Book: Lecture notes World History of the 20th Century

32. Art of the 20-30s

Basic ideas and directions in the development of art. Painting. During the interwar period, new movements and directions appeared in art, and old ones developed. Before the First World War, realism dominated European fine art. The world then seemed worthy of his realistic depiction. The personality of the artist, his tastes and preferences could be reflected in the choice of genre, composition, preference for form or color.

First world war and post-war instability led to the fact that the world lost its harmony and rationality in the eyes of artists, its realistic reflection seemed to lose its meaning. There has been a change in the understanding of the artist. It consisted not in an adequate reflection of the world, but in identifying the artist’s vision of the world. And such an understanding of the world could rise, for example, to a certain ratio of lines and geometric shapes. This type of painting is called abstractionism. Its founder was the Russian artist Wassily Kandinsky. Surrealists (surrealism in French means overrealism), led by Salvador Dali, tried to depict the irrational world. In their paintings, unlike the paintings of abstractionists, there are objects, they can be known, but sometimes they look strange and are in unusual compositions, like in dreams.

One of the new trends in literature and art was avant-gardeism. Avant-garde is the conventional name for many anti-realistic movements in literature and art of the 20th century. It arose on the basis of an anarchic, subjective worldview. Hence the break with the previous realistic tradition, the formalistic search for new means of artistic expression. The predecessors of avant-gardeism were the modernist movements of the first third of the 20th century. - Fauvism, cubism, futurism, surrealism and dodecaphony in music. Among the representatives of avant-garde and neo-avant-garde are artists P. Mondrian, SDali, writers R. Desnos, A. Artaud, S. Beckett, composers S. Bussoti, J. Caydogs.

Modernism is the main art direction of the 20-30s, characterized by a break with ideological and artistic principles classical art. Originated in the 20-30s of the XX century, it covered all types of creativity. Modernist artists E. Kirchner, D. Ensor, E. Munch, E. Nolde, V. Kandinsky, P. Klee, O. Kokoschka proposed intuitionism and automatism in the creative process - the use of the physical properties of geometric shapes and colors, the rejection of the illusions of space , deformation of objects in the depiction of symbols, subjectivity in content.

Realism is one of the main properties of art and literature, which lies in the desire for a truthful, objective reflection and reproduction of reality in forms that correspond to it. In a narrower sense, it is a movement in art that opposed modernism and avant-gardeism in the interwar period of the 20th century. its representatives were, in particular, the artists F. Maserel (Belgium), Fougere and Taslitsky (France), b. Guttuso (Italy), G. Erni (Switzerland).

Theater. Significant successes have been achieved in the field theatrical arts and cinematography. This applies primarily to Western European countries and the USA. The development of theatrical art in the USA was quite complete. Theaters were founded here, in which directors G. Klerman, E. Kazan, L. Starsberg, R. Mamoulian worked, and actors - K. Cornell, J. Barrymore, H. Hayes, E. Le Gallienne. The repertoire included plays by young American playwrights K. Odets, "Yo" Neil, J. Lawson, A. Malzi and others.

Movie. Film production in the USA began in 1896, and since 1908 it has been concentrated in Hollywood. An outstanding figure in American cinema in those years was director D. W. Griffith, who in his historical films laid the foundations of cinema as an independent art. This was facilitated by the activities of directors T.H.Ins, who laid the foundation for film-westerns, and M. Sennett, indicated by a high professional culture. Charlie Chaplin became the greatest master of film comedy. Popular stars 20-30s - M. Pickford, D. Fairbanks, R. Valentino, G. Garbo, L. Hirsch, B. Keaton, K. Gable, F. Astor, G. Cooper, H. Bogart. At this time, V. Disney developed the basics of the animated film. It should be noted that among the films there were also those that raised intellectual problems, for example, “Citizen Kane” (1941 p., director O. Welles).

In the USSR, the development of cinematography took place in the same direction as in other countries, but had its own characteristics associated with the existence of a totalitarian state. In the 20-30s, the films “Battleship Potemkin” and “Chapaev” were made, by outstanding directors Eisenstein, A. Dovzhenko and others.

In other parts of the world, cinema was in its infancy, but theatrical art was actively developing. The exception was India, where the first film was shot back in 1913. In the 30s, the films “Alam Ara” directed by Iran and “Devdas” directed by Baruah were released here.

Architecture. In the art of the 20-30s, an intensive search continued for the answer to the question about the role and place of man in society, about the principles of its interaction with environment and about the future of humanity. The French architect Le Corbusier viewed architecture as an integral part of social progress and gave preference to the development of comfortable residential buildings and complexes, supported the need for serial design and industrialization of construction. With the help of architecture, architects tried to eliminate existing injustice and improve society. The idea was to disperse the population major cities in satellite cities, to create a “garden city”. Similar projects were carried out in England, France, and Holland. In various forms, the idea of ​​a harmonious combination of human habitation and nature was implemented in the USA, Finland, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and other countries. it was picked up in the USSR, but at the same time the essence was emasculated, reducing it to propaganda slogans. “I know - the city will be, I know - the garden will bloom when there are such people in the Soviet country!” - wrote the poet V. Mayakovsky in 1929 about the development of the city of Kuznetskaya. However, the mining and metallurgical industries still dominate there and the public infrastructure remains weak.

In countries with a totalitarian regime, they tried to impose on art the ideas of the superiority of one social order over the other, to instill symbols of eternity and inviolability of the existing government, which cares about the well-being of the people and their spiritual purity. The architecture and sculpture of Germany and Italy embodied the ideas of unquestioning obedience, national and racial superiority, and cultivated strength and rudeness. The USSR supported those artists who were able to more clearly and convincingly show the pathos of socialist construction and the merits of the Bolshevik Party and its leaders in it. The sculptural group “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by V. Mukhina, created specifically for the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris, has long been called an outstanding phenomenon of international artistic culture here.

CULTURAL REVOLUTION It was aimed at: Cultural Revolution provided: In the USSR in the 2000s. XX century The Cultural Revolution occurred. It was aimed: 1. To change social composition post-revolutionary intelligentsia, 2. Breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage. The Cultural Revolution provided for: 1. Elimination of illiteracy, 2. Creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, 3. Development of science, literature, art under party control.

