Choleric- this is a person whose nervous system is determined by the predominance of excitation over inhibition, as a result of which he reacts very quickly, often thoughtlessly, does not have time to restrain himself, shows impatience, impetuosity, abruptness of movements, hot temper, unbridledness. The imbalance of his nervous system predetermines the cyclical change in his activity and vigor: having become carried away by some task, he works passionately, with full dedication, but he does not have enough strength for long, and as soon as they are depleted, he works himself to the point that everything is unbearable for him.
An irritated state appears, Bad mood, loss of strength and lethargy (“everything falls out of hand”). The alternation of positive cycles of uplifting mood and energy with negative cycles of decline and depression causes uneven behavior and well-being, and an increased susceptibility to neurotic breakdowns and conflicts with people.
A person with a strong, balanced, mobile nervous system; has a fast reaction speed; his actions are deliberate; He is cheerful, thanks to which he is characterized by high resistance to the difficulties of life. The mobility of his nervous system determines the variability of feelings, attachments, interests, views, and high adaptability to new conditions. This is a sociable person, he easily gets along with new people, and therefore he has a wide circle of acquaintances, although he is not distinguished by constancy in communication and affections.
He is a productive worker, but only when there are a lot of interesting things to do, that is, with constant excitement, otherwise he becomes boring, lethargic, and distracted. In a stressful situation, he exhibits a “lion reaction,” i.e., he actively, thoughtfully defends himself and fights to normalize the situation.
A person with a strong, balanced, but inert nervous system. As a result: it reacts slowly; taciturn; emotions manifest themselves slowly (difficult to make angry or cheerful);has a high performance capacity, resists strong and prolonged stimuli and difficulties well, but is not able to react quickly in unexpected new situations. firmly remembers everything learned; is not able to give up acquired skills and stereotypes, does not like to change habits, routine, work, friends, it is difficult and slow to adapt to new conditions. The mood is stable and even. In case of serious troubles, the phlegmatic person remains outwardly calm.
A person with a weak nervous system, with increased sensitivity even to weak stimuli. If the stimulus is strong, then a “breakdown”, a “stopper” may occur, confusion, “rabbit stress” will appear, therefore in stressful situations (exams, competitions, danger, etc.) the results of a melancholic person’s activity may worsen compared to the calm usual situation. Increased sensitivity leads to rapid fatigue and decreased performance (longer rest is required).
A minor reason can cause resentment and tears. The mood is very changeable, but usually a melancholic person tries to hide, not show his feelings outwardly, does not talk about his experiences, although he is very inclined to give himself up to emotions, is often sad, depressed, unsure of himself, anxious, and may experience neurotic disorders. However, having a highly sensitive nervous system, such people often have pronounced artistic and intellectual abilities.
It is difficult to answer exactly what type of temperament a particular adult has. The type of nervous system, although determined by heredity, is not absolutely unchangeable. With age, as well as under the influence of systematic training, upbringing, and life circumstances, nervous processes can weaken or strengthen, and their switchability can speed up or slow down. For example, choleric and sanguine people predominate among children (they are energetic, cheerful, easily and strongly excited; after crying, a minute later they can be distracted and laugh joyfully, i.e. there is a high mobility of nervous processes). Among older people, on the contrary, there are many phlegmatic and melancholic people.
Temperament- this is an external manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity a person, and therefore, as a result of upbringing, self-education, it can be distorted, changed, and “disguise” of the true temperament occurs. Therefore, “pure” types of temperament are rarely found, but nevertheless, a certain tendency always manifests itself in human behavior.
Rice. 2.10. Characteristics of temperament types
Research by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn showed that the harmonious picture of the correspondence of the four types of higher nervous activity (according to I. P. Pavlov) to the four temperaments known since ancient times is not as obvious as previously thought. They proposed to temporarily abandon the discussion of the types of higher nervous activity until its basic properties and the nature of their relationship are more fully studied. These scientists showed the partiality of such properties when applying conditioned reflex procedures to various analytical systems and outlined the search for general characteristics of the nervous system in amodal regulatory structures of the brain. Particularly important are the conclusions of B. M. Teplov about the absence of direct parallelism between the properties of the nervous system and behavioral characteristics. The psychological characteristics of behavior cannot be used to judge the physiological qualities of the nervous system. Its properties do not predetermine any forms of behavior, but form the soil on which some are easier to form and others more difficult. The task is to search for those qualities that determine individual differences in the parameters of general mental activity and emotionality - the main two dimensions of temperament (V.D. Nebylitsyn).
Thus, temperament- this is a characteristic of a person from the dynamic features of his mental activity, i.e. tempo, speed, rhythm, intensity of activity of mental processes and states, degree of emotionality.
The following signs of temperament properties can be distinguished:
- their conditioning by the properties of the nervous system and constant individual characteristics of the emotional sphere, which include: strength, speed of emotions, emotional excitability;
- stability or variability, smoothness or abruptness of changes in emotions;
- regulation of the dynamics of mental processes and mental activity in general (speed, tempo of response).
There are interesting observations about the relationship between skin patterns on a person’s fingers and his nervous system, his temperament. “Comb counting” is a quantitative method for analyzing patterns on the skin of the fingers. Scallops- this is the visible ribbing of the skin, forming one or another papillary pattern on the extreme phalanx. In the pattern, the number of scallops intersected or in contact with a straight segment drawn from the center of the delta (three radii) to the center of the pattern is counted. If the pattern is in the form of an arc, then the comb count is zero.
The total comb count is determined by adding up all the combs on the ten fingers of the hand. It is higher in men (from 130 to 150) than in women (from 110 to 135). The predominance of spirals and large loops increases it. In individuals with a strong and balanced nervous system, “loops” dominate; strong, but unbalanced - “spirals”, and “arcs” are observed in those with a weak nervous system. Choleric has 50% spirals and the rest are loops. Phlegmatic - all loops. Melancholic - at least one arc, and the more arcs, the weaker the nervous system.
A person's work productivity is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. Thus, the special mobility of a sanguine person can give an additional effect if the work requires him to frequently move from one type of activity to another, efficiency in decision-making, and the monotony and regimentation of activities, on the contrary, lead such a person to rapid fatigue. Phlegmatic and melancholic people, on the contrary, under conditions of strict regulation and monotonous work, show greater productivity and resistance to fatigue than choleric and sanguine people.
In behavioral communication, it is possible and necessary to anticipate the peculiarities of the reaction of persons with different types of temperament and respond adequately to them.
We emphasize that temperament determines only dynamic, but not meaningful characteristics of behavior. Both a “great” and a socially insignificant person can have the same type of temperament.
I. P. Pavlov identified three more “purely human types” of higher nervous activity:
- thinking;
- art;
- average.
Representatives of the first type (in whom the activity of the second signaling system of the left hemisphere of the brain predominates) are very reasonable, prone to a detailed analysis of life phenomena, and to abstract, abstract logical thinking. Their feelings are distinguished by moderation, restraint and usually break out only after passing through the “filter” of the mind. Such people are usually interested in mathematics, philosophy, and they like scientific activities.
