Social psychology began its formation as an independent science with late XIX century. Most of her questions were formed within the framework of the philosophy of relationships between people in society. However, the study of the problems posed was quite labor-intensive and soon integration occurred, which determined psychology and sociology as separate independent sciences. So, social psychology began to solve the most pressing problems, such as: developments practical recommendations and the formation of an integral system, development of research methodology and theories. The specificity of science lies in the study of patterns of human activity and behavior, as well as psychological characteristics social groups.
Item social psychology is determined by the question of study as an independent branch of knowledge. The subject of research in this area is the personality itself, studied in society, group and society, since it explores general specifics social interactions. Thus, subject of social psychology- this is the person himself in society. The most important thing is the position in the team and group. The study also examines the characteristics and characteristics of social groups, problems of intra-group and inter-group relations, and much more. Each social group is distinctive because it has individual characteristics unique to it.
Basic methods of social psychology.
Methods of social psychology consist in ways of understanding the main socio-psychological phenomena and patterns. They are aimed at a set of indicators that reveal the essence of phenomena or processes. Let's take a closer look at these methods of social psychology:
methods of phenomenologization and conceptualization - this group methods is aimed at carrying out preliminary work on systematizing the socio-psychological problems and phenomena of interest, the identification of which is carried out in accordance with the needs of society. Conceptualization is carried out by correlating theories and models;
research and diagnostic methods - research methods include the following methods of social psychology, How:
observation is a strictly fixed, purposeful perception of a socio-psychological phenomenon. It allows you to answer the following questions: What needs to be observed? How to record the result?;
survey (written and oral) - a method of studying communication, opinions, leadership, and social relations in teams and groups. Main role motivation plays here, i.e. the desire to answer sincerely;
experiment - intervention by a researcher in the social activities of a group in order to provide certain conditions conducive to the discovery of a socio-psychological fact. This type the method is divided into laboratory (artificially created) and natural;
modeling is a research method aimed at forming models of socio-psychological phenomena necessary for studying;
Diagnostic methods include the following: methods of social psychology, How:
testing - a standardized test that is designed to directly measure most socio-psychological variables;
processing and interpretation methods - mainly used statistical methods to find deviations from the average, significance level, correlation, average values, the significance of the relationship between variables, reliability, and also compilation of factor analysis. They allow you to study existing patterns and provide all the information in a visual form, that is, move from patterns and numbers to psychological judgments and concepts
methods of correction and therapy - contribute to the development and improvement of group and personal characteristics, skills and abilities;
methods of motivation and management - are used to ensure the optimal functioning of groups and individuals and encourage them to act to achieve a common goal;
methods of training and development - aimed at realizing socio-psychological potential in the process of increasing the efficiency of mastering skills, knowledge and abilities; contribute to increased competence;
methods of design and creativity.
.
Science social psychology deals with the study of personality and its social interaction in a particular society or group. Problems of social psychology hidden in the manifestation of personality traits that differ significantly in different groups and societies. In some conditions, personality traits may be revealed, but in completely different conditions they may not appear at all. The main reference point remains the relationship with the social group of the individual himself.Introduction.
I. Observation - collection method scientific information.
II. Varieties of observation method.
III. Classification of types of observation.
Conclusion.
References
Introduction.
Observation is an old method of social psychology and is sometimes contrasted with experiment as an imperfect method. At the same time, far from all the possibilities of the observation method have been exhausted in social psychology today: in the case of obtaining data on open behavior and the actions of individuals, the observation method plays a very important role. The main problem that arises when applying the observation method is how to ensure that certain classes of characteristics are recorded so that the reading of the observation protocol is clear to another researcher and can be interpreted in terms of a hypothesis. In ordinary language this question can be formulated as follows: what to observe? How to record what is observed?
In order to answer a number of these questions, it is necessary to familiarize yourself in more detail with what sociological observation is.
The essay on the topic “Observation as a method of social and psychological research” talks about what constitutes one of the methods of collecting scientific information - observation.
This work consists of an introduction, main part, conclusion and bibliography.
The introduction justifies the choice of topic for the abstract.
The main part includes 3 questions. In the first, the concept of observation, its advantages and disadvantages is revealed in detail. The second question talks about the main areas of application of sociological observation. The third question shows the classification of types of observation.
In conclusion, the importance of the observation method is drawn.
1. Observation is a method of collecting scientific information.
Scientific research methods are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information used to build scientific theories and development of practical recommendations. The strength of science largely depends on the perfection of research methods, on how valid and reliable they are, how quickly and effectively this field of knowledge is able to absorb and use all the newest, most advanced that appears in the methods of other sciences. Where this can be done, there is usually a noticeable breakthrough in knowledge of the world.
All of the above applies to social psychology. Its phenomena are so complex and unique that throughout the history of this science, its successes have directly depended on the perfection of the research methods used. Over time, it integrated methods from a variety of sciences. These are methods of mathematics, general psychology, and a number of other sciences.
Along with the mathematization and technicalization of research in social psychology, traditional methods of collecting scientific information, such as observation and questioning, have not lost their importance.
In my essay on the topic “”, one of the traditional methods of collecting scientific information is considered and disclosed - observation.
If data about the process under study, about the activities of individuals, groups, and collectives as a whole must be “cleaned” as much as possible from the rational, emotional and other properties of respondents, then they resort to a method of collecting information such as observation.
Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - everyday observations - is used by every person in everyday practice. By registering the facts of the surrounding social reality and his behavior, a person tries to find out the reasons for certain actions and actions. Everyday observations differ from scientific observations primarily in that they are random, unorganized and unplanned.
Since sociological observation is associated with direct, immediate perception of events or participation in them, it has much in common with how a person in everyday life perceives what is happening, analyzes and explains people’s behavior, connects it with the characteristics of operating conditions, remembers and generalizes events witnessed by he becomes. But there are also big differences. Sociological observation as a method of collecting scientific information is always directed, systematic, direct tracking and recording of significant social phenomena, processes, events. It serves certain cognitive purposes and can be subject to control and verification.
The observation method was used even at the stage of formation of Marxist sociology. F. Engels studied the English proletariat, its aspirations, sufferings, and joys directly from personal observations and in personal communication for 21 months.