Fine arts In the 1930s, significant changes took place in the visual arts. Despite the fact that the Partnership of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continue to exist in the country, new associations appear in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists, artist F. Shurpin 1930, artist G. Klutsis

Socialist realism By the mid-30s. generally binding for Soviet art artistic method method was declared socialist realism(a depiction of reality not as it is, but as it should be from the point of view of the interests of the struggle for socialism). The decisive events in this sense were the creation in 1934 of the Union Soviet writers and a number of ideological campaigns. Nikolaev K. "Laying a railway track in Magnitogorsk"

M. Grekov. "Trumpeters of the First Cavalry Army", 1934 Tikhova M. "Sculpture laboratory of the Lomonosov porcelain factory"

POSTER ART During the period of the civil war and intervention, the political poster was completely separated from other types of artistic graphics (advertising, posters, political drawings). The poster is characterized by a striking visual image, prompt response, and accessibility of the content. This was very important for a country in which most of the population was illiterate. KUKRYNIKSY Efimov B., Ioffe M., 1936

EASEL PAINTING Soviet easel painting has a craving for monumental, significant forms and images. Painting is becoming increasingly broader in subject matter and less sketchy in style. “A heroic generality penetrates into the easel painting” One of the most significant representatives easel painting this period Boris Ioganson. He introduces “new revolutionary content in tune with the era” into his works. Two of his paintings are especially popular: “Interrogation of Communists” (1933) and “At the Old Ural Factory” (1937). “Interrogation of communists” “At the old Ural plant”

MONUMENTAL PAINTING In the 1990s, monumental painting became an indispensable element of the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. Pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by Evgeniy Lanceray, who painted the restaurant hall of the Kazansky railway station (1933), demonstrating his desire for a flexible baroque form. Deineka also made a great contribution to monumental painting. His mosaics of the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: sharpness of rhythm, dynamics of local colorful spots, energy of angles, conventional depiction of figures and objects. Favorsky, a famous graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of form construction, developed in book illustration, to new tasks. His paintings of the Museum of Protective Motherhood and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture based on the experience of ancient Russian painting.

LANDSCAPE A variety of stylistic directions is achieved: In the 1960s, the era of the grounded method of socialist realism in art in general, and painting in particular, began in the USSR. A variety of stylistic directions is achieved: 1. Lyrical line landscape painting, 2. Industrial landscape.

PORTRAIT GENRE The development of pictorial portraiture in the avant-garde style of the “first wave” had exhausted itself by the 1930s. In the portrait genre, the techniques and stylistics of a realistic solution to the image of a contemporary were again in demand, while the ideological, propaganda function of the portrait was declared as one of the main tasks. M. Nesterov “Portrait of Academician I.P. Pavlov” 1930 Nesterov M. “Portrait of the artists P.D. and A.D. Korinykh.", 1930

RESULT: The results of the transformations of the first years of Soviet power in the field of culture were far from ambiguous. On the one hand, certain successes were achieved in eliminating illiteracy, there was a rise in the activity of the creative intelligentsia, which was expressed in the organization of new and the revival of old societies and associations, and the creation of values ​​in the field of spiritual and material culture. On the other hand, culture became part of state policy, coming under the control of the party and government apparatus.

In 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, Maxim Gorky formulated the basic principles of socialist realism as a method Soviet literature and art. This moment marks the beginning of a new era of Soviet art, with stricter ideological control and propaganda schemes.

Basic principles:

• - Nationality. As a rule, the heroes of socialist realist works were city and country workers, workers and peasants, representatives of the technical intelligentsia and military personnel, Bolsheviks and non-party people.
• - Ideology. Show the peaceful life of the people, the search for ways to a new better life, heroic deeds with the goal of achieving a happy life for all people.
• - Specificity. In depicting reality, show the process of historical development, which in turn must correspond to the materialistic understanding of history (in the process of changing the conditions of their existence, people change their consciousness and attitude towards the surrounding reality).

In the years following this resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations, a number of major events were carried out aimed at developing art in the direction required by the state. The practice of government orders, creative business trips, and organizing large-scale thematic and anniversary exhibitions is expanding. Soviet artists create many works (panels, monumental, decorative) for the future VDNKh. This meant important stage revival of monumental art as independent. In these works, it became obvious that the desire of Soviet art for monumentality is not accidental, but reflects “grand prospects for the development of socialist society.”

In 1918, Lenin, in a conversation with K. Zetkin, defined the tasks of art in Soviet society: “Art belongs to the people. It must have its deepest roots in the very depths of the broad working masses. It must be understandable to these masses and loved by them. It must unite the feeling, thought and will of these masses, lift them up. It should awaken the artists in them and develop them.”

During the period under review, along with already existing art directions, several fundamentally new ones appeared, for example, avant-garde.

Within the framework of the monumentalism style, sculpture is of greatest interest. Like all other trends in Soviet art, sculpture of the period had a propaganda orientation and patriotic content of subjects. Lenin’s plan for monumental propaganda, adopted in 1918, played a great role in the development of sculpture. In accordance with this plan, monuments promoting new revolutionary values ​​were to be erected throughout the country. Prominent sculptors were brought in for the work: N.A. Andreev (who later became the creator of sculptural Leniniana). Another prominent sculptor of this period is Ivan Shadr. In 1922, he created the statues “Worker”, “Sower”, “Peasant”, “Red Army Soldier”. The uniqueness of his method is the generalization of an image based on a specific genre plot, powerful sculpting of volumes, expressiveness of movement, and romantic pathos. His most striking work is “Cobblestone is a tool of the proletariat. 1905" (1927). In the same year, on the territory of the hydroelectric power station in the Caucasus ZAGES, a monument to Lenin was erected by him - “one of the best.” Vera Mukhina developed as a master also in the 20s. During this period, she created a project for the monument “Liberated Labor” (1920, not preserved), “Peasant Woman” (1927). Of the more mature masters, the work of Sarah Lebedeva, who created portraits, is noted. In her understanding of form, she takes into account the traditions and experience of impressionism. Alexander Matveev is characterized by classical clarity in understanding the constructive basis of plastic art, the harmony of sculptural masses and the relationship of volumes in space (“Undressing woman”, “Woman putting on a shoe”), as well as the famous “October” (1927), where the composition includes 3 naked men figures - combination classical traditions and the ideal of the “man of the Revolution” (attributes: sickle, hammer, budenovka).