In people artistic type(here the activity of the first signaling system of the right hemisphere of the brain predominates) imaginative thinking, it is imprinted with great emotionality, vividness of imagination, spontaneity and vividness of perception of reality. They are primarily interested in art, theater, poetry, music, writing and artistic creativity. They strive for a wide circle of communication. These are typical lyricists, and they skeptically regard people of the thinking type as “crackers”.
The majority (up to 80%) belong to the “golden mean”, the average type. The rational or emotional principle slightly predominates in their character, and this depends on upbringing (from early childhood) and on life circumstances.
Have you noticed that people react differently to the same event? Pay attention to how people behave in line. Someone stands calmly and waits, someone nervously runs ahead to see if the line has moved faster, someone is wailing and complaining... “That’s his character,” someone will say. And it won't be entirely right. It is not our character, to which we attribute much, that is responsible for our behavior, but our temperament. These two concepts are often confused, attributing the properties of one to the other. Let's see if they really are that similar.
Definition
Temperament is a set of certain properties of the human psyche that influence his behavior and activities. A person's nervous system is responsible for his temperament. Its sensitivity affects a person’s reaction to events, pace of activity, concentration, memory, speed of thinking.
Character- these are certain qualities of a person that manifest themselves in relation to the outside world. Character is also connected with the human psyche, but if temperament is given to us from birth and cannot be changed, we can only restrain it negative manifestations, then character traits develop under the influence external factors. For example, the character of every person is influenced by upbringing, social environment, a person’s environment, profession and even nationality. But one cannot but agree that character is formed on the basis of temperament.
Typology
Temperament is much easier to divide into types than character. They are well known: choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. Although most people have a mixed temperament type, let's look at them individually.
Choleric is the most unbalanced type. It can be compared to a lighter - click - it lights up. This type of character helps in emergency situations when quick decision-making or reaction speed is important.
Choleric
Sanguine - ease of communication, friendliness, speed of reaction. Rarely goes to extremes. If interested, he is efficient; if the work does not inspire, he tends to be lazy.
A melancholic person is often a person with increased anxiety, but has depth and thoughtfulness. Impressive.
Melancholic Phlegmatic people are the calmest people. Outwardly, they are most often calm and not prone to showing emotions. Slowly, but diligently.
You can determine what type of temperament a person belongs to by observing his behavior. In addition, there are a huge number of tests to determine the type of temperament.
It is very difficult to divide characters into certain subtypes. Many scientists and psychologists have tried to do this. As a result, several character divisions were formed. Character is divided into types as follows: strong-willed, emotional, rational. This division is related to temperament.
Character is also classified according to a set of certain traits:
- in relation to a person’s attitude towards people around him (rudeness, responsiveness, callousness, etc.);
- attitude to activity (laziness, activity, conscientiousness);
- attitude towards things (stinginess, frugality, accuracy);
- attitude towards the inner “I” (pride, selfishness).
We are not talking about temperament, whether it is good or bad, there can be no assessment here. But we often evaluate character traits. For example, when certain traits are combined, they say about a person: “Complex character” or “easy character.”
Conclusions website
- Temperament is innate, character is acquired.
- Temperament cannot be changed, you can learn to restrain it, but character can be adjusted under the influence of external factors.
- Temperament is divided into generally accepted types, while many scientists tried to classify character, but unanimous opinion didn't come.
- Temperament cannot be assessed; we evaluate character traits.
Imagine the average person. He, like everyone around him, is a person full of worldview and individual traits. He is remembered by those around him for his stunning charm, infects with optimism and captivates with his eloquence. How did this person receive such a description? Some will say that this is his temperament. And they will be right. And others will answer that it’s all about his character. And they will also be right. So what are the differences between character and temperament? Let's see if these concepts have at least something in common.
Human character and temperament
The relationship between temperament and character has been studied by various scientists for many years. As a result, 4 main opinions emerged regarding the relationship between these two concepts:
- Temperament is identified with character.
- Temperament is opposed to character.
- Temperament is recognized as an element of character.
- Temperament is considered the basic nature of character.
If we consider the scientific interpretation of concepts, the distinctive features of temperament and character become more noticeable:
Temperament- is a set of mental properties that influence human behavior and activities. Memory, speed of thinking, degree of concentration and rhythm of activity - the human nervous system is responsible for all this, which is considered to be a fundamental factor in the formation of one of the types of temperament. There are 4 of them in total:
- choleric- People of this type are characterized by mobility of the nervous system. Such people are often unbalanced. They instantly lose their temper and just as quickly become calm;
- sanguine- owners of this type of temperament are open and sociable, but their attitude to the world is superficial. They quickly become attached and also quickly become indifferent to everything that surrounds them;
- phlegmatic- people with this type of temperament are awarded the title of the most calm and unperturbed. They are diligent in business, unhurried and calm;
- melancholic- This type includes vulnerable and often closed individuals. They are constantly subject to fears and indecision.
Character- unlike temperament, it is a set of qualities that manifest themselves in relation to objects and objects of the surrounding world. Character is also determined by the work of the psyche, but unlike temperament, which is given to a person by nature, it is formed and modified throughout life. A person’s character is influenced by such factors as society, upbringing, profession, etc.
Many psychologists have tried to give any precise classification of character. However, the connection between temperament and character did not make it possible to make the characteristics pure, and now such types of character as strong-willed, rational and emotional are continuously connected not only with the influence of society, but also with the innate natural characteristics of the individual.
In addition, character can be classified according to the presence of various traits in it:
- attitude towards oneself (selfishness, pride, humiliation);
- attitude towards other people (tolerance, rudeness, responsiveness, etc.);
- attitude to activity (energy, perseverance, laziness);
- attitude towards surrounding things (stinginess, neatness).
Thus, the characteristics of temperament and character lie in the fact that they are often confused, calling innate personality qualities manifestations of the psyche and vice versa, characterizing traits acquired in society as individual properties of the nervous system.
In fact, it is quite simple to differentiate these two concepts. The relationship between temperament and character can be represented as follows:
Temperament and character will always be confused with each other. However, in tandem they create a holistic personality that can always be assessed from the outside. And the main thing is that her innate qualities are always in harmony with the acquired ones.
COURSE WORK
Temperament and character
Introduction
A person’s mental states caused by various life circumstances largely depend on the type of person’s temperament. However, his style and culture of behavior depend not on temperament, but on upbringing and character. People say correctly: “When you sow character, you reap destiny.” These words are confirmed by scientific observations of psychologists. Depending on how a person relates to certain phenomena, life tasks, and people around him, he mobilizes the appropriate energy, becomes capable of prolonged stress, forces himself to change the speed of his reactions and the pace of work. A well-mannered and sufficiently strong-willed choleric person is able to show restraint and switch attention to other objects, although this is given to him with greater difficulty than, for example, a phlegmatic person. In the general structure of personality, character occupies a central place, uniting all other properties and behavioral characteristics. A person’s character undoubtedly influences his cognitive processes - perception, attention, imagination, thinking and memory. This influence is exercised through volitional and instrumental character traits. A person's emotional life is directly influenced by character. The same can be said about motivation and will itself. First of all, character determines the individuality and originality of a person. A person’s temperament also plays an important role in this. First of all, it has a significant influence on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his individuality, he acts as a connecting link between the body, personality and cognitive processes. Both characteristics of a person’s individuality - temperament and character - are very interesting for studying and further using the acquired knowledge in real life. Application of knowledge about them in practice helps to understand a person, lift the veil of secrecy about his personality and inner world, find an approach. Therefore, we will consider separately the concepts and types of temperament and character, and also find out what their connections and differences are.