Interesting experience in using the observation method and analyzing its results was accumulated in Russian literature in the 40s of the 19th century. In the social fiction of this period, the civic feelings and mindsets of the intelligentsia close to the people, the search for an artistic reflection of the life of various social groups, and features of a scientific, sociological vision of social development are closely intertwined. Writers close to V.G. Belinsky and N.A. Nekrasov not only gave accurate sketches of the life, actions, elements of consciousness of representatives of many social and professional communities, but also created typological images, generalized sociological and artistic types of people of his time. The general humanistic pathos of their works, as well as the method they used to collect and comprehend the facts of social life, largely predetermined both the character of later progressive Russian literature and the specifics of the formation of Russian sociology.
Observation is the simplest and most common of all objective methods in psychology. Scientific observation is directly in contact with ordinary everyday observation. It is therefore necessary first of all to establish the general basic conditions that observation must satisfy in general in order to be a scientific method.
The first requirement is the presence of a clear goal setting: a clearly realized goal must guide the observer. In accordance with the purpose, an observation plan must be determined, recorded in the diagram. Planned and systematic observation constitutes its most essential feature as a scientific method. They must eliminate the element of chance inherent in everyday observation. Thus, the objectivity of observation depends primarily on its planning and systematicity. And, if observation comes from a clearly realized goal, then it must acquire a selective character. It is absolutely impossible to observe everything in general due to the limitless diversity of what exists. Any observation is therefore selective, or selective, partial.
Observation becomes a method of scientific knowledge only insofar as it is not limited to simply recording facts, but moves on to the formulation of hypotheses in order to test them against new observations. Objective observation is truly scientifically fruitful when it is associated with the establishment and testing of hypotheses. The separation of subjective interpretation from the objective and the exclusion of the subjective is carried out in the very process of observation, combined with the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Qualification of events: units and categories of observation.
Unlike everyday scientific observation, scientific observation is mediated by research goals that determine the subject of observation and the area of facts that are included in the reality being studied. It is also mediated by theoretical ideas about the reality being studied and put forward cognitive hypotheses. Observation as a method of collecting data is characterized by an essential feature: the researcher’s theoretical ideas are included not only in the explanations of what is observed, but also in the process of observation itself, in the very description of what is observed. In everyday life, we reflect the world around us in a system of meanings fixed in language. In socio-psychological observation, the subject of observation uses specially designated categories and units that act as a means of qualitatively describing the reality he observes.
Observation of the integral flow of a subject’s activity and its description are possible only by artificially isolating in it certain “units” of activity, which are assigned certain names. Isolating these “units” allows you to: a) limit the observation process to a certain framework: in what properties, manifestations and relationships the reality being studied is perceived by the observer; b) choose specific language descriptions of what was observed, as well as the method of recording observation data, i.e. the observer's method of reporting a perceived phenomenon; c) systematize and control the inclusion in the process of obtaining empirical data of a theoretical “look” at the phenomenon being studied.
Qualitative description constitutes the first stage of reflecting the results of observation, which occurs as a process of qualification of observed events. An observed phenomenon becomes an empirical fact only after it is described by the observer. All the diverse approaches to describing phenomena can be reduced to two main types. The first is a description of the object in the dictionary of “natural” language. In everyday life, we use ordinary (“everyday”) concepts to describe what we perceive. So, we say: “the person smiled,” and not “the person stretched and raised the corners of his lips, slightly squinting his eyes.” And scientific observation can also be based on the use of such units, if, in accordance with the objectives of the study, their repertoire is clearly defined as a set of possible concepts in which the properties of the observed phenomenon are recorded.
The second approach to description is the development of systems of conventional names, designations, artificially created signs, and codes. The identification of observation units can be based on theoretical ideas about the observed phenomenon. In this case, the means of observation are categories - such units of description that receive their conceptual meaning only in a certain system of theoretical views of the researcher. Thus, one can say about the same phenomenon in different ways depending on knowledge of the context: “a person is running” or “a person is running away.” IN the latter case the description of external motor activity includes an interpretation, but it is associated only with the inclusion of the context of the situation (you can run away from someone, etc.). Another example: “the child is frozen in place with a frightened face” or “the child demonstrates a defensive reaction in the form of freezing.” The second expression includes concepts (passive-defensive reaction), which already in the description provide an interpretation of the child’s state from the point of view of a certain typology of his reactions. If in the first case the result of observation is described in units, then in the second case - in a system of categories.
Conventional symbols, for example graphic ones, can refer to both a repertoire of units and a system of categories. That is, it is not the type of designation, but the content of the concepts used in their relation to the theory that makes it possible to distinguish between units and categories.
Categorized observation comes down not only to the isolation by perception of certain units, but also necessarily includes the stage of meaningful categorization of these units, i.e. generalizations in the process of observation itself. Sometimes a category covers the same behavioral act as a unit, i.e. they can be compared in terms of the degree of dissection of the phenomenon being studied and differ only in the degree of its interpretation. More often, categories subordinate a number of units.
Quantitative assessments of observational data.
There are two main ways to obtain quantitative data during observation: 1) psychological scaling, used mainly in the form of scores; 2) measurement of time, or timing. Timing is the basis for the use of the so-called time interval technique.
Its second type is the method of time sampling, when from the entire observed process, to record data, certain specific periods of time are selected, which are considered representative - representative - for a longer period of observation. In actual research, qualitative and quantitative observer descriptions of events are usually used in combination.
Quantitative assessments can be recorded directly during the observation, or they can be issued after the completion of the observations, including in the so-called retrospective report. Retrospective assessments are based on the observer's general impressions, which during long-term observation may, for example, include the frequency of certain observed episodes. Quantitative characteristics can be directly incorporated into observers' value judgments. For example: “he often doesn’t go to school”, “he always loses his things”, etc.
Along with such an evaluative description of events, observation based on direct impressions may include scores these impressions. A. Anastasi gives an example of scales designed to identify students’ opinions about teachers teaching a psychology course (4. Vol. 2. P. 232). In them different forms events in the system of interpersonal relations - relationships with students - are assigned a certain score, for example:
“this professor is never at his workplace” - 2, “the professor will stay and talk with students until the next lecture or seminar begins” - 6, etc.
Retrospective assessments of this type reflect long-term, uncontrolled observations of everyday life, and, as some studies show, they can act as the only or one of the main criteria for the adequacy of some psychological tests or assessments of an individual.
Methods of psychological scaling in the process of observation are still rarely used.