Art forms that could “live” on the streets played a vital role in the first years after the revolution in “the formation of the social and aesthetic consciousness of the revolutionary people.” Therefore, along with monumental sculpture, the political poster received the most active development. It turned out to be the most mobile and operative form of art. During the period of the Civil War, this genre was characterized by the following qualities: “sharpness in the presentation of material, instant reaction to rapidly changing events, propaganda orientation, thanks to which the main features of the plastic language of the poster were formed. They turned out to be laconicism, conventionality of the image, clarity of silhouette and gesture. Posters were extremely common, printed in large quantities and placed everywhere. A special place in the development of the poster is occupied by ROSTA's Windows of Satire, in which Cheremnykh, Mikhail Mikhailovich and Vladimir Mayakovsky played an outstanding role. These are stenciled posters, hand-painted and with poetic inscriptions on the topic of the day. They played a huge role in political propaganda and became a new figurative form. The artistic decoration of festivals is another new phenomenon of Soviet art that had no tradition. The holidays included the anniversaries of the October Revolution, May 1, March 8 and other Soviet holidays. This created a new unconventional art form, thanks to which painting acquired new space and functions. For the holidays, monumental panels were created, which were characterized by enormous monumental propaganda pathos. Artists created sketches for the design of squares and streets.

The following people took part in the design of these holidays: Petrov-Vodkin, Kustodiev, E. Lansere, S.V. Gerasimov.

Soviet art criticism divided the masters of Soviet painting of this period into two groups:

• - artists who sought to capture subjects in a familiar way figurative language factual display;
• - artists who used a more complex, figurative perception of modernity.

They created symbolic images in which they tried to express their “poetic, inspired” perception of the era in its new state. Konstantin Yuon created one of the first works dedicated to the image of the revolution (“New Planet”, 1920, Tretyakov Gallery), where the event is interpreted on a universal, cosmic scale. Petrov-Vodkin in 1920 created the painting “1918 in Petrograd (Petrograd Madonna)”, solving the ethical and philosophical problems of the time in it. Arkady Rylov, as it was believed, in his landscape “In the Blue Expanse” (1918) also thinks symbolically, expressing “the free breath of humanity, bursting into the vast expanses of the world, to romantic discoveries, to free and strong experiences.”

New images can also be seen in the graphics. Nikolai Kupreyanov “seeks to express his impressions of the revolution using the complex technique of wooden engraving” (“Armored Cars”, 1918; “Aurora Volley”, 1920). In the 1930s, monumental painting became an indispensable element of the entire artistic culture. It depended on the development of architecture and was firmly connected with it. Pre-revolutionary traditions were continued at this time by the former World of Art student Evgeniy Lansere - the painting of the restaurant hall of the Kazan railway station (1933) demonstrates his desire for a flexible baroque form. It breaks through the plane of the ceiling, expanding the space outward. Deineka, who also made a major contribution to monumental painting at this time, works differently. His mosaics of the Mayakovskaya station (1938) were created using a modern style: sharpness of rhythm, dynamics of local colorful spots, energy of angles, conventional depiction of figures and objects. The topics are mainly sports. Favorsky, a famous graphic artist, also made a contribution to monumental painting: he applied his system of form construction, developed in book illustration, to new tasks. His murals of the Museum of Motherhood and Infancy (1933, together with Lev Bruni) and the House of Models (1935) show his understanding of the role of the plane, the combination of frescoes with architecture based on the experience of ancient Russian painting. (Both works have not survived).

Constructivism became the dominant style in the architecture of the 20s.

Constructivists tried to use new technical capabilities to create simple, logical, functionally justified forms and expedient structures. An example of the architecture of Soviet constructivism is the projects of the Vesnin brothers. The most grandiose of them, the Palace of Labor, was never brought to life, but had a significant influence on the development of domestic architecture. Unfortunately, architectural monuments were also destroyed: only in the 30s. In Moscow, the Sukharev Tower, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin, the Red Gate and hundreds of unknown urban and rural churches, many of which were of historical and artistic value, were destroyed.

Due to the political nature of Soviet art, many artistic associations and groups are being created with their own platforms and manifestos. Art was in search and was diverse. The main groups were AHRR, OST, and “4 Arts”. Artists Association revolutionary Russia was founded in 1922. Its core consisted of former Itinerants, whose style had a great influence on the group’s approach - the realistic everyday writing language of the late Itinerants, “going among the people” and thematic exhibitions. In addition to the themes of the paintings (dictated by the revolution), the AHRR was characterized by the organization of thematic exhibitions such as “Life and Life of Workers”, “Life and Life of the Red Army”.

The main masters and works of the group: Isaac Brodsky (“Lenin’s Speech at the Putilov Factory”, “Lenin in Smolny”), Georgy Ryazhsky (“Delegate”, 1927; “Chairwoman”, 1928), portraitist Sergei Malyutin (“Portrait of Furmanov”, 1922 ), Abram Arkhipov, Efim Cheptsov (“Meeting of the Village Cell”, 1924), Vasily Yakovlev (“Transport is getting better”, 1923), Mitrofan Grekov (“Tachanka”, 1925, later “To the Kuban” and “Trumpeters of the First Horse”, 1934 ). The Society of Easel Painters, founded in 1925, included artists with less conservative views in terms of painting, mainly students of VKHUTEMAS. These were: Williams “The Hamburg Uprising”, Deineka (“On the construction of new workshops”, 1925; “Before going down into the mine”, 1924; “Defense of Petrograd”, 1928), Labas Luchishkin (“The ball flew away”, “I love life” "), Pimenov ("Heavy Industry"), Tyshler, Shterenberg and others. They supported the slogan of the revival and development of easel painting, but were guided not by realism, but by the experience of contemporary expressionists. Among the topics they were close to were industrialization, city life and sports. The Four Arts Society was founded by artists who were former members of the World of Art and the Blue Rose, who were careful about the culture and language of painting. The most prominent members of the association: Pavel Kuznetsov, Petrov-Vodkin, Saryan, Favorsky and many other outstanding masters. The society was characterized by a philosophical background with adequate plastic expression. The Society of Moscow Artists includes former members of the associations “Moscow Painters”, “Makovets” and “Being”, as well as members of the “Jack of Diamonds”. The most active artists: Pyotr Konchalovsky, Ilya Mashkov, Lentulov, Alexander Kuprin, Robert Falk, Vasily Rozhdestvensky, Osmerkin, Sergei Gerasimov, Nikolai Chernyshev, Igor Grabar. Artists created “thematic” paintings using the developed “Bubnovo-Jack” and so on. trends of the avant-garde school. The creativity of these groups was a symptom of the fact that the consciousness of the older generation of masters was trying to adapt to new realities. In the 1920s, two large-scale exhibitions were held that consolidated the trends - for the 10th anniversary of the October Revolution and the Red Army, as well as the “Exhibition of Art of the Peoples of the USSR” (1927).