1. Concept and properties of temperament
Temperament (from the Latin temperamentum - the proper relationship of parts, their proportionate mixing) is a complex of innately determined dynamic features of the individual’s psyche, manifested in the intensity, speed and pace of his mental activity, in the emotional tone of his life, the individual’s sensitivity to external influences, in his sensitivity and mental stability /4, p. 98/In other words, temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change. The properties of temperament can only be classified conditionally among the actual personal qualities of a person; they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and innate.
The concept of temperament was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates (460-379 BC), who believed that all people are divided according to their natural characteristics into four groups depending on the predominance in their body of one of the following four fluids (humoral temperament theory):
blood (sanguis) - sanguine people;
yellow bile (chole) - choleric people;
mucus (phlegm) - phlegmatic;
black bile (melaine chole) - melancholic.
The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his types of activity, characterize the characteristics of the course of mental processes, have a more or less stable nature, persist for a long time, appearing soon after birth (after the central the nervous system takes on specific human forms). It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system. Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, in the words of V.M. Rusalov, represent a “systemic generalization” of the initially genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “included in the most different types activities, gradually transform and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties.”
In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the identified properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they manifest themselves differently in activity and communication.
One more circumstance characterizing the connection between temperament and the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention to. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to.
Let us consider these properties in relation to educational processes, subject-related activities and human communication. Relevant properties include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability. /8, p. 251/
The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by the extent to which a person is able to concentrate, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect.
Pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another /8, p. 251/
Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, cessation or switching of one or another cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, some people take longer than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others /8, p. 252/
The pace of work in subject activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work at a fast pace, another prefers to work at a slow pace. The productivity of actions related to movements depends on the activity and pace of work, if no additional requirements, other than frequency and intensity, are imposed on the corresponding actions.
In human communication, the discussed properties of temperament manifest themselves in a similar way, only in in this case they concern verbal and nonverbal human-human interaction. In an individual with increased activity, speech, facial expressions, gestures, and pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people They usually have a stronger voice. The rate of their speech, as well as the rate of emotionally expressive movements, is quite high /5, p. 118/
mental temperament behavior character
2. Types of temperament
There are three areas of manifestation of temperament: general activity, characteristics of the motor sphere and properties of emotionality.
General activity is determined by the intensity and volume of human interaction with the environment - physical and social. The general activity of a person’s mental activity and behavior is expressed in varying degrees of desire to actively act, master and transform the surrounding reality, and express oneself in various activities.
Motor (motor) activity shows the state of activity of the motor and speech-motor apparatus. It is expressed in the speed, strength, sharpness, intensity of muscle movements and speech of a person, his external mobility or restraint, talkativeness or, conversely, silence.
Emotionality is expressed in emotional sensitivity, impulsiveness, emotional mobility.
The first classification of temperaments was proposed by Galen (2nd century BC), and it has survived to this day in a relatively little changed form. The last known description of it, which is also used in modern psychology, belongs to the German philosopher I. Kant (1724-1804). Using this classification, we will describe the types of temperament:
.Sanguine temperament.
A sanguine person quickly gets along with people and is cheerful. Easily switches from one type of activity to another, does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, and actively comes into contact with people. His speech is loud. Fast, distinct, accompanied by gestures and expressive facial expressions. However, this type of temperament is characterized by some duality. If stimuli change quickly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in a sanguine person, and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the influences are long-lasting and monotonous, then they do not maintain a state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, and lethargy. /11, p. 54/
A sanguine person quickly develops feelings of joy, grief, affection and hostility, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They arise quickly and can disappear just as quickly or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but, as a rule, a good mood prevails.
.Phlegmatic temperament.
A person of this type of temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, and balanced. In his activities he demonstrates thoroughness, thoughtfulness, and perseverance. As a rule, he finishes what he starts. All mental processes in a phlegmatic person seem to proceed slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are poorly expressed outwardly due to the balance and weak mobility of nervous processes. In relationships with people, a phlegmatic person is always even, calm, moderately sociable, and his mood is stable. Calmness is also manifested in the phlegmatic person’s attitude to events and phenomena in life; he is not easily enraged and emotionally hurt. It is easy for a person of phlegmatic temperament to develop self-control, composure and calmness. But he should also develop the missing qualities - greater mobility, activity, and not allow him to show indifference to activity, lethargy, inertia, which can very easily form in certain conditions.
.Choleric temperament.
Such people are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes occur quickly and intensely in them. The predominance of excitation over inhibition is clearly manifested in incontinence, impetuosity, hot temper, and irritability. Hence the hasty speech, expressive facial expressions, sharp gestures, and unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person with choleric temperament are strong, quickly arise and manifest themselves clearly, and the mood can change dramatically. The imbalance characteristic of people with this type of temperament has clear manifestations in their activities: they get down to business with passion, showing impetuosity and speed of movement, work with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties, but the supply of nervous energy can quickly be depleted in the process of work and then There may be a sharp decline in activity. In communicating with people, a choleric person admits harshness, irritability, and emotional incontinence, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate people’s actions, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness, hot temper, harshness, and intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to be in a group of such people.
.Melancholic temperament.
In people with this type of temperament, mental processes proceed slowly, they have difficulty reacting to strong stimuli, prolonged and strong stress causes slow activity, and then its cessation. Melancholic people are usually passive in work, as a rule they have little interest, since interest is always associated with strong nervous tension /11, p. 56/Feelings and emotional states in such people arise slowly, but are distinguished by depth, great strength and duration. Melancholic people are easily vulnerable, have a hard time enduring insults and grief, although outwardly all these experiences are of a mildly expressed nature. Representatives of the melancholic type of temperament are prone to isolation and loneliness, avoid communicating with unfamiliar new people, are often embarrassed and show great awkwardness in a new environment. Everything new and unusual causes melancholics to become inhibited, but in a familiar and calm environment they feel calm and work productively. It is easy for melancholic people to develop and improve their characteristic depth and stability of feelings, increased susceptibility to external influences.
So, each type of temperament has its own ratio mental properties, first of all, different degrees of activity and emotionality, the ratio of certain properties of motor skills, and also has its own physiological base, which means that each type of nervous system corresponds to a certain type of temperament. The above can be displayed in schematic form (according to I.P. Pavlov):
STRONG - WEAK
(melancholic)
Balanced Unbalanced
(choleric)
Inert Mobile
(phlegmatic) (sanguine)
The four types of temperament discussed above are usually not represented in " pure form" People tend to have mixed temperaments, but one type or another is predominant.
