Ryazhsky and other artists.
In the area landscape such artists worked like K. Yuon, A. Rylov, V. Baksheev and d r.
After the revolution and civil war, there was a rapid construction of cities in which many monuments to prominent figures of the revolution, parties and states. Famous sculptors were A. Matveev, M. Manizer, N. Tomsky, S. Lebedeva and others.
Soviet fine art 1941 -1945 and the first post-war years
During the Great Patriotic War, Soviet art decisively refuted the saying that “when the guns roar, the muses are silent.” No, during the period of the most cruel and terrible wars in the history of mankind, the muses were not silent. Immediately after the treacherous attack of the German fascists on the Soviet Union, the brush, pencil and chisel of artists became a formidable weapon in the fight against the enemy.
The heroic rise of the people, their moral unity became the basis on which Soviet art rose during the Patriotic War. He was permeated with ideas patriotism. These ideas inspired poster artists, encouraged painters to create paintings telling about the exploits of Soviet people, and determined the content of works in all types of art.
A huge role at this time, as during the Civil War, was played by political posters, where artists such as V.S.Ivanov, V.B.Koretsky and others. Their works are characterized by angry pathos; the images they created reveal the unbending will of the people who stood up in defense of the Fatherland.
The hand-drawn poster experienced a genuine revival during the war. Following the example of "Windows of GROWTH" in 1941 - 1945, numerous sheets were created "Windows TASS". They ridiculed the invaders, exposed the true essence of fascism, and called on the people to defend the Motherland. Among the artists working in TASS Windows, first of all it should be mentioned Kukryniksov (Kupriyanov, Krylov, Sokolov).
Graphic series of this time convincingly tell about the experiences of Soviet people during the war years. Heartache marks a magnificent series of drawings D.A. Shmarinova “We will not forget, we will not forgive!” The severity of life in besieged Leningrad is captured in a series of drawings A.F. Pakhomov "Leningrad in the days of the siege."
It was difficult for painters to work during the war years: after all, creating a finished picture requires time and appropriate conditions and materials. Nevertheless, then many paintings appeared that were included in the golden fund of Soviet art. Painters from the studio of military artists named after A.B. Grekov tell us about the difficult everyday life of war, about heroic warriors. They traveled to the fronts and took part in military operations.
War artists captured on their canvases everything that they themselves saw and experienced. Among them P.A. Krivonogov, author of the painting "Victory", B.M. Nemensky and his the painting “Mother”, a peasant woman who sheltered soldiers in her hut, who suffered a lot during a difficult time for the Motherland.
Canvases of great artistic value were created during these years A.A.Deineka, A.A.Plastov, Kukryniksy. Their paintings, dedicated to the heroic exploits of the Soviet people at the front and in the rear, are imbued with sincere excitement. The artists assert the moral superiority of the Soviet people over the brute force of fascism. This demonstrates the humanism of the people, their faith in the ideals of justice and goodness. Historical paintings created during the war, including such as the cycle paintings by E.E. Lansere "Trophies of Russian weapons"(1942), triptych by P.D. Korin “Alexander Nevsky”, canvas by A.P. Bubnov “Morning on the Kulikovo Field”.
She told us a lot about people during the war and portraiture. Many works have been created in this genre, marked by extraordinary artistic merit.
The portrait gallery of the period of the Patriotic War was replenished with many sculptural works. People of unbending will, courageous characters, marked by bright individual differences, presented in sculptural portraits of S.D. Lebedeva, N.V. Tomsky, V.I. Mukhina, V.E. Vuchetich.
During the Patriotic War, Soviet art fulfilled its patriotic duty with honor. The artists came to victory after going through deep experiences, which made it possible in the first post-war years to create works with complex and multifaceted content.
In the second half of the 40s - 50s, art was enriched with new themes and images. Its main tasks during this period were to reflect the successes of post-war construction, educate morality and communist ideals.
The flourishing of art in the post-war years was greatly facilitated by the activities of the USSR Academy of Arts, which included the most significant masters.
Art post-war years There are also other features that primarily relate to its content. During these years, artists' interest in the inner world of man intensified. Hence the attention that painters, sculptors, and graphic artists pay to portraits and genre compositions, which allow them to imagine people in a wide variety of life situations and show the originality of their characters and experiences. Hence the special humanity and warmth of many works dedicated to the life and everyday life of Soviet people.
Naturally, at this time, artists continue to be concerned about the events of the recent war. Again and again they turn to the exploits of the people, to the difficult experiences of the Soviet people in difficult times. Such paintings of those years are known as "Mashenka" by B. Nemensky, "Letter from the Front" by A. Laktionov, "Rest after the Battle" by Yu. Nemensky, “Return” by V. Kostetsky and many others.
The canvases of these artists are interesting because the theme of war is dealt with in the everyday genre: they paint scenes from the life of Soviet people at war and on the home front, talking about their suffering, courage, and heroism.
It is noteworthy that paintings of historical content were also often made during this period in the everyday genre. Gradually peaceful life of the Soviet people, which replaced the difficult trials of the war years, is finding ever more complete and mature embodiment in the works of many artists. Appears large number genre paintings (i.e. paintings of the everyday genre), striking in the variety of themes and plots. This is the life of a Soviet family, with its simple joys and sorrows ( "A deuce again!" F. Reshetnikova), this is hard work in factories and factories, on collective farms and state farms ( "Bread" by T. Yablonskaya, "On Peaceful Fields" A. Mylnikova). This is the life of Soviet youth, the development of virgin lands, etc. Particularly important contribution to genre painting artists did during this period A. Plastov, S. Chuikov, T. Salakhov and others.
Portraiture continued to develop successfully during these years - this P. Korin, V. Efanov and other artists. In the area landscape painting during this period, in addition to oldest artists, including M. Saryan, worked by R. Nissky, N. Romadin and others.
In subsequent years, the visual arts of the Soviet period continued to develop in the same direction.