The leading sphere of development of literature in the 20s. undoubtedly is poetry. In form, literary life has largely remained the same. As at the beginning of the century, the tone was set for her literary clubs, many of whom survived the bloody hard times and continued to operate in the 20s: symbolists, futurists, acmeists, etc. New circles and associations are emerging, but the rivalry between them now goes beyond the artistic sphere and often takes on a political overtones. The associations RAPP, “Pereval”, “Serapion Brothers” and LEF were of greatest importance for the development of literature.

RAPP (Russian Association of Proletarian Writers) took shape at the First All-Union Conference of Proletarian Writers in 1925. Its members included writers (the most famous A. Fadeev and D. Furmanov) and literary critics. The predecessor of RAPP was Proletkult, one of the most massive organizations founded in 1917. They treated almost all writers who were not members of their organization as “class enemies.” Among the authors who were attacked by RAPP members were not only A. Akhmatova, Z. Gippius, I. Bunin, but even such recognized “singers of the revolution” as M. Gorky and V. Mayakovsky. The ideological opposition to RAPP was formed by the literary group “Pereval”.

The group “Serapion Brothers” was created in 1921 in the Petrograd House of Arts. The group included such famous writers as V. Ivanov, M. Zoshchenko, K. Fedin and others.

LEF - left front of the arts. The positions of the members of this organization (V. Mayakovsky, N. Aseev, S. Eisenstein, etc.) are very contradictory. Combining futurism with innovation in the spirit of proletkult, they came up with a very fantastic idea of ​​​​creating some kind of “industrial” art, which was supposed to perform a utilitarian function in society of providing a favorable atmosphere for material production. Art was considered as an element of technical construction, without any subtext, fiction of psychologism, etc.

Of great importance for the development of Russian literature of the twentieth century. played by the poetic work of V. Ya. Bryusov, E. G. Bagritsky, O. E. Mandelstam, B. L. Pasternak, D. Bedny, “peasant” poets, the brightest representative of which was Yesenin’s friend N. A. Klyuev. A special page in history Russian literature constitutes the work of poets and writers who did not accept the revolution and were forced to leave the country. Among them are such names as M. I. Tsvetaeva, Z. N. Gippius, I. A. Bunin, A. N. Tolstoy, V. V. Nabokov. Some of them, realizing the impossibility of living away from their homeland, subsequently returned (Tsvetaeva, Tolstoy). Modernist tendencies in literature manifested themselves in the work of E. I. Zamyatin, the author of the dystopian science fiction novel “We” (1924). Satirical literature 20s presented by stories by M. Zoshchenko; novels by co-authors I. Ilf (I. A. Fainzilberg) and E. Petrov (E. P. Kataev) “The Twelve Chairs” (1928), “The Golden Calf” (1931), etc.

In the 30s Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Sholokhov creates the novels “Quiet Don” and “Virgin Soil Upturned”. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements. In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, “The Life of Klim Samgin.” The work of N. A. Ostrovsky, the author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), was extremely popular. A. N. Tolstoy (“Peter I” 1929-1945) became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. The twenties and thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations Soviet people grew up on the books of K. I. Chukovsky, S. Ya. Marshak, A. P. Gaidar, S. V. Mikhalkov, A. L. Barto, V. A. Kaverin, L. A. Kassil, V. P. Kataev .

In 1928, persecuted by Soviet criticism, M. A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, began to write his best novel, “The Master and Margarita.” Work on the novel continued until the writer’s death in 1940. This work was published only in 1966. At the end of the 80s, the works of A.P. Platonov (Klimentov) “Chevengur”, “Pit Pit”, “Juvenile Sea” were published. . The poets A. A. Akhmatova and B. L. Pasternak worked at the table. The fate of Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among the writers who, having accepted the October Revolution at one time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world. There are many Russian writers behind the Iron Curtain who, despite everything, continue to work. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France (the story “Mitya’s Love”, the novel “The Life of Arsenyev”, the collection of short stories “ Dark alleys"). In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. In 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Union of Writers” was organized, into which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A. A. Fadeev became the chairman. In addition to the “Union of Writers”, other “creative” unions were organized: “Union of Artists”, “Union of Architects”, “Union of Composers”. A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

The revolution unleashed powerful creative forces. This also affected the development of domestic theatrical art. Many theater groups emerged. The Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad played a major role in the development of theatrical art, the first artistic director which was A. Blok, theater named after. V. Meyerhold, theater named after. E. Vakhtangov, Moscow Theater named after. Mossovet.

The mid-20s saw the emergence of Soviet drama, which had a huge impact on the development of theatrical art. The largest events of the theater seasons of 1925-1927. steel “Storm” by V. Bill-Belotserkovsky in the theater. MGSPS, “Yarovaya Love” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “Fracture” by B. Lavrenev at the Theater. E. Vakhtangov and at the Bolshoi Drama Theatre, “Armored Train 14-69” by V. Ivanov at the Moscow Art Theater. Classics occupied a strong place in the theater repertoire. Attempts at a new interpretation of it were made both by academic theaters (“A Warm Heart” by A. Ostrovsky at the Moscow Art Theater) and by “leftists” (“The Forest” by A. Ostrovsky and “The Inspector General” by N. Gogol at the V. Meyerhold Theater).

While drama theaters had restructured their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the classics continued to occupy the main place in the activities of opera and ballet groups. The only major success in repelling modern theme was the production of R. Glier’s ballet “Red Poppy” (“Red Flower”). L.V. performed in Western Europe and America. Sobinov, A.V. Nezhdanova, N.S. Golovanov, the troupe of the Moscow Art Theater, the Chamber Theater, the Studio named after. E. Vakhtangov, Quartet of ancient Russian instruments

The musical life of the country in those years is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostakovich, A. Khachaturian, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky and others. Young conductors E. Mravinsky, B. Khaikin came to the fore. Were created musical ensembles, which later glorified the national musical culture: Quartet named after. Beethoven, Big State symphony orchestra, State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932, the Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.