3. The concept of character, its types and distinctive features
To successfully develop a topic this issue Let's start with defining character. Literally translated from Greek, character means imprint, seal, coinage. The very definition in psychology sounds like this: character is a clearly expressed certainty, typicality of human behavior; system of stable motives and modes of behavior that form a behavioral type of personality / 5, p. 132/
The term “character” was introduced into use in science and life by the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher, a friend of Aristotle, Theophrastus (IV-III centuries BC). A small treatise on characters by Theophrastus has been preserved, in which 30 characters are described from the point of view of a satirist and moralist. The description of each character is given under the sign of one dominant, clearly expressed trait: “pretense”, “flattery”, “boring storyteller”, etc. From the definition given above, it follows that when we talk about a person’s character, we mean all his individually expressed and unique psychological traits. To characterize a person always means to give the psychology of him as a person, to highlight not the sum of his qualities, but those features that distinguish this person from other people and at the same time are structurally integral, i.e. represent a certain unity. Character is an individual combination of essential personality traits that express a person’s attitude to reality and are manifested in his behavior and actions. Character is interconnected with other aspects of personality, in particular with temperament and abilities. Thus, perseverance in a choleric person is expressed by vigorous activity, in a phlegmatic person - in concentrated thinking. The choleric person works energetically and passionately, while the phlegmatic person works methodically, slowly. On the other hand, temperament itself is rebuilt under the influence of character: a person with a strong character can suppress some negative aspects your temperament, control its manifestations.
From a behavioral point of view, all people are multifaceted creatures, and in the same circumstances we manifest different properties of our personality. For example, when communicating with new strangers, some are timid, shy, reserved, silent; others are self-confident, lively, talkative. These differences are explained, on the one hand, by a person’s attitude towards people, on the other hand, by individual characteristics of temperament and mental processes. Since these differences are determined by the relationships of the individual, we have the right to designate them as personality properties. But personal relationships always contain something socially typical. Meanwhile, the described differences reveal the individual uniqueness of the individual. Therefore, we designate such individual personality differences that appear only in certain circumstances as character traits.
Since the manifestation of character traits is determined social factors and personal relationships, then they are not found in all situations, but only in socially typical ones. For example, individual differences between people also manifest themselves in how they eat, walk, dance, etc. But character does not appear in such individual differences, because the attitude towards eating, walking or dancing is not socially typical. Meanwhile, differences in communication with people, in work, in learning, are indeed determined by character, because attitudes towards work, people, and learning are socially typical. Only those situations that have significant social significance are socially typical.
So, character is an individual manifestation of a personality, its descriptive traits, and character traits are such individual manifestations of the traits of a particular personality that appear only in certain situations, depending on the socially typical relationships of the individual. Thus, character properties should be distinguished from such individual mental properties that manifest themselves regardless of the content of the socially typical relationships of the individual and from any situation. These include the properties of temperament and individual-qualitative characteristics of mental processes.
The definition of each individual character property should reveal the general pattern of its structure. In order to reveal it, it is necessary and sufficient to indicate:
) situations in which this character trait is manifested;
) socially typical relations that define it;
) typical properties of an individual that underlie it.
When talking about the character of a person, we always give an explicit or implied assessment of him: “kind”, “soft”, “flexible”, etc. n. Based on this, G. Allport concludes that character is an aesthetic concept, it is used to assess the behavior of an individual. Thus, character is a valued personality. However, some researchers (Yu.B. Gippenreiter) do not equate the concept of character with all its properties and traits and the concept of personality. It is argued that character traits reflect what Howa person acts, and personality traits for whatman acts /11, p. 64/
The most interesting descriptions of character (known as “character typologies”) arose in the border region, at the intersection of psychology and psychiatry. Among the scientists who have summarized many years of experience in observing their behavior and studying their destinies, it is necessary to name K. Jung, E. Kretschmer, P.B. Gannushkin, K. Leongard, A.E. Lichko. All typologies of human characters were based on a number of general ideas. Here are the main ones:
a person’s character is formed quite early in ontogenesis and throughout the rest of his life manifests itself as more or less stable;
those combinations of personality traits that make up a person’s character are not random, but form clearly distinguishable types that make it possible to identify and build a typology of characters.
Most people can be divided into groups according to this typology. E. Kretschmer identified and described the three most common types of human body structure and constitution: asthenic, athletic and picnic. He associated each of them with a special type of character.
The asthenic type is characterized by a small body thickness in profile with average or above average height. An asthenic person is usually a thin or thin person, who, because of his thinness, seems somewhat taller than he actually is. He has thin skin of the face and body, narrow shoulders, thin arms, an elongated and flat chest with weakly developed muscles and weak fat deposits.
The athletic type is characterized by a highly developed skeleton and muscles. A thin person is usually of medium or tall height, with broad shoulders and a powerful chest. He has a dense, high head.
The picnic type is distinguished by developed internal body cavities, a tendency to obesity with underdeveloped muscles and the musculoskeletal system. Such a person is of average height with a short neck sitting between the shoulders /9, p. 38/
The type of body structure, as was shown by Kretschmer and partly confirmed by the latest research in the field of psychogenetics, in a certain way correlates with a tendency to mental illness. For example, manic-depressive psychosis most often affects people with extremely pronounced picnic features. Asthenics and athletes are more prone to schizophrenic diseases. Diseases, according to Kretschmer, are “caricatures of certain normal personality types.” /9, p. 38/That guy normal people, which in its psychological characteristics resembles schizophrenics, Kretschmer called “schizothymic”, and those who resemble patients with manic-depressive psychosis - “cyclothymic”. Schizothymic people are characterized by such character traits as aristocracy and subtlety of feelings, a tendency to abstract thinking and alienation, coldness, selfishness and authority, dryness and lack of emotions. He describes cyclothymics as people with cheerfulness, talkativeness, carelessness, sincerity, energy, a penchant for humor and an easy perception of life.
K. Jung proposed a different typology of characters. He connected characters with personality orientation and identified a number of psychosociotypes. A psychosociotype is an innate mental structure that determines a specific type of information exchange between an individual and the environment. The scientist identified four types of character:
Extroverted - introverted
Rationalistic - irrationalistic
Thinking (logical) - emotional
Sensing (sensory) - intuitive.
Along with the above typologies, a number of the following character types are distinguished:
Harmonically integral type. Characterized by stability of relationships and at the same time high adaptability to environment. Such a person has no internal conflicts, his desires coincide with what he does. He is a sociable, strong-willed, principled person.
The type is internally conflicting, but externally harmoniously coordinated by the environment. It is characterized by inconsistency between internal awakenings and external behavior, which, in accordance with the requirements of the environment, is carried out with great tension. A person with this type of character is prone to impulsive actions, but they are constantly restrained by volitional efforts. The system of his relationships is stable, but his communicative properties are not sufficiently developed. These people overcome discord with the outside world through internal tactical adjustments, psychological defense, devaluing current events that do not fit into their value system, preserving the basic values of the individual, but not actively trying to change external circumstances. This is a type of wise contemplator detached from everyday struggle.