An example of the use of the time interval technique is provided by studies of human behavior during the working day. For this purpose, observation is carried out not all day, but for several minutes at a time with long intervals between selected observation periods.
Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.
The most important advantage of the observation method is that it is carried out simultaneously with the development of the phenomena and processes being studied. It becomes possible to directly perceive people's behavior in specific conditions and in real time. A carefully prepared observation procedure ensures that all significant elements of the situation are recorded. This creates the prerequisites for its objective study.
Observation allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. It does not depend on the desire of the observed to speak out or comment on the situation.
Objective observation, while retaining its importance, for the most part must be supplemented by other research methods. The following requirements apply to the observation procedure:
a) defining the task and purpose (for what? for what purpose?);
b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);
c) choosing an observation method that has the least impact on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?);
d) choice of methods for recording what is observed (how to keep records?);
e) processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result?).
The disadvantages of the observation method are divided into two groups: objective - these are those disadvantages that do not depend on the observer and subjective - these are those that directly depend on the observer, since they are associated with the personal and professional characteristics of the observer.
Objective disadvantages primarily include:
Limitation, fundamentally private character every observed situation. Therefore, no matter how comprehensive and deep the analysis may be, the conclusions obtained can be generalized and extended to wider situations only with the greatest caution and subject to many requirements.
The difficulty, and often simply impossibility, of repeating observations. Social processes are irreversible, they cannot be “replayed” again so that the researcher can record the necessary features and elements of an event that has already taken place.
High labor intensity of the method. Observation often involves participation in the collection of primary information large number highly qualified people.
The subjective difficulties are also varied. The quality of primary information may be influenced by:
The difference in the social status of the observer and the observed,
The dissimilarity of their interests value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc. For example, addressing each other as “you” in a team of workers often becomes the norm for all its members. But a sociologist-observer, whose inner circle is characterized by a different form of communication, can evaluate this as an example of a disrespectful, familiar attitude of young workers towards older workers. Sometimes proximity can eliminate such errors. social status the observer and the observed. It contributes to a more complete and rapid coverage of the observed situation and its correct assessment.
The quality of information is also affected by the attitudes of the observed and the observer. If the observed know that they are the object of study, they can artificially change the nature of their actions, adapting to what, in their opinion, the observer would like to see. In turn, the observer’s having a certain expectation regarding the behavior of those being observed can form a specific point of view on what is happening. This expectation may be the result of prior contact between the observer and the observed. The observer's previously formed favorable impressions are transferred to the picture he observes and can cause an unjustified positive assessment of the events being analyzed. Conversely, negative expectations (skepticism, prejudice) can lead to an exaggerated negative vision of the activities of the observed community of people and increased rigidity in assessing what is happening.
The results of observation directly depend on the observer’s mood, his concentration, his ability to holistically perceive the observed situation, not only to notice relatively clear external signs of activity, but also to record subtle features of the behavior of the observed. When recording the results of observation, the observer’s own thoughts and experiences may not allow him to describe the observed events adequately enough. This description can occur by analogy with one’s own thoughts and feelings.
So, observation is the oldest method of knowledge. It allows you to broadly, multidimensionally cover events and describe the interaction of all its participants. The main advantage is the study of social processes in natural conditions. The main disadvantages are the limitations, the private nature of each observed situation, the impossibility of repeating observations, attitudes, interests, personal characteristics observer. All these shortcomings can greatly affect the results of observation.
II. Areas of application of sociological observation.
The observation method is used to study the behavior of individuals and groups in work and socio-political life, in the sphere of leisure, and to study the most diverse forms of communication between people. When analyzing production activities, the object of observation may be how members labor collective react to changes in conditions, nature, content of work, to innovations related to technology, pay, production standards, etc. Situations that are significant for participants in the labor process should be observed, in which the attitude towards work is most acute, and sometimes in a conflicting form, to each other.
It is also no less relevant to use the method in question in studying the practice of holding various meetings, rallies, and demonstrations. By observing the behavior of rally organizers, speakers, participants, seeing their actions, feeling the whole atmosphere of such actions, it is easier for a social psychologist to grasp the essence of what is happening, to see how a collective decision is developed, how relationships develop in the team.
Observation as a method of collecting sociological information is used in various circumstances:
Firstly, in order to obtain preliminary material to clarify the directions of the planned research. Observation carried out for such purposes expands the vision of the phenomenon being studied, helps to identify significant situations, and determines the “actors”. Moreover, unbiased, professionally carried out observation is fruitful because it opens up previously unknown layers, “slices” of social reality for the researcher, giving him the opportunity to move away from the traditional understanding of the social problem facing him.
Secondly, the observation method is used when it is necessary to obtain illustrative data. They, as a rule, significantly “revive” and make visible a somewhat dry analysis of statistics or the results of a mass survey.
Thirdly, observation acts as the main method of obtaining primary information. If the researcher has this goal, then he needs to correlate the positive and negative aspects of the method.
Thus, observation is used when minimal interference in natural behavior and relationships between people is required, when they strive to obtain a holistic picture of what is happening.
If the researcher sets the task not only to give a scientific description of specific events of certain forms of people’s behavior in situations that are significant to them, but also to reach broader generalizations and assumptions, the observation results must be supported by data obtained using other methods of collecting sociological information. The results obtained using various methods complement and mutually revise each other, and it is very difficult to unambiguously declare any of them “reference”.
III. CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF OBSERVATION.
The choice of possible criteria for classifying types of observation reflects, in essence, the entire range of problems and positions associated with the definition of observation as an independent scientific method. These are problems of connecting it with the theory and stage of research, problems of taking into account the “position” of the researcher, i.e. type of relationship to the object being studied, organization of the observation situation, its chronological aspects, form of report on the observed event.
1. Observation and objectives of the study.
Depending on the content of the research objectives, they are divided into free observation (sometimes called unregulated and even untargeted), if there are minimal restrictions on what and when to observe, and targeted observation, if the scheme or plan clearly defines the goals, organization of observation and methods of the observer’s report. Purposeful observation based on the characteristics of its organization can be continuous or selective, depending on whether all manifestations of the process of interest to the researcher, whether all objects or only some are subject to observation.
2.Observation and types of observer report.