Along with the actors of the older generation (M. N. Ermolova, A. M. Yuzhin, A. A. Ostuzhev, V. I. Kachalov, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova), a new revolutionary theater is emerging. The search for new forms of stage expression is characteristic of the theater that worked under the leadership of V. E. Meyerhold (now the Meyerhold Theater). The plays of V. Mayakovsky “Mystery-bouffe” (1921), “The Bedbug” (1929), etc. were staged on the stage of this theater. A major contribution to the development of the theater was made by the director of the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater E. B. Vakhtangov ; organizer and director of the Chamber Theater, reformer of performing arts A. Ya. Tairov.

One of the most important and interesting phenomena in the cultural history of the 20s. was the beginning of the development of Soviet cinema. Documentary filmmaking is developing, becoming one of the most effective tools of ideological struggle and agitation, along with posters. An important milestone in the development of feature films was the film by Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein (1898 - 1948) “Battleship Potemkin” (1925), which was considered one of the world’s masterpieces. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of criticism. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed to the Soviet people that it is hostile to socialism. Among the “aliens” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Many artists were repressed.

political culture totalitarianism ideology

Submitting your good work to the knowledge base is easy. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

Introduction

In the 1930s, a powerful cultural shift undoubtedly occurred in the USSR. If the social revolution destroyed the semi-medieval estate in the country, which divided society into “people” and “tops,” then cultural transformations over two decades moved it along the path of bridging the civilizational gap in the everyday life of many tens of millions of people. In unimaginable short term people's material capabilities ceased to be a significant barrier between them and at least elementary culture; inclusion in it began to depend much less on the socio-professional status of people. Both in scale and in pace, these changes can indeed be considered a nationwide “cultural revolution.”

However, cultural transformations, firstly, turned out to be broad, but very poor. They gave rise, in essence, to a “semi-culture” or even a quasi-culture, based on the bizarre spiritual marginality of millions and millions of people. But this is not a mistake or the fault of the Soviet government of those years - it could not have been otherwise: the grandeur of the scale and the lightning speed of the pace high quality culture is not provided. Secondly, culture was “imposed” on the people: by strict regulation of rural life - by the collective farm system, and urban life - by the “mobilization capabilities” of factory shock construction projects, by the organizational and propaganda onslaught of state “coverage” plans, Komsomol campaigns, and trade union competitions. Thus, the germination of the need for culture was essentially replaced by the dictates of social structures and the pressure of the social atmosphere. This was already a historical mistake, generated by confidence in the omnipotence of the “revolutionary onslaught.”

The zeal with which the system, hyperpoliticized by the revolution, sought to create a “culture of a new type” in our country, already in the 30s received a “Marxist” theoretical justification. These “basic features” were “established”; communist ideology and party spirit, collectivism, internationalism and patriotism, leadership of the CPSU and the Soviet state in the systematic development of culture. This is precisely what was declared to be “a new step in the spiritual development of mankind,” its “peak.”

In our country there has been a violent break with cultural and historical tradition. The fight against the “vices of the old culture” led to a significant impoverishment, and in many respects, the destruction of this tradition.

The service function made its own demands on the appearance of culture, its content: it began to create “positive images” for imitation, to provide revelations of phenomena and characters for their survival, it began to “reflect”, illustrate, impose boundaries instead of exploring the incomprehensible and elevating a person over the existing existence that exhausts him. Creative and liberating culture has turned into a factory of prescribed happiness. And all this is also a “cultural revolution”. It took place, although it did not completely achieve its goals: Mayakovsky and Sholokhov, Leonov and Tvardovsky, Shostakovich and Sviridov, Eisenstein and Tovstonogov, hundreds of other creators preserved and continued the traditions of domestic and world culture.

1. Reform in the field of education and science

During the period under review, the cultural life of the country developed very ambiguously. At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. These primarily include the sphere of education.

The historical legacy of the tsarist regime was a significant proportion of the illiterate population. Meanwhile, the need for rapid industrialization of the country required huge amount competent productive workers.

The systematic efforts of the Soviet state led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia grew steadily. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. From 1930/31 academic year Compulsory primary education was introduced. Moreover, by the age of thirty soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that had not justified themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects that had previously been excluded from the program as “bourgeois” (primarily history, general and domestic) were returned to the schedule. Since the beginning of the 30s. the number grew rapidly educational institutions, engaged in the training of engineering, technical, agricultural and teaching personnel. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Affairs was created higher education.

The 1930s turned out to be difficult for Russian science. On the one hand, large-scale research programs are being launched in the USSR, new research institutes are being created: in 1934 S.I. Vavilov founded the Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences named after. P.N. Lebedev (FIAN), at the same time the Institute of Organic Chemistry was created in Moscow P.L. Kapitsa created the Institute of Physical Problems, and in 1937 the Institute of Geophysics was created. Physiologist I.P. continues to work. Pavlov, breeder I.V. Michurin. The work of Soviet scientists resulted in numerous discoveries in both fundamental and applied fields. In particular, this period saw significant discoveries in the study of the Arctic (O.Yu. Schmidt, I.D. Papanin), the development of space flights and jet propulsion (K.E. Tsiolkovsky, F.A. Tsandler). Historical science is being revived. As mentioned, history teaching is being resumed in secondary and high schools. The Research Institute of History is being created at the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the 30s, outstanding Soviet historians worked: academician B.D. Grekov is the author of works on the history of medieval Russia (“ Kievan Rus", "Peasants in Rus' from ancient times to the 18th century." etc.); Academician E.V. Tarle is an expert in the modern history of European countries and, above all, Napoleonic France (“The Working Class in France in the Age of Revolution,” “Napoleon,” etc.).

At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was eliminated. In 1934, it was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. The establishment of administrative methods of managing science led to the fact that many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of incompetent party functionaries. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in violence, when one of the opponents, having been accused (albeit unfoundedly) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was destined for many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repression were such prominent scientists as biologist, founder of Soviet genetics, academician and president of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences N.I. Vavilov, scientist and rocketry designer, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.