Conflict type with reduced adaptation. It is characterized by conflict between emotional impulses and social responsibilities, impulsiveness, the predominance of negative emotions, underdeveloped communicative properties, and insufficiently constructed self-awareness. The life of such people follows a simplified scheme: their changing needs, in their opinion, should be immediately satisfied without special effort. The psyche of such individuals is not burdened with much experience, they are not concerned about the future. In childhood, they, as a rule, were subjected to overprotection and were surrounded by excessive care of the people around them. They are characterized by immaturity and inability to overcome life's difficulties. The main mechanism of their life is pleasure (hedonism). /4, p. 357/
Variable character type. Externally adapting to the environment as a result of instability of positions, unprincipledness; indicate a low level of personality development, the absence of a stable general way of behavior. Lack of character and constant opportunism are a surrogate for plasticity of behavior. People of this type are characterized by a simplified inner world; their struggle for existence is straightforward /5, p. 124/They do not show doubts or hesitations in achieving utilitarian goals and do not have any special internal restrictions. Reality puzzles them only with questions of a “technical” nature - how to achieve, how to achieve the greatest possible number of immediate benefits. This is the type of “realists”: such people try to satisfy their needs as fully as possible within the limits of realistically existing possibilities. Adaptation, smoothing, adjustment of the inner world to external circumstances - this is the general way of adaptation of these people.
Character Formation
Among the properties of an individual, depending on which character properties are formed, significant role, plays a type of temperament that has a hereditary origin. This naturally raises the question, what is the general role of heredity in the formation of character? The most reliable way to resolve the issue of the role of heredity and character formation is to compare their development in homozygous and heterozygous twins with other things being equal. For physiological reasons, the hereditary properties of homozygous twins are the same. The sameness of upbringing conditions is eliminated through comparison with heterozygous twins, whose upbringing conditions are just as similar as those of homozygous twins, but their hereditary properties are different.
The role of hereditary inclinations is manifested only in the fact that the type of temperament determined by heredity favors or counteracts the formation of certain character traits. But the necessary and determining condition for their occurrence is externally corresponding social conditions and conditions of upbringing. At the same time, character traits do not represent a passive reflection of the conditions of development and upbringing. This is clearly revealed in the study of Zazo and Gottschaldt. Zazo, observing homozygous twins in infancy and preschool age in joint games and activities, discovered sharp differences between them in the relationships of power-subordination, activity, initiative and passivity. Gottschaldt also found the same data on differences in character traits when studying homozygous twins in their own family. Gottschald explains this by the twins’ heightened desire to be different from each other and to look for individual ways of self-expression. This desire is especially expressed in adolescence during the period of increased self-awareness. In this explanation, character traits are determined not by external social conditions and conditions of upbringing, but by the immanent tendency of the individual to individualize. From a materialistic point of view, such an explanation is unacceptable. In addition, from this point of view, it is hardly possible to explain the differences in character traits in homozygous twins in infancy and early preschool age, when the desire to imitate and conformity are most expressed /12/
In relation to homozygous twins, such an explanation, of course, is completely hypothetical. However, in relation to the development of character in an adult, the dominant role of active actions and actions in its formation is confirmed by experimental facts. Thus, in a clinical study, character changes that occurred as a result of acute psychological conflict-disability, negative evaluation or underestimation were studied using this method. labor activity etc. Given the same external causes of psychological conflict, as a result of it, different people experienced character changes in the opposite direction. For example, among those blinded as a result of being wounded at the front, some became embittered, withdrawn, and sank to a lower moral level. Others, on the contrary, became sociable and responsive, their intellectual interests changed and expanded, and their level of activity increased.
The same differences in character changes were observed in psychological conflicts that arose as a result of negative social evaluation or undervaluation of work. These differences in character changes were associated with the outcome of psychological conflict, i.e. with those actions and deeds with the help of which a person resolved a conflict situation. Of course, a person’s action in critical circumstances depends primarily on the entire previous development of the individual and on the conditions of upbringing. However, even under the most favorable conditions of development and upbringing, depending on the infinite variety of combinations of external and internal conditions, the same person can decide to take very different actions.
The same is evidenced by the facts presented when considering the conditions for the formation of personality in society in a collective. The formation of personality by a number of subjective factors, such as awareness of the rational basis for social assessment, the relationship between social significance and the personal meaning of activity, self-awareness and self-esteem of the individual. Only thanks to these mediating subjective factors, reactive changes in personality relationships that arose in response to social influences are transformed into active, stable and permanent personality properties. But all these subjective factors in the formation of personality constitute the conditions that determine the active nature of a person’s activity, his actions and actions.
Thus, this group of facts confirms that character traits, like personality traits as a whole, do not represent a passive cast of external social conditions of life and upbringing. They are formed in the active activity of a person, depending on his actions and actions. In the process of such active activity, at the same time, those automatisms of behavior, habits and attitudes, thanks to which character traits acquire greater certainty, activity, stability and constancy. Special significance in the formation of character are actions and actions in conflict situations, depending on which the outcome and resolution of the psychological conflict is determined. As the study of these conflicts shows, character changes in such cases are especially deep and lasting.
But critical circumstances are repeated throughout a person’s life. We lose our loved ones or are subjected to unfair insults, find ourselves in a difficult work situation, etc. In each such case, depending on what action a person decides to take, it depends on how his character and future life will develop. We create our own character through our actions throughout life.
4. The connection between character and temperament
Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are replaced with each other / 13/ .In science, among the dominant views on the relationship between character and temperament, four main ones can be distinguished:
Identification of character and temperament (E. Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky);
Contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius);
Recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an unchangeable part (S.L. Rubinstein, S. Gorodetsky);
Recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B.G. Ananyev).
Based on the materialistic understanding of human phenomena, it should be noted that what character and temperament have in common is dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person. The formation of character significantly depends on the properties of temperament, which is more closely related to the properties of the nervous system. In addition, character traits arise when temperament is already sufficiently developed. Character develops on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines character traits such as balance or difficulty in entering a new situation, mobility or inertness of reaction, etc. However, temperament does not determine character. People with the same temperamental properties can have completely different character. Features of temperament can promote or counteract the formation of certain character traits. The properties of temperament may, to some extent, even come into conflict with character. In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of the individual. Here it should be noted the influence exerted on the formation of character by a dynamic stereotype, that is, a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repeated situations is influenced by his attitude to the situation, as a result of which excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system can change.
The traits of temperament and character are organically connected and interact with each other in the integral, unified appearance of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his individuality - that is, personality /13/
Despite the fact that character is referred to as individual characteristics of a person, in the structure of character one can identify traits that are common to a certain group of people. Even in the most original person you can find some trait (for example, unusualness, unpredictability of behavior), the possession of which allows you to classify him into a group of people with similar behavior.
Character is not innate - it is formed in the life and activity of a person as a representative of a certain group, a certain society. Therefore, a person’s character is always a product of society, which explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to various groups.
Despite its stability, the character type has a certain plasticity; under the influence of life circumstances, upbringing, and the demands of society, the character type changes and develops.