Unstructured observation is weakly formalized. When conducting it, there is no detailed action plan for the observer; only the most common features situations, the approximate composition of the observed group. Directly in the process of observation, the boundaries of the object of observation and its most important elements are clarified, and the research program is specified. Unstructured observation is found mainly in reconnaissance and search sociological research.
If the researcher has sufficient information about the object of research and is able to determine in advance the significant elements of the situation under study, as well as draw up detailed plan and instructions for recording the results of observations, the possibility of conducting structured observation opens up. This type of observation corresponds to a high degree of standardization; results are recorded using special documents, forms, a certain closeness of data obtained by different observers is achieved.
Turning to structured observation is fruitful when researching meeting issues. It can solve problems related to determining the composition of speakers and the content of speeches, studying the audience’s reactions to the information provided and analyzing the decision-making process, identifying organizational characteristics meetings.
3. Observation in relation to hypothesis testing.
Observation as a method of data collection is applicable at the preliminary stages of research, when there are no developed hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If an observation is not associated with testing specific hypotheses, it, while remaining “targeted,” is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such an observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition classifies as heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Heuristic, therefore, is not observation at the preliminary stages of studying an object and observation in cases of a consciously adopted goal of minimal selectivity and maximum coverage of different sides and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon).
4. Observation from the point of view of taking into account the position of the observer.
From this point of view, we can distinguish non-involved (external) observation as observation “from the outside,” when the observer is completely separated from the “object” being studied. Observation from the outside can be open or hidden.
Participant observation is a type in which the sociologist is directly involved in the social process being studied, contacts, and acts together with those being observed. The nature of inclusion is different: in some cases the researcher is completely incognito, and the observed do not in any way distinguish him from other members of the group or team; in others, the observer participates in the activities of the observed group, but does not hide his research goals. Depending on the specifics of the observed situation and research tasks, a specific system of relations between the observer and the observed is built.
An example of the first type of participant observation is a study conducted by V.B. Olshansky, who worked for several months at one plant and in a team of assembly mechanics. He studied the life aspirations of young workers, norms of collective behavior, a system of unofficial sanctions for violators, unwritten “dos and don’ts.” Through a joint analysis of observations and survey data conducted by sociologists during the period of participant observation, valuable information was obtained on the processes occurring in production collective, about the mechanism of formation of group consciousness.
Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer’s report. Some types of observation may represent an intermediate option between participant observation and observation from the outside. For example, observations of a teacher in the classroom during classes, observations of a psychotherapist or consulting psychologist; here the observer is included in the situation differently than the observed individuals; their positions are “not equal” from the point of view of managing the situation.
5. Types of observation depending on its organization.
Depending on the observation situation, observation can be distinguished: field, laboratory and provoked in natural conditions.
Field observation is carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed “subject”, and its requirement is the absence of initiation from sides observer of the phenomena being studied. Field observation makes it possible to study the natural forms of life activity and communication of people (or other “objects” of observation) with minimal distortion, but its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive, and also that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control; observation here is often expectant and unsystematic. Situations arise when individual members of the observed group fall out of sight of the observer, or external circumstances make it difficult to record what is happening.
In situations where high care and detail in the description of observed processes are required, technical means of recording are used (tape recorder, photo, film, television equipment). When the task of developing and experimentally testing a new technique is set, a laboratory form of observation is used. Thus, in a specially equipped classroom, classes can be conducted to develop management skills. Each of the participants in the “school” (essentially a situational game) takes turns playing the role of, for example, a leader, a performer, or a customer (client). During 15-20 minute game situations, methods of conducting classes and the ability to concentrate the attention of participants in a situational game on the analysis of the issues under discussion are practiced. To record what is happening, all participants in the situational game or some of them keep a record. Then, an experienced methodologist analyzes a teaching example and, based on observational data, develops optimal methods for conducting management classes.
6. Chronological organization of observation.
Systematic observations are carried out regularly over a certain period. This may be long-term, continuous observation or observation carried out in a cyclic mode (one day a week, fixed weeks in a year, etc.). Typically, systematic observation is carried out using a fairly structured methodology, with high degree specification of all activities of the observer.
There are also unsystematic observations. Among them, those stand out when the observer has to deal with an unplanned phenomenon, an unexpected situation. This type of observation is especially common in intelligence research.
The considered classification of observations, like any typology, is conditional and reflects only the most significant features of the observation. Therefore, whenever, taking into account the purpose and nature of the planned research, when deciding on the use of an observation method, the positive and negative properties of its various types are correlated.
The classifications listed above do not oppose each other, but reflect independent criteria that complement each other.
Conclusion.
In modern social psychology, observation as a method of data collection is widely used in various research designs. Observation is included in the organization of the conversation with the subject; observation data is taken into account when interpreting the results of psychodiagnostic or experimental procedures.
As you can see, the observation method is not as primitive as it seems at first glance, and, undoubtedly, can be successfully applied in a number of socio-psychological studies.
References.
- Andreeeva G.M. Social psychology. M.: Aspect Press, 1999.
- Kornilova T.V. Introduction to psychological experiment: M.: Mosk publishing house. Univ., 1997
- Rogov E.I. General psychology. M.:. VLADOS, 1998.
- Sheregi F.E. Fundamentals of applied sociology. M.: INTERPRAX, 1996.
Historically, the observation method in psychology is one of the most popular, as well as one of the simplest methods. In psychology, observation is understood as a systematic and targeted study of someone’s behavior for the purpose of further analysis and explanation. In this case, intervention on the part of the observer is strictly prohibited, since it can cause changes in the behavior of a person or group of people.
Despite the fact that everyone uses observation to some extent, scientific observation differs in many ways from everyday observation and is much more difficult to perform. Thus, scientific observation should be carried out on the basis of a clear plan and serve to obtain the most objective picture possible. It also implies a strict procedure for carrying out and recording the results in a special diary (which is generally typical for psychology or medicine).
Observation in psychology claims not only to describe observed phenomena, but also to interpret them psychologically. This is the main feature of psychological observation: the goal is to reveal the psychological content based on the available facts about the behavior of the object. This means that scientific observation requires special training, which gives the observer special knowledge and qualities that will help in interpreting psychological facts.
In psychology, scientific observation can take two forms: introspection (introspection) and external (objective) observation.
Considering that in modern psychology it is customary to proceed from the unity of internal and external, we will rather talk not about two methods that complement each other, but about their unity and transition into each other.
Observation helps to study various phenomena under certain conditions, without interfering with their flow.