The repressions caused heavy damage to the country's intellectual potential. The old pre-revolutionary intelligentsia, most of whose representatives conscientiously served the Soviet state, suffered especially hard. As a result of falsified revelations of a number of “sabotage counter-revolutionary organizations” (“Shakhtinsky Affair”, the “Industrial Party” trial), distrust and suspicion were inflamed among the masses towards representatives of the intelligentsia, which as a result made it easier to deal with undesirables and extinguished any manifestation of free thought. In the social sciences, the “Short Course on the History of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)”, published in 1938 under the editorship of I.V., acquired decisive importance. Stalin. As a justification for mass repression, the idea was put forward that the class struggle would inevitably intensify as we move towards building socialism. Party history and revolutionary movement was distorted: on the pages of scientific works and periodicals the non-existent merits of the Leader were extolled. The personality cult of Stalin was established in the country.

2. Features of the development of literature

The situation in the literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Union of Writers” was organized, which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A.A. became chairman. Fadeev (former RAPP member), who remained in this post throughout the Stalin era. In addition to the “Union of Writers”, other “creative” unions were organized: “Union of Artists”, “Union of Architects”, “Union of Composers”. A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art.

Having carried out organizational unification, the Stalinist regime set about stylistic and ideological unification. In 1936, a “discussion about formalism” began. During the “discussion”, through harsh criticism, persecution began of those representatives of the creative intelligentsia, aesthetic principles which differed from “socialist realism”, which was becoming generally binding. Symbolists, futurists, impressionists, imagists, etc. came under a barrage of offensive attacks. They were accused of “formalistic quirks”, that their art was not needed by the Soviet people, that it was rooted in soil hostile to socialism. Among the “outsiders” were composer D. Shostakovich, director S. Eisenstein, writers B. Pasternak, Y. Olesha and others. Articles appeared in the press: “Confusion instead of music,” “Ballet falsehood,” “About dirty artists.” Essentially, the “fight against formalism” had the goal of destroying all those whose talent was not put to the service of power. Many artists were repressed.

As already mentioned, the defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art was the so-called “socialist realism”. This style had little in common with true realism. Despite the external “liveness”, he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is how the heroes of the works of official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complex and generally far from the proclaimed ideal.

The limited ideological framework of socialist realism became a significant obstacle to the development of Soviet literature. Nevertheless, in the 30s. Several major works appeared that entered the history of Russian culture. Perhaps the most important figure in the official literature of those years was Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (1905-1984). An outstanding work is his novel “Quiet Don,” which tells about the Don Cossacks during the First World War and the Civil War. The novel “Virgin Soil Upturned” is dedicated to collectivization on the Don. Remaining, at least outwardly, within the boundaries of socialist realism, Sholokhov managed to create a three-dimensional picture of the events that took place, to show the tragedy of fratricidal hostility among the Cossacks that unfolded on the Don in the post-revolutionary years. Sholokhov was favored by Soviet criticism. His literary work was awarded the State and Lenin Prizes, he was twice awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and he was elected academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Sholokhov's work received worldwide recognition: he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his writing achievements.

In the thirties, M. Gorky completed his last epic novel, “The Life of Klim Samgin.” Metaphorical nature and philosophical depth are characteristic of L.M.’s prose. Leonov (“The Thief” 1927, “Sot” 1930), who played special role in the development of the Soviet novel. The work of N.A. was extremely popular. Ostrovsky, author of the novel “How the Steel Was Tempered” (1934), dedicated to the era of the formation of Soviet power. The main character of the novel, Pavka Korchagin, was an example of a fiery Komsomol member. In the works of N. Ostrovsky, like no one else, the educational function of Soviet literature was manifested. The ideal character Pavka in reality became an example for the broad masses of Soviet youth. A.N. became a classic of the Soviet historical novel. Tolstoy (“Peter I” 1929-1945). The thirties were the heyday of children's literature. Several generations of Soviet people grew up reading the books of K.I. Chukovsky, S.Ya. Marshak, A.P. Gaidar, S.V. Mikhalkova, A.L. Barto, V.A. Kaverina, L.A. Kassilya, V.P. Kataeva.

Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published; this happened after their death.

M.A. Bulgakov, without any hope of publication, begins to write his best novel, “The Master and Margarita.” Work on the novel continued until the writer's death. This work was published only in 1966. Even later, in the late 80s, the works of A.P. Platonova (Klimentova) “Chevengur”, “Pit Pit”, “Juvenile Sea”. Poets A.A. worked at the table. Akhmatova, B.L. Parsnip. The fate of Osip Emilievich Mandelstam (1891-1938) is tragic. A poet of extraordinary strength and great visual precision, he was among those writers who, having accepted the October Revolution in their time, could not get along in Stalinist society. In 1938 he was repressed.

In the 30s The Soviet Union is gradually beginning to isolate itself from the rest of the world, contacts with foreign countries are being minimized, and the penetration of any information “from there” is being placed under the strictest control. Behind the “Iron Curtain” there are many Russian writers who, despite the lack of a readership, the unsettled life, and spiritual breakdown, continue to work. Their works convey a longing for a bygone Russia. A writer of the first magnitude was the poet and prose writer Ivan Alekseevich Bunin (1870-1953). Bunin did not accept the revolution from the very beginning and emigrated to France, where he spent the second half of his life. Bunin's prose is distinguished by the beauty of its language and special lyricism. In emigration, his best works were created, which captured pre-revolutionary, noble, estate Russia, and the atmosphere of Russian life of those years was surprisingly poetically conveyed. The story “Mitya’s Love” is considered the pinnacle of his work. autobiographical novel“The Life of Arsenyev”, collection of stories “Dark Alleys”. In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

literature art socialist realism

3. Fine arts, architecture, theater and cinema in the 1930s.

During this period, significant changes occurred in the visual arts. New associations are emerging in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists.