Conclusion
From the point of view of psychologists, the four temperaments are just one of the possible systems for assessing the psychological characteristics of a person. Descriptions of temperaments vary quite widely among different psychologists and seem to include quite large number factors. Attempts have been made to provide a scientific and experimental basis for the theory of temperaments (I.P. Pavlov, G.Yu. Eysenck, B.M. Teplov and others), however, the results obtained by these researchers are only partially compatible with each other. T.A. Blumina (1996) made an attempt to compare the theory of temperaments with all psychological typologies known at that time (more than 100), including from the point of view of methods for determining these types. In general, the classification by temperament does not satisfy modern requirements for factor analysis of personality and at the moment is more interesting from a historical point of view /12/
Modern science sees in the doctrine of temperaments an echo of the ancient classification of four types of mental response in combination with intuitively noticed types of physiological and biochemical reactions of the individual. Currently, the concept of four temperaments is supported by the concepts of “inhibition” and “excitation” of the nervous system / 12/ . The ratio of “high” and “low” levels, for each of these two independent parameters, gives a certain individual characteristic of a person, and, as a result, a formal definition of each of the four temperaments. The dynamic characteristics of a person’s character—the style of his behavior—depend on temperament. Temperament is the “natural soil” on which the process of formation of individual character traits and the development of individual human abilities takes place. People achieve the same success in different ways, replacing their “weaknesses” with a system of mental compensation. Personal properties such as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament, but character occupies a central place in the overall structure of personality, uniting all other properties and behavioral characteristics.
There are different opinions about which characteristics of the body should be associated with temperament - hereditary (genotype) or simply physiological (phenotype). I.P. Pavlov connected the concept of “temperament” with the genotype, or with the innate makeup of the nervous system, thereby eliminating the psychological basis of temperament. He called the psychological aspects of temperament character. Based on this, psychologists state that although temperament and character differ in psychology, there is no clear boundary between them. In the most general and approximate sense, temperament is understood either as the “natural basis” or as the “dynamic basis” of character /11, p. 65/
List of sources used
1.Belous V.V. "Temperament and activity." Study guide. Pyatigorsk, 1990
2. Wenger L.A. Mukhina V.S. Psychology. Moscow, 1988
Gippenreiter Yu.B. "Introduction to General Psychology". Course of lectures. Moscow, 1988
Enikeev M.I. "Psychological Encyclopedic Dictionary." Moscow, 2010
Enikeev M.I. "General and social psychology" Textbook for universities. Moscow, 2002
Krutetsky V.A. Psychology. Moscow, 1988
Merlin V.S. “Personality structure. Character, abilities. Self-awareness." Textbook for the special course. Perm, 1990
Nemov R.S. "Psychology" book 1, 3rd edition. Moscow, 1999
Orekhova V.A. "Psychology in questions and answers." Study guide. Moscow, 2009
Simonov P.V., Ershov P.M. "Temperament. Character. Personality." Moscow, 1984
Tertel A.L. "Psychology in questions and answers." Study guide. Moscow, 2006
12.Internet resource: www.wikipedia.org.ru
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(lat. temperamentum - proper ratio of parts) - stable association individual characteristics personalities associated with dynamic rather than substantive aspects of activity. The properties of temperament include the individual pace and rhythm of mental processes, the degree of stability of feelings, and the degree of volitional effort. The type of temperament is closely related to the innate anatomical and physiological characteristics of higher nervous activity. At the same time, certain lifetime changes in temperament indicators are possible, associated with the conditions of upbringing, transferred to early age diseases, nutritional habits, hygienic and general living conditions.
In the studies of V.S. Merlin, based on the formal dynamic properties of mental activity and the properties of the nervous system, identified the following main parameters of temperament:
- emotional excitability;
- excitability of attention;
- strength of emotions;
- anxiety;
— reactivity of involuntary movements (impulsivity);
— activity of strong-willed, purposeful activity;
- plasticity - rigidity;
— resistance;
- subjectification.
Psychodynamic features of brain activity.
Initially, within the framework of Pavlov’s doctrine of higher nervous activity, the properties of the nervous system were diagnosed based on indicators of the dynamics of production, differentiation and increased frequency of conditioned reflexes. At school B.M. Teplova—V.D. Nebylitsyn identified 12 such properties (four properties of excitation and inhibition - strength, mobility, dynamism and lability; and balance according to these properties). Based on the use of a multi-effector method, primarily the electroencephalogram and the method of evoked potentials, it turned out to be possible to study the properties of the nervous system outside the process of developing a conditioned reflex. In accordance with this, V.D. Nebylitsyn proposed to distinguish between partial properties of the nervous system, correlated with the characteristics of the course of conditioned reflexes, and general properties, which represent super-analytical characteristics of the brain and serve as the neurophysiological basis for the holistic characteristics of individual behavior.
In the work of E.A. Golubeva, based on the identification of unconditioned reflex components in electroencephalographic data, determined a new typological property of VND—activity.
Dynamic characteristics of mental processes.
Dynamic characteristics of mental processes (Greek dynamikos - strong, charakter - sign, trait, sign and psyche - soul) are characteristics of the implementation of activities that are represented by formal (non-substantive), primarily quantitative, for example speed, indicators of the implementation of a particular activity. In different states in which a person may be (fatigue, stress, agitation), these indicators show very wide variability. Individual differences are also large. For example, right-handers have higher speed performance when performing serial operations than left-handers.
Conditioning. These processes are closely related to the work of nonspecific brain structures different levels, in particular at the cortical level (medio-basal parts of the cortex of the frontal and temporal parts of the brain). In neuropsychology, they are considered as indicators of the functioning of the first and third blocks of the brain.
Types of temperament of Hippocrates.
Hippocrates (460–377 BC), an ancient Greek physician, proposed a typology of temperaments based on the postulation that there are four basic elements in the human body, the ratio of which determines the course of physical and mental illness. In his opinion, the organ of thinking and sensation is the brain. He proceeded from the idea of the relationship between four juices in the human body (blood, mucus, yellow and black bile). Based on this humoral principle, he described various emotional manifestations. In particular, according to his ideas, when mentally excited, some people tend to behave in a manic type of behavior, others - in a depressive type. He believed that there is a certain influence of climatic and geographical conditions on the properties of a person’s character and his social organization.
The dominance of any one element manifests itself as a type of temperament, the carrier of which was designated as:
- sanguine,
- choleric,
- phlegmatic,
- melancholic.
Sanguine.
A sanguine person can be described as lively, agile, quickly responding to surrounding events, and relatively easily experiencing failures and troubles. He quickly adapts to new conditions, quickly gets along with people, his feelings easily arise and are replaced by new ones, he is characterized by rich facial expressions, mobility, expressiveness, sometimes superficiality, and inconstancy. Napoleon and D'Artagnan from "The Three Musketeers" by A. Dumas are traditionally classified as sanguine.
A choleric person can be described as fast, impetuous, capable of devoting himself to a task with passion, but unbalanced, prone to violent emotional outbursts and sudden changes in mood. He is characterized by increased excitability, strong emotionality, sometimes irritability, affectivity. Choleric people traditionally include A.S. Pushkina, A.V. Suvorov, Athos from “The Three Musketeers” by A. Dumas.