The subject of observation in psychology can be a person’s actions, his speech and the accompanying facial expressions and gestures.
Of interest to the observer may be a manifestation of behavior that is related to a specific research task; therefore, the observer should wait until the observed person manifests himself in a certain way. Since the perception of external behavior is only subjective, one should never rush to conclusions. To obtain correct conclusions, it is necessary to check the results of the study several times and compare them with the previously obtained results of other observations.
In addition, observing and recording manifestations of mental properties is not always enough. The observer should be convinced of the typicality and repeatability of a particular property. When observing great value acquires an analysis of the individual’s erroneous actions. Having analyzed the nature of errors and the reasons for their occurrence, we can outline effective ways to eliminate them Kamenskaya, E. N. Social psychology: Lecture notes: Textbook / E. N. Kamenskaya [Text].-- Rostov n/D: Phoenix, 2006.- P. 56.. The objectivity of observation (which is the main criterion of its scientific nature) is verified either by repeated observation, or by conducting an experiment and using other observation methods. To increase the objectivity of observation, modern technical means are often used, such as photography, video recording, and audio recording.
The main advantage of this method is the following: since the observation is carried out in a natural setting, the behavior of the observed persons does not change dramatically. This means that you can monitor both one person and a group of people. This method is suitable for use in a variety of conditions: in a work team or, for example, in a school class. Unfortunately, the observation method has not only undeniable advantages, but also disadvantages. For example, due to the fact that observation does not make changes in the activities of the group being studied, situations that are of interest to the observer may not always arise in it. The second significant drawback of the observation method is its labor intensity and complexity of execution.
Types of observations (see Appendix A) Social psychology: Reader: [Text] Textbook for university students / Comp. E. P. Belinskaya, O. A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M: Aspect Press, 2003.- P. 78.:
1) hidden (in the case when the subject is not aware that he is being observed);
2) internal (introspection - introspection, observation of one’s thoughts and feelings);
3) standardized (occurs within the framework of an established program);
4) free (without restrictions within the program);
5) included (the researcher takes an active part in the process);
6) not included (the researcher becomes an outside observer).
First, let's look at standardized and free observations.
Standardized observation involves the perception of a situation, which must proceed sequentially and lead the observer to the final goal. Standardized observation is possible if a number of conditions are met:
There must be a clear surveillance plan;
Proposing a hypothesis proposed to explain the phenomena that have arisen.
And its further confirmation and refutation.
The results are necessarily recorded.
Free observation, as mentioned earlier, is not limited by the scope of the experiment. Nevertheless, it cannot do without a plan, control methods, and sometimes even a system of methods. Free observation is considered initial stage research to expand knowledge about the problem being identified.
Participant observation. With the participation of the person being studied. That is, the psychologist himself is involved in the process in its internal component, and conducts observations, creates notes and conclusions. This method is relevant for use in relation to special social groups. Those to which outside access is limited. (sects, criminal groups, etc.).
Participant observation is divided into two variations:
1) full participant observation.
2) simple participant observation.
In the first case, observation is more secretive in nature, since the motivation for the psychologist’s actions is known to those being observed. When entering the right environment, the psychologist accepts active position participation in the process along with everyone.
At that moment when, with simple participant observation, the researcher takes a neutral side and engages only in observation.
Sometimes the following problem arises: that when a psychologist is involved in the process, he is faced with a violation of his personal perception of reality. Then the following type of observation comes to replace it.
Not included (external) observation. With such an observation, one must take into account the fact that the outer shell of the process is only the source, and the main point be inside. How much in in this case the participant interacts with the process depends on the initially set tasks and the general nature of the experiment.
Now it's time to talk about covert surveillance, which is characterized by the fact that the participant is not aware that he is being watched from the outside. The peculiarity of this method is that it can change quite radically psychological state the person being monitored if he somehow obtains this information. And, based on many years of practice, as a rule, the behavior of the subject in such a situation changes quite significantly.
Using this method, you can study well characteristic features personality, his mental characteristics and temperament. After all, it is known that from the visible factors of a person’s behavior in a certain situation, it is quite possible to create, if not a complete, but rather approximate portrait of his essence, emotional state, inclinations and other aspects.
But we know that, depending on the tasks set, the psychologist’s area of interest is aimed at identifying a certain manifestation.
The popular Gesell mirror, transparent on one side (from the observer’s side), but reflecting rays on the other side (from the side of the person being monitored), a camera, a tape recorder - these are the most used means for covert observation of an object. This method is often used in in relation to children, their characteristics of interaction during games and direct contact. Internal surveillance is pure psychological method, which is characterized as the object’s personal observation of himself, his emotions, internal manifestations, thoughts. This is necessary so that before allowing oneself to more or less realistically analyze the state of other individuals, the psychologist has the opportunity to conduct a personality study using his own example. The method of self-observation is continuously connected with observation. As mentioned above, introspection is a specific phenomenon of psychology. This method is considered both as an independent separate part of the practical identification of the situation, and as a supplement to the main actions. Such elementary things as the ability to distinguish colors, to rehabilitate in the environment, to express emotions - all this is the result of involuntary introspection. Agree that if a person is not able to study himself, he will not be able to study others, much less bring new knowledge into the field of social psychology. After all, all available knowledge today takes its root from the results of a person’s curiosity about his personality in an internal spiritual sense. In the process of this method, mental manifestations such as performance, wakefulness, irritability, professional productivity and much more are observed. To work successfully, a psychologist must learn to assess his condition as objectively as possible. Because when faced with other individuals in practice, attempts to understand their essence are often based on comparison with their personal reactions to certain things. That is, there is a certain comparison between oneself and others. But! No matter how useful the method of self-observation is, it has a number of significant drawbacks. These include factors such as:
It is quite difficult to monitor yourself in morally. Since mental influence on oneself can distort the expected reactions of the individual;
It is impossible to perceive a situation completely objectively, since subjectivity is inseparable from a person.
It is not always possible to grasp all the nuances of a person’s experiences Rudensky, E. V. Social psychology / [text]. - M.: INFRA-M; Novosibirsk: NGAEiU, “Siberian Agreement”, 1999. - P. 135..
Psychology uses methods: scientific research, data processing and training. As well as therapeutic and educational methods inherent exclusively in psychological sciences.