The works of B.V. Ioganson became classics of socialist realism in fine art. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. In contrast to the abundance of “paintings” that appeared at that time, depicting and glorifying the Leader or deliberately optimistic paintings like “Collective Farm Holiday” by S.V. Gerasimov, Ioganson’s work is distinguished by great artistic power - the unbending will of people doomed to death, which the artist masterfully managed to convey, touches the viewer regardless of political beliefs. Ioganson also painted large paintings “At the Old Ural Factory” and “Speech by V.I. Lenin at the 3rd Komsomol Congress." In the 30s, K.S. continued to work. Petrov-Vodkin, P.P. Konchalovsky, A.A. Deineka, a series of beautiful portraits of his contemporaries were created by M.V. Nesterov, the landscapes of Armenia found poetic embodiment in the paintings of M.S. Saryan. The work of the student M. Nesterov and P.D. is interesting. Corina. Korin was conceived big picture, which was supposed to depict a procession during the funeral. The artist made a huge number of preparatory sketches: landscapes, many portraits of representatives Orthodox Rus', from beggars to church hierarchs. The title of the painting was suggested by M. Gorky - “Leaving Rus'”. However, after the death of the great writer, who provided patronage to the artist, the work had to be stopped. Most famous work P.D. Korina became the triptych “Alexander Nevsky”.

The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina. The sculptural group was made by V.I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937.

In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be leading, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A.V. Shchusev. The mausoleum is remarkable in its own way. The architect managed to avoid unnecessary pomp. The tomb of the leader of the world proletariat is a modest, small in size, very laconic structure that fits perfectly into the ensemble of Red Square. By the end of the 30s. the functional simplicity of constructivism begins to give way to neoclassicism. Lush stucco molding, huge columns with pseudo-classical capitals come into fashion, gigantomania and a penchant for deliberate richness of decoration, often bordering on bad taste, appear. This style is sometimes called the “Stalinist Empire style,” although in reality it is only related to the real Empire style, which is characterized primarily by the deepest internal harmony and restraint of forms, only by a genetic connection with the ancient heritage. The sometimes vulgar splendor of Stalinist neoclassicism was intended to express the strength and power of the totalitarian state.

A distinctive feature in the field of theater was the formation of innovative activities of the Meyerhold Theater, Moscow Art Theater and others. Theater named after Vs. Meyerhold worked under the guidance of director V.E. Meyerhold. There was a special school attached to the theater, which changed several names. Almost all performances were staged by Meyerhold himself (in rare cases, in collaboration with directors close to him). Characteristic of his art in the early 1930s. the desire to combine innovative experiments (“constructivist” productions of “The Magnanimous Cuckold” by F. Crommelynck and “The Death of Tarelkin” by A.V. Sukhovo-Kobylin, both) with the democratic traditions of the common public square theater was especially noticeable in the extremely free, frankly modernized director’s composition “Forests” » A.N. Ostrovsky; the game was played in a buffoonish, farcical manner. In the second half of the 1930s. The desire for asceticism was replaced by a desire for spectacular spectacle, which manifested itself in the performances of “Teacher Bubus” by A.M. Faiko and especially in “The Inspector General” by N.V. Gogol. Among other performances: “Mandate” by N.R. Erdman, “Woe to Wit” (“Woe from Wit”) by A.S. Griboyedov, “Bedbug” and “Bath” by V.V. Mayakovsky, “Krechinsky’s Wedding” by Sukhovo-Kobylin. The play “Lady with Camellias” by A. Dumas the Son brought great success to the theater. In 1937-1938, the theater was sharply criticized as “hostile to Soviet reality” and in 1938, by decision of the Committee on Arts Affairs, it was closed.

Directors S.M. began their careers in the theater. Eisenstein, S.I. Yutkevich, I.A. Pyryev, B.I. Ravenskikh, N.P. Okhlopkov, V.N. Pluchek and others. The acting talents of M.I. were revealed in the theater troupe. Babanova, N.I. Bogolyubova, E.P. Garina, M.I. Zharova, I.V. Ilyinsky, S.A. Martinson, Z.N. Reich, E.V. Samoilova, L.N. Sverdlina, M.I. Tsareva, M.M. Straukha, V.N. Yakhontova and others.

Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, the film by S.M. was released. Eisenstein "Alexander Nevsky" with N.K. Cherkasov in leading role. The principles of socialist realism are affirmed in cinema. Films on revolutionary themes are being made: “Lenin in October” (dir. M.I. Romm), “Man with a Gun” (dir. S.I. Yutkevich); films about the fate of a working man: the trilogy about Maxim “The Youth of Maxim”, “The Return of Maxim”, “ Vyborg side"(dir. G.M. Kozintsev); musical comedies by Grigory Alexandrov with cheerful, fiery music by Isaac Dunaevsky ("Jolly Fellows", 1934, "Circus" 1936, "Volga-Volga" 1938), idealized scenes of the life of Ivan Pyryev ("Tractor Drivers", 1939, "Pig Farm and the Shepherd") create an atmosphere of expectation of a “happy life”. The film by the brothers (in reality, only namesakes, “brothers” is a kind of pseudonym) by G.N. was extremely popular. and S.D. Vasiliev - “Chapaev” (1934).

List of used literature

Bokhanov A.N., Gorinov M.M. and others. History of Russia in the twentieth century. - M.: AST Publishing House, 1996.

Golubkov M.M. Lost alternatives. Formation of the monistic concept of Soviet literature in the 1930s. M.: Pravda, 1992.

Polevoy V.M. Small history of art. Art of the twentieth century. 1901-1945. M.: Art, 1991.

Repressed Science / Ed. M.G. Yaroshevsky. L., 1991.

Reader on the history of the USSR. 1917 - 1945 Textbook for pedagogical institutes - M.: Education, 1991.

Posted on Allbest.ru

Similar documents

Directions for the development of science in Russia in the 19th century. Stages and differences of public education: parish, district schools, gymnasiums, universities. Discoveries in the field of technology, physics, chemistry. Fine arts and architecture, musical culture, Russian theater.

test, added 11/11/2010


Brief description socialist realism as an art direction of 1920-1980, praising Soviet society and the state system. Manifestations of socialist realism in painting, literature, architecture and cinema, its main representatives.

presentation, added 06/16/2013


Life and lifestyle of the population Soviet Russia 20-30s. Culture and art as a model of a socialist society. Reforms in the field of education and science. Ideologization of fine arts, architecture, theater and cinema.

abstract, added 05/18/2009


The formation and development of the Soviet system of education and science in the first years of Soviet power. Successes and problems in the development of Belarusian Soviet literature. Architecture and fine arts. Development of theatrical and musical art and cinema in Belarus.

course work, added 06/03/2011


Development of education and science: public education system, libraries and museums, press, science and technology. The contribution of Russian literature and art to world culture: architecture, sculpture and painting, literature, music and theater. Culture of the peoples of Russia.