A phlegmatic person can be described as slow, imperturbable, with stable aspirations and a more or less constant mood, with weak external expression states of mind. It is characteristic that he develops new forms of behavior slowly, but persists for a long time, he rarely loses his temper, is not prone to emotions, he is characterized by evenness, calmness, self-control, sometimes lethargy, indifference to others, and laziness. I.A. is traditionally classified as phlegmatic. Krylova, M.I. Kutuzov, Porthos from “The Three Musketeers” by A. Dumas.
A melancholic person can be characterized as easily vulnerable, inclined to deeply experience even minor failures, but outwardly reacting sluggishly to his surroundings. He is inhibited, it is difficult for him to concentrate on one thing for a long time, strong influences lead to stupor, sometimes he is characterized by isolation, timidity, and anxiety. N.V. is traditionally classified as melancholic. Gogol, P.I. Tchaikovsky, Aramis from “The Three Musketeers” by A. Dumas.
Pavlov's types of temperament.
Types of temperament I.P. Pavlov's theories are based on the types of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov showed that higher nervous activity is based on three components: strength (the individual retains high level performance during long and intense work, recovers quickly, does not react to weak stimuli), balance (the individual remains calm in a stimulating environment, easily suppresses his inappropriate desires) and mobility (the individual quickly reacts to changes in the situation, easily acquires new skills). The combination of these components, according to Pavlov, provides an explanation of the classical temperaments of Hippocrates:
- a sanguine person has a strong, balanced, mobile type of higher nervous activity;
- choleric - a strong, unbalanced, mobile type of higher nervous activity;
- phlegmatic - a strong, balanced, inert type of higher nervous activity;
- melancholic - a weak, unbalanced, inert type of higher nervous activity.
Types of temperament E. Kretschmer.
Initially, E. Kretschmer (1888 - Tübingen), a German psychiatrist and psychologist, correlated body constitutions (leptosomal, picnic, athletic) with mental illnesses (manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia).
Based on many calculations of the ratio of body parts, Kretschmer identified the main types of body structure (clearly defined - leptosomal, or psychosomatic, pyknic, athletic, and less defined - dysplastic). He correlated these types of constitutions with the mental illnesses described by Kraepelin - manic-depressive psychosis and schizophrenia, and it turned out that there is a certain connection: people with a pyknic type of constitution are more prone to manic-depressive psychoses, and people with a leptosomal type are more prone to schizophrenia. Further, he made a poorly substantiated assumption that the same characteristics of temperament that are leading in mental illness can be detected, only with less severity, in healthy individuals. The difference between illness and health, according to Kretschmer, is only quantitative: any type of temperament is characterized by psychotic, psychopathic and healthy variants of mental makeup. Each of the main mental (psychotic) diseases corresponds to a certain form of psychopathy (cycloid, schizoid), as well as a certain “character” (more precisely, temperament) of a healthy person (cyclothymic, schizothymic). The most predisposed to mental illness are picnics and psychosomatics. The cyclothymic character, when excessively expressed, can reach - through an already abnormal cycloid variation of character - to manic-depressive psychosis. With the schizothymic form of temperament, in case of deviation from the norm, schizoidia occurs, which is transformed, when painful symptoms increase, into schizophrenia.
Subsequently, Kretschmer identified seven temperaments, correlated with three main groups:
1. Cyclothymic, based on a pyknic physique (a: hypomanic, b: syntonic, c: phlegmatic);
2. Schizothymic, based on the leptosomal constitution (a: hyperaesthetic, b: actually schizothymic, c: anesthetic);
An asthenic person in the constitutional typology of E. Kretschmer is endowed with a schizoid, or schizothymic, temperament, which is characterized by isolation, withdrawal into oneself, inconsistency of responses to external stimuli, increased vulnerability with emotional coldness, and the experience of asthenic feelings.
3. Viscous Temperament, based on an athletic build, like special kind temperament, characterized by viscosity, difficulty switching and a tendency to affective outbursts, most predisposed to epileptic diseases. Kretschmer considered sensitivity to stimuli, mood, pace of mental activity, psychomotor skills, the individual characteristics of which are ultimately determined by blood chemistry, as the main properties of temperament.
Introversion and extraversion according to K.G. Jung.
Introversion (occurs in Latin: intro - inside + versare - to turn) - personal orientation in the theory of analytical psychology by K.G. Jung, which acts as one of two integral attitudes and characterizes the individual as conscious, thinking and judging.
Extraversion (Latin exter – external + versare – to turn) is a personal orientation in the theory of analytical psychology by K.G. Jung, which acts as one of two integral attitudes and characterizes an intuitive, feeling, perceiving individual.
Eysenck's theory of personality.
H.Yu. Eysenck (1916–1997), English psychologist, one of the leaders of the biological direction in psychology, is the creator of the technical factor theory of personality.
Initially, he interpreted extraversion - introversion on the basis of the relationship between the processes of excitation and inhibition. Thus, it turned out that extroverts are characterized by the slow formation of excitation, its weakness and the rapid formation of reactive inhibition, its strength and stability, while introverts are characterized by the rapid formation of excitation, its strength (this is due to better education they have conditioned reflexes and their training) and slow formation of reactive inhibition, weakness and low stability. As for neuroticism, Eysenck believed that neurotic symptoms are conditioned reflexes, and behavior that is the avoidance of a conditioned reflex stimulus (danger signal) and thereby eliminating anxiety is valuable in itself. In his work “Biological Foundations of Individuality” (1967), Eysenck proposed the following interpretation of these two personality factors: a high degree of introversion corresponds to a decrease in the activation threshold of the reticular formation, therefore introverts experience higher arousal in response to exteroceptive stimuli, and a high degree of neuroticism corresponds to a decrease in the activation threshold limbic system, therefore they have increased emotional reactivity in response to events in the internal environment of the body, in particular to fluctuations in needs. As a result of further research using factor analysis, Eysenck came to the formulation of the “three-factor theory of personality.” This theory is based on the definition of a personality trait as a way of behavior in certain areas of life: at the lowest level of analysis, isolated acts in specific situations are considered (for example, the currently manifested manner of entering into a conversation with a stranger); at the second level - frequently repeated, habitual behavior in essentially similar life situations; these are ordinary reactions diagnosed as superficial traits; at the third level of analysis, it is discovered that repeated forms of behavior can be combined into some uniquely defined complexes, first-order factors (for example, the habit of being in company, the tendency to actively engage in conversation, etc. give grounds to postulate the presence of such a trait as sociability); finally, at the fourth level of analysis, meaningfully defined complexes themselves are combined into second-order factors, or types that do not have an obvious behavioral expression (sociability correlates with physical activity, responsiveness, plasticity, etc.), but are based on biological characteristics.
At the level of second-order factors, Eysenck identified three personal dimensions:
- psychoticism (P),
- extraversion (E),
— neuroticism (N).