Research methods in social psychology
It is thanks to them that each science is enriched with new data, on the basis of which it is possible to build theories and enrich the theoretical basis of science with new facts.
For research, the young science uses methods borrowed from sociology and psychology:
Observation is the very first research method used in psychology to describe behavior and internal feelings. It is still used in practice, but always in combination with other methods.
Survey - the most common method of conducting it allows you to get a lot of information from a large number of people. However, this data is difficult to analyze (to show the percentage of respondents with different opinions). And its main disadvantage is the inability to evaluate the results in terms of reliability. Therefore, the survey is also used in combination with other methods that are more reliable.
An experiment is mainly distinguished by its ability to change circumstances (factors) to test changes in people's behavior. Since its inception, experiments have been carried out on both humans and rats (sometimes their behavior is very similar to that of humans, for example, in a pack). But with the advent of ethical standards, experimenters found themselves with their hands tied: it is impossible not to tell a person what quality is being measured in an experiment without damaging the reliability and purity of the experiment. But resourceful scientists cannot refuse experiments, since this is the most effective method, sometimes providing the most unique data about human behavior.
A person brings a lot of interesting data, especially in cases where it is impossible to use other methods (the person is not alive, or he does not make contact). Analysis consists of looking for repeating patterns, e.g. works of art, in documentation compiled by one person. Some of them indicate clearly defined personality traits of the research object.
Testing. Serious psychological tests with the veracity scale provided in them (test questions to assess the reliability of the test results) allow you to go deeper into the knowledge of the personality of one person or into the knowledge of one quality of people with the same characteristics (for example, age, gender, Tests are a diagnostic tool, they bring valuable data to science. K Unfortunately, today, very few tests meet the requirements for them as a scientific diagnostic method, and not everyone will undertake to develop a new one. Therefore, they are used quite rarely in social psychology.
Methods of social psychology (each of them separately or in combination with others) are used to study actual problem or an interesting phenomenon. But to make a discovery or bring new information and facts to science, it is not enough to simply choose a method. Social-psychological research is subject to the same requirements as other sciences: a clear formulation of the object of research, a hypothesis, an analysis of available facts, confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis by mathematical calculations, and verification of the conclusions obtained are necessary. For these actions, science resorts to the following group of methods.
Social psychology methods for data processing
As a result of research, psychologists receive numbers: reaction time after introduction to the experiment certain factor, level of manifestation of psychological quality, etc. To process this data, mathematical methods are used: determining the average values for the group, and factor analysis is used to confirm or refute the hypothesis. Also use the method expert assessments. And all this to translate numbers into new meanings for psychology.
Therapeutic methods of social psychology
Another group of methods aimed at developing personal skills, properties or treating clients. These include art therapy (drawing therapy), color therapy, bodily techniques and psychodrama.
Methods of psychologists-trainers
The methods used by psychologists-trainers (analysis of a conflict situation, brainstorming, etc.) are rarely classified as a separate group. Their services are in demand in companies where human interaction and teamwork are important. Psychologists are able, through motivation, to encourage company employees to work effectively with colleagues. This goal of practitioners contains the whole meaning of the existence of the science of social psychology. It is in interaction in groups, in teams, that we spend most of our lives, both at work and at home, in the family. We are rarely alone. So says priority direction science - interactionism in social psychology. And it (science) is designed to study the processes of interaction with other people, explain them and provide people with the knowledge to optimize these processes. Therefore, among the methods of science, group development (games and trainings), also carried out under the guidance of psychological trainers, is also called.
The methods of social psychology make it possible to scientifically substantiate new knowledge; without them, the existence of such an interesting theoretical field would be impossible.
Private methodology social psychology is aimed at a comprehensive study of the phenomena and processes being studied usually uses the following basic methods : observation, experiment, document analysis method, generalization of independent characteristics, analysis of performance results, surveys, testing, sociometry.
Observation - the most common method by which socio-psychological phenomena and processes are studied in various conditions without interfering with their course. Observation can be everyday and scientific, included and not included.
Everyday observation is limited to recording facts and is random and unorganized. Scientific observation is organized, involves a clear plan, recording the results in a special diary. Included observation involves the participation of the researcher in the activity he is studying; V not included– this is not required.
Experiment - a method that involves the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subjects in order to create the best conditions for the study of specific socio-psychological phenomena and processes.
The experiment may be laboratory when it takes place in specially organized conditions, and the actions of the subjects are determined by instructions; natural when the study is carried out in natural conditions; stating- when only necessary socio-psychological phenomena are studied; formative- in the process of which certain qualities of the subjects and their groups develop.
Document analysis method usually represents a process of understanding information about specific socio-psychological phenomena and processes, which is contained in various types of sources (documents, scientific research, archival materials, scientific, fiction and journalistic literature). He becomes most productive when he relies on the methodology content analysis.
Method for generalizing independent characteristics involves identifying and analyzing opinions about certain socio-psychological phenomena and processes received from various people or various sources.
Performance analysis - a method of indirect study of socio-psychological phenomena based on practical results and objects of joint activities of people, in which their creative powers and abilities are embodied.
Survey - a method that involves the subjects answering specific questions from the researcher.
It happens written (survey) when questions are asked on paper; verbal when questions are posed orally; and in shape interview, during which personal contact is established with the subjects.
The survey is divided into press when the questionnaire is published in any periodical, and readers of this publication are invited to answer the proposed questions and send answers to the editors of this publication, postal, in which questionnaires are sent by mail according to the addresses of subscribers or the DEZ address book, and handout, which involves personal distribution and collection of questions by the researcher. The first type of survey is the cheapest, but also less effective (3-5%). The second assumes 10-25% returning questionnaires . And the third is the most preferable, since the return of questionnaires in this case is close to 100%.
Testing - a method during which subjects perform certain actions on the instructions of the researcher.
Sociometry - a method of social psychology used to diagnose mutual likes and dislikes, status-role relationships between group members and allows one to identify: the socio-psychological structure of relationships in small groups; specific positions of its members in the structure of these relationships; formal and informal “leaders” and “rejected” group members; presence and connections between microgroups.
Sociometry involves conducting a survey of all group members, followed by mathematical and statistical processing of its results and constructing a sociogram (diagram of relationships in the group).
In addition to the basic ones, social psychology also uses additional methods , which usually include techniques and methods for processing and analyzing the results of its research (factor and correlation analysis, various modeling methods, computer data processing techniques, etc.).
Finally, in social psychology they also apply hardware methods (techniques) research that involves the effective use of technical devices - apparatus, with the help of which: a) a certain significant situation is created that allows one to identify one or another characteristic of the phenomenon under study; b) readings are taken about the manifestation of the characteristics being studied and c) the results of the study are recorded and partially calculated.
In modern socio-psychological diagnostics, many different modifications of homeostatic instrumental techniques have been developed. For example, “Arch”, “Overpass”, “Labyrinth”, “Group rhythmograph, group voluntograph”, “Sensory integrator”, etc. All of them involve solving a group problem only under the condition of interaction, coordination of actions by group members, and their adaptation to each other . There are also hardware techniques for measuring the reaction of media audiences to certain programs (“Program Analyzers”) or for counting responses during an automated questionnaire (“Semi-automatic questionnaire”). The use of these techniques in conjunction with computer technology significantly increases their effectiveness.
The study of socio-psychological phenomena is always carried out on the basis of specially developed research programs for specific phenomena. Typically it includes the following sections:
1. the main direction of the research is formulated, its object and subject are determined, goals and objectives are indicated (particular attention is paid to the empirical definition of the basic concepts used in the research and the formulation of hypotheses, the development of a research plan);
2. the selection of the necessary methods and techniques for studying the research selected for analysis is carried out; Here, the initial testing of these methods can also take place on a small test sample (as for independently developed methods, they, as a rule, require special preliminary testing);
3. factual data is collected, on which the quality and reliability of the conclusions obtained depend;
4. Qualitative and quantitative data processing is carried out, their interpretation is carried out, conclusions and practical recommendations are formulated, and a forecast for the development of socio-psychological phenomena for the future is made.
In any case, at the final stage, the psychologist, guided by his program, proves or disproves the hypotheses put forward before the study, moves on to scientific generalizations, abstracting from particulars, details, individual facts and observations.
Features of the organizational side of socio-psychological research (its program), preceding the establishment of a socio-psychological diagnosis, depend to a large extent on the level of the phenomena being studied (macro-, average, micro- and personal), on the sphere in which this phenomenon is observed (social everyday, political, production-economic, etc.), as well as on the conditions in which the phenomenon operates and the object of study is located (normal, complicated or extreme).
Often there may be an additional stage, during which the problem is clarified, and methods or techniques are adjusted or changed if the results are unsatisfactory.
In general, the presence of a program for studying complex socio-psychological phenomena allows one to reasonably judge the competence of its implementation, makes it possible to repeat it according to the algorithm outlined in the program and check the results obtained.
Methods for studying specific socio-psychological phenomena . The diversity and complexity of socio-psychological phenomena also determines the presence of a large number of methods for studying them. At the same time, they can be classified depending on the specific classes of socio-psychological phenomena that are studied with their help.
Firstly, differentiate methods for studying social relations and relationships. These include:
Sociometry (the technique is aimed at identifying status-role relationships in a small group);
Method of paired comparisons of the social distance scale of E. Bogardus;
Questionnaire of Interpersonal Relations by V. Schutz - A.A. Rukavishnikov (the method is based on the theory of interpersonal relations, which attempts to explain the interpersonal behavior of an individual based on three needs: inclusion, control and affect);
Methodology for diagnosing interpersonal relationships by T. Leary (the method is based on the study of the specifics of dominance - submission, friendliness - hostility and other eight more private relationships);
Relationship color test (it is intended to study the emotional - conscious and unconscious - components of people's relationships);
Photodiagnostics of relationships;
Personal orientation questionnaire by V. Smekal - M. Kucher (it is used to identify the personal, collectivist and business orientation of people);
Methodology for studying normative preferences in the group O.I. Komissarova, focused on identifying communication and business relationships;
The method of perception by an individual of the group V.E. Zalyubovskaya, which allows us to determine: a) the perception of the group as a hindrance; b) perception of the group as a means of achieving certain goals; c) perception of the group as an independent value;
Methodology for studying relationships in a group (it is based on the use of a 4-factor scaled questionnaire, which involves assessing four types of relationships: social distance, friendship, altruism and responsibility);
Methodology for studying the psychological climate in a group (it is based on the use of the bipolar relationship scale of F. Fiedler - Y. Khanin);
Methodology for quantitative assessment of group empathy (it is based on identifying the level of experiences of group members in the form of empathy, compassion, compassion, joy, co-admiration);
Methodology for studying group cohesion (the method is aimed at identifying and assessing: a) the mediation of group cohesion by the goals and objectives of joint activities; b) value-orientation unity of the group);
Instrumental methods for diagnosing interpersonal relationships.
Secondly, differentiate methods for studying various types of communication:
Methodology for measuring the general sociability of people I.V. Lipsitz (it involves studying sociability using special tests “Are you a sociable person”);
Methodology for measuring the need for communication by Yu. Orlov - V. Shkurin, which makes it possible to scale people’s need for communication;
M. Snyder's tests (these methods allow you to assess the degree to which a person controls himself in communicating with other people);
“Q-sorting” technique by H. Zelen - D. Stock (it allows you to determine the place of the main tendencies of human communication in a real group: sociability, unsociability, dependence, independence, acceptance of “struggle” and “avoidance of struggle”);
A methodology for studying nonverbal means of communication between people, based on the use of special tests to measure characteristic means of nonverbal communication;
Methods “frame by frame”, structural-linguistic, descriptions-drawings (they allow you to transform holistic, three-dimensional, moving, non-verbal communication unfolding over time into a flat, fragmented, frozen phenomenon that can be thoroughly studied);
Methodology for studying the level of effectiveness of pedagogical communication;
Instrumental methods for studying competence in business communication and business charm of people.
Social-psychological diagnostics, in fact, is the foundation of social psychology.
Without it, the construction of a socio-psychological theory and methodology is unthinkable, it is impossible to carry out both effective consultation of the customer (client), and to effectively influence the object under study with the help of psychotechnologies.
Thirdly, differentiate methods for diagnosing social conflicts, including:
Methodology for studying conflict interaction by K. Thomas;
Methodology for identifying intrapersonal conflict by G. Keller, which allows you to determine the presence of conflict in three areas: family, partnership and production activities;
Methods for determining intrapersonal conflict based on the study of value orientations using the Rokeach scale and the depression scale;
Questionnaire for determining the individual level of aggressiveness of a personality A. Basa - A. Darka, allowing to identify various forms of aggressive and hostile reactions: physical, indirect, verbal aggression, irritability, negativism, resentment, envy, suspicion;
Methods for studying personality behavior in conflict (based on the method of studying frustration reactions of S. Rosenzweig);
Questionnaire for assessing ways to respond to conflict situations by K. Thomas;
Questionnaire by B. Crosby - D. Scherer, which allows you to determine the index of psychological climate in an organization;
The method of “involved conflict” by Yu. Baskina, which makes it possible to identify the parental attitude towards the child in parents from harmonious and conflict families;
A modular methodology for interpersonal conflicts, including basic and additional scales for measuring interpersonal conflicts;
Situational methods of conflict research;
Qualitative methods for studying intergroup conflicts;
Hardware methods for modeling conflicts (M. Novikova and others).
Fourthly, allocate methods for studying the national psychological characteristics of people which usually include:
Ethnopsychological questionnaire by L. Drobizheva and G. Starovoytova, which allows to identify the interests, psychological preferences, rituals and customs of representatives of various nations;
Methodology for identifying the current ethnopsychological status of a person by A. Asmolov and E. Shlyagina, which makes it possible to record the degree of expression and sign of a person’s ethnic identity, the direction and content of his auto and heterostereotypes;
Regional Human Relations File (HRAF), which is a system for summarizing and storing ethnopsychological data;
V. Petrenko’s multiple identification technique, designed to study the ethnospecific priorities of representatives of specific national communities;
Methods for studying ethnic stereotypes;
D. Levinson’s method of scaling ethnocentrism, aimed at identifying the uniqueness of one’s attitude towards one’s ethnic community;
E. Bogardus' social distance scale, which reveals the priority of social relations among representatives of ethnic communities;
The method of “selection of features” and “free description” by A. Katz and W. Braley, with the help of which the typical characteristics of national psychology are identified;
Methodology for studying the orientation of interests, value orientations and social attitudes of V. Vodzimskaya, focused on the study of ento-specific preferences;
V. Stolin’s ethnically adapted personality self-attitude questionnaire (it allows one to characterize the self-attitude of a representative of a particular ethnic community as a feeling towards one’s own “I”;
Ethno-adapted methodology for measuring locus of control by E. Bazhin - E. Golynkin, which makes it possible to assess the sense of responsiveness, readiness for activity and the experience of “I” of a representative of a particular ethnic community;
Questionnaire for measuring approval motivation by S. Marlow, aimed at identifying the characteristics of people’s national behavior;
An adapted questionnaire for assessing motivation to achieve a goal by K. Thomas, which allows one to study the uniqueness of various social and individual psychological qualities of representatives of various ethnic communities;
V. Lysenkov’s method for identifying impulsiveness and purposefulness, with the help of which an assessment of personality dispositions that are significant for each nation can be carried out;
Methods for identifying national psychological characteristics of people using semantic differentials;
A questionnaire for the managers of a multinational team, V. Krysko, which makes it possible to assess the knowledge, skills and abilities of managing interethnic relations.
Fifthly, differentiate methods for studying family relationships which include:
PARI method by E. Schaefer and R. Delli (designed to study the attitudes of parents, especially mothers, to different aspects of family life and the fulfillment of their family role);
Methodology “Typical family state” (reveals three types of family relationships: unstable, constructive and destructive);
Questionnaire “Constructive-destructive family” (focused on studying the characteristics of this type of family;
Methodology “Normative resistance” (allows you to diagnose states of opposition of family members to each other);
The “Kinetic Family Drawing” test by R. Burns and S. Kaufman (intended to diagnose intrafamily relationships from the child’s point of view);
Marital satisfaction test questionnaire by V. Stolin, T. Romanova, G. Butenko (designed for express diagnostics of the degree of satisfaction - dissatisfaction with marriage, as well as the degree of agreement or disagreement with marriage in a particular social group);
Methodology for studying marital relations in mixed marriages V. Levkovich (intended to identify the specifics of relationships between spouses of different ethnic origins .
Sixthly, exist methods of socio-psychological personality diagnostics, which usually include:
A technique for identifying the “awareness of a person’s life goals” (allows us to assess the depth and awareness of a person’s life goals);
Methodology for determining a person’s business and communication preferences (examines a person’s qualities on 3 scales: communication and business preferences and a scale of insincerity;
Methodology for diagnosing the emotional orientation of a personality by B. Dodonov (allows you to study 10 types of its needs);
Methods for studying achievement motivation and affiliation by A. Mehrabian and M. Magomed-Eminov (used to diagnose motives for striving for success and motives for avoiding failure);
Methods “Map of Interests” and “Differential Diagnostic Questionnaire” by E. Klimov (used to study interests and professional orientation of an individual);
Methodology for studying the personality differential (allows us to identify certain characteristics of a person related to his self-awareness and interpersonal relationships);
A technique for indirectly measuring the system of self-esteem (intended to reveal not fully verbalized or unconscious features of self-esteem);
“Kos” techniques (used to identify an individual’s communicative and organizational abilities through various behavioral situations);
Methods for diagnosing a person’s psychological observation (“Behavioral Portrait”, “List of Personality Traits” by A. Etkind, “Drawing of Emotions” by V. Labunskaya);
Loneliness Scale by D. Russell, L. Peploe and M. Fergusson (identifies loneliness as a consequence of anxiety, social isolation, depression, boredom);
M. Luscher's test (allows you to understand the orientation of a person's personality or other activities, its functional states and moods, as well as the most stable personality traits);
SAN questionnaire (designed for rapid assessment of people’s well-being, activity and mood).
Seventh, distinguish methods for studying mass and other socio-psychological phenomena, which usually include:
Methods for studying people's social satisfaction (based on taking into account the prestige of their professions, level of education and income);
Methods for diagnosing the quality and lifestyle in society (based on the analysis of indicators of lifestyle culture, social well-being);
Methods for assessing reputation (based on the unique division of many professions, statuses, positions existing in every society and assessing them in terms of significance and prestige);
- “self-assessment” method of class identification (focused on identifying the real or imaginary property and socio-psychological well-being of representatives of various religious groups);
Seven- and nine-grade scales for assessing social stratification (based on the use of cluster analysis to analyze the