abstract, added 01/05/2010


The level of development of science and education in Ancient Greece. Ancient Greek artistic culture and its place in the history of world civilization. Music, visual arts and theater in the culture of the ancient Greeks. Characteristic features of Hellenic architecture.

presentation, added 02/13/2016


Artistic culture of Western Europe in the 19th century. Romanticism in literature is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon that embraces outwardly dissimilar works of art. Features of decorative and applied arts, painting, music and architecture of the 19th century.

abstract, added 10/12/2009


Formation of the Russian nation. Development of external economic and cultural relations between Russia and Western countries. Organization of secondary and higher education. Book publishing. Literature. Architecture and construction. Fine arts. Theater. Music.

test, added 10/28/2008


Cultural revolution in the USSR, its goals and objectives. The fight against illiteracy. Progress in the field of public education. Development of industrial science. Party and spiritual life. Organization of associations of Soviet architects. Achievements in literature, painting and music.

presentation, added 01/16/2014


The beginning of the century of classics in development European culture from classical German philosophy. "Golden" age of art. The popularity of the works of George Sand and Dickens. Representatives of the main trends and directions of realism in painting, art, and literature.

Culture of the 20-30s of the USSR

In the twentieth century, a totalized sociocultural system was created in Russia, the distinctive features of which were ideological control over the spiritual life of society, manipulation of consciousness, destruction of dissent, and physical destruction of the color of the Russian and scientific and artistic intelligentsia. In short, the culture of the Soviet period was contradictory. It showed both positive and negative phenomena. In its assessment, it is necessary to observe the principle of objectivity and exclude any ideological biases. In this light, it is necessary to analyze the culture of Russia in the twentieth century.

After the revolution of 1917, a new period begins in the history of national culture, a transition to a new system of relations occurs. The main question for the creative intelligentsia at this time was the question of their attitude towards the revolution. It must be admitted that not everyone was able to understand and accept the revolution. Many perceived it as a collapse, a catastrophe, a break with a past life, and the destruction of traditions. Many figures of Russian culture emigrated abroad. Such outstanding figures of Russian culture as S.V. Rachmaninov, K.A. Korovin, A.N. Tolstoy, M.I. Tsvetaeva, E.I. Zamyatin, F.I. Shalyapin, A.P. ended up abroad. Pavlova, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and others. Some of them returned, realizing the impossibility of living outside their homeland. But many remained abroad. The loss was very noticeable. There are approximately 500 prominent scientists left abroad, heading departments and entire scientific areas. This brain drain led to a significant decline in the spiritual and intellectual level in the country.

Most of the intellectuals remained in their homeland. Many of them actively collaborated with the new government. Suffice it to say that in the civil war, Soviet power was defended by almost half of the officer corps of the former tsarist army. Engineers and scientists restored industry, developed the GOERLO plan and other economic development projects.

During this period, the Soviet state set the task of overcoming cultural inequality, making cultural treasures accessible to the working people, and creating a culture for the entire people, and not for individual elites. To achieve this goal, nationalization was carried out. Already in 1917, the Hermitage, the Russian Museum, the Tretyakov Gallery, the Armory and many other museums became the property and disposal of the state. The private collections of the Mamontovs, Morozovs, Tretyakovs, I.V. Tsvetaev, V.I. Dahl, S.S. Shchukin were nationalized. The cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin were turned into museums, as were the royal residences near Petrograd and Moscow.

Unfortunately, during the process of nationalization, many things due to lack of understanding and lack of culture were not accepted as values; much was plundered and destroyed. Priceless libraries disappeared, archives were destroyed. Clubs and schools were organized in manor houses. In some estates, museums of everyday life were created (the estates of the Yusupovs, Sheremetyevs, Stroganovs). At the same time, new museums arose, for example, the Museum of Fine Arts at Moscow State University, the Museum of Life of the 40s of the 19th century, Morozov Porcelain and others. From 1918 to 1923 alone, 250 new museums emerged.

Another major task that faced the Soviet state in the post-revolutionary period was the elimination of illiteracy. The task was relevant due to the fact that 75% of the country's population, especially in rural areas and ethnic regions, did not know how to read and write. To solve this most difficult task, in 1919 the Council of People's Commissars adopted a decree "On the Elimination of Illiteracy among the Population of the RSFSR", according to which the entire population from 8 to 50 years old was obliged to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language. In 1923, the voluntary society “Down with Illiteracy” was established under the chairmanship of M.I. Kalinin. Thousands of points were opened to eliminate illiteracy and educational programs.

The next important milestone in the development of education was the adoption in 1930 of the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On universal compulsory primary education." By the end of the 1930s, mass illiteracy in our country had been largely overcome.

Science and technology

In the 20-30s, significant success was achieved in the development of science. In hungry Petrograd in 1918, the Physico-Technical and Optical Institutes were founded, whose scientists subsequently created the country’s nuclear shield. The famous TsAGI laboratory (Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute) opened near Moscow, which means that our road to space began back in 1918. Russian scientists become the founders of new areas of science: N.E. Zhukovsky is the founder of modern aerodynamics, K.E. Tsiolkovsky is the creator of the theory of jet propulsion, which underlies modern jet aviation and space flights. The works of V.I. Vernadsky laid the foundations of new sciences - biogeochemistry and radiology. The works of the Russian scientist-physiologist I.P. Pavlov, who created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes and higher nervous activity. Back in 1904, Pavlov, the first Russian scientist, was awarded the Nobel Prize.

In the 30s, based on the scientific research of Academician S.V. Lebedev, mass production of synthetic rubber was organized in the Soviet Union for the first time in the world. The works of A.F. Ioffe laid the foundations of modern semiconductor physics. Scientists have made a number of major geographical discoveries, especially in the study of the Far North. In 1937, four researchers: I.D. Papanin, E.T. Krenkel, E.A. Fedorov and P.P. Shirshov - landed in the Arctic and opened the world's first research drifting station "SP-1" there. They worked on the ice floe for 274 days, drifting 2,500 kilometers. Scientists have done a lot for the development of science. They were the first to obtain geological data about this territory, carried out magnetic measurements, which soon helped ensure the safety of the flights of Chkalov, Gromov, Levanevsky, and made a huge contribution to the meteorology and hydrology of this part of the planet. After the first station, 30 more were opened, the last one being opened in 1989.