Introversion (from Latin intro – inside + versare – to turn) is a personal variable that is characterized by a number of characteristics. Among them are persistence, rigidity, subjectivism, modesty, and irritability. An introvert is shy, introspective, does not follow sudden impulses, loves order, and can be relied upon. He is cold and performance-oriented. It is the opposite of extraversion.
One of the components of introversion is schizothymia (Greek schizo - I split) - a personal variable that is characterized by a number of characteristics. Among them are a high personal pace, strong perseveration (perseveration of associations, reactive irritability, long-term affective perseveration), good dissection (analytical perception, G - answers to the Rorschach test, abstract abilities, independence), strong intrapsychic tension, etc. An individual with a high score Schizothymia is characterized by abstraction, analytical thinking, poor switching ability, irritability, and duration of affect.
Extraversion (Latin exter - external + versare - to turn) is a personal variable that is characterized by a number of characteristics. Among them are sociability, impulsiveness, activity, liveliness, receptivity, and excitability. An extrovert loves parties, needs people, loves tricky jokes, does not mince words, loves change. Carefree, cheerful, loves to laugh, quick-tempered, you can’t always rely on him. Focused on sensations and emotions.
One of the components of extraversion is impulsiveness (Latin impulsus - push) - the tendency to act without sufficient conscious control, under the influence of external circumstances or due to emotional experiences.
How age feature Impulsivity manifests itself mainly in children of preschool and primary school age, which is due to the insufficient development of the behavior control function. With normal development, this form of impulsivity is quite optimally corrected in children’s joint games, in which the fulfillment of role rules requires restraining one’s immediate impulses and taking into account the interests of other players, and also somewhat later in educational activities. Upon reaching adolescence, impulsivity can again manifest itself as an age-related feature, associated with an increase in emotional excitability at this age.
To diagnose impulsivity, special tests and questionnaires are used, for example, the Impulsivity Questionnaire by H. Eysenck and the Matching Familiar Figures Test by J. Kagan. In this case, it is important to distinguish between speed and impulsiveness: slow and accurate performance of a task is characteristic of a reflexive personality, fast and inaccurate performance is characteristic of an impulsive personality, but fast and accurate performance is a sign of neither an impulsive nor a reflexive personality (Davidson W.B. Emotionality as a moderator of cognitive style on the Matching Familiar Figures Test in adults / J. Person Assess. 1988, 52, 3, 506–511).
Psychology movements, sometimes conflict, strong internal tension, inadequacy of emotional reactions. At the same time, a tendency towards solitude and insensitivity to others comes to the fore.
It is the opposite of the superego force.
Superego strength is a secondary personality trait that is characterized by behavioral traits such as sociability and the ability to empathize and sympathize.
These dimensions were considered to be genetically determined by CNS activity, indicating their status as temperamental traits. In the huge number of applied studies that Eysenck conducted to prove his theory, most often together with specialists in the relevant fields, the importance of differences in these factors was shown in crime statistics, in mental illness, in susceptibility to accidents, in the choice of professions, in the severity of the level of achievements, in sports, in sexual behavior, etc. Thus, in particular, it has been shown that according to the factors of extraversion and neuroticism, two types of neurotic disorders are well differentiated: hysterical neurosis, which is observed in persons of choleric temperament (unstable extroverts) and obsessive-compulsive neurosis - in persons of melancholic temperament (unstable introverts). Diagnostics. Based on the “three-factor model of personality,” he created the psychodiagnostic methods EPI (“Manual of the Eysenck Personality Inventory” (jointly with Eysenck B.G.), L., 1964) and EPQ, which continued a number of previously created ones - MMQ, MPI (“Manual of the Maudsley Personality Inventory”, L., 1959).
Big Five.
The Big Five is a factor-analytic model of personality, which identifies the following integral personality traits: extraversion, desirability, conscientiousness, emotional stability, intellectual openness.
The NEO Personality Inventory (Costa, McCral, 1985) is used to identify relevant individual characteristics. The Abridget Big-Five Dimensional Circumpex Model questionnaire has also been developed, which uses the following scales: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, intelligence, or openness to experience.
Character.
Character (Greek character - trait, sign, omen, peculiarity) is a fairly stable system of human behavior under typical conditions. It varies little depending on the activity being carried out (work, study, etc.). In the formation of a person’s character, forms of social relationships play a leading role. Therefore, with a certain variability in character traits due to heredity and personal experience in solving life problems, the character of people living in similar social conditions has many similar traits.
One of the leading indicators of character is will (Latin voluntas - will). This is a person’s ability to achieve his goals while overcoming obstacles. The basis for the implementation of volitional processes is the characteristic mediation of human behavior through the use of socially developed tools or means. It is the basis for the process, which has significant individual variations, of conscious control over certain emotional states or motives. Through this control, one gains the ability to act contrary to strong motivation and/or ignore strong emotional experiences. The development of will in a child, beginning in early childhood, is carried out through the formation of conscious control over immediate behavior when mastering certain rules of behavior.
German characterology.
German characterology, which dates back to classical German philosophy, puts two main tasks at the center of all psychological research:
- constructing a typology of characters,
— development of methods for determining character type based on the expressive actions of an individual (physique, expression, handwriting, etc.).
In this case, the individual is interpreted as a mental-physical integrity, the external manifestations of which fully correspond to its internal mental content (opposed to the spiritual as impersonal-universal).
K.G. Carus (1789–1869), a German doctor, philosopher, psychologist and artist, paid special attention to the question of specific material signs by which mental forces can be judged (Symbolik der menschlichen Gestalt. Leipzig, 1853), he tried to modify the phrenological teaching of Hall based on data on the evolutionary development of the nervous system (Foundations of cranioscopy. St. Petersburg, 1844).
His ideas about the “physiognomy of nature” were further developed in the concept of L. Klages about the direct “physiognomic observation” of life itself and the destruction of the “unconscious cosmic rhythm of nature by the human spirit.”
L. Klages (1872–1956), German psychologist and irrationalist philosopher, representative of the “philosophy of life,” specialist in the field of characterology, founder of scientific graphology, believed that the fundamental principles human existence are revealed in direct “physiognomic observation” of an individual’s life, which is recorded in the language of symbols (legends, myths, distinctive feature which is the unity of subject and object).
F. Lersch (1898–1972), a German psychologist, a representative of understanding psychology and characterology, based on general anthropological ideas about the polarity of an individual’s relationship with the outside world, developed a rather speculative doctrine of the layers of character, in which he highlighted:
— “endothymic” basis (moods, feelings, affects, desires);
- personal “superstructure”.
Considering the “endothymic” basis of character, he proposed a classification of experienced drives, highlighting three levels:
- the level of drives of vital being (the desire for activity, for pleasure, libido, the desire for impressions),
- the level of drives of the individual self (the need for self-preservation, egoism, the will to power, the level of aspirations, the desire for significance, the need for recognition, the need for self-esteem),
- the level of drives of individual existence (human participation, desire for productive creativity, cognitive interests, love complicity, duty, artistic needs, metaphysical needs, religious quests).
Literature on the section Temperament and character:
Azarov V.N. The structure of impulsive and reflexive-volitional styles of action / Questions of Psychology, 1988, No. 3, p. 132–138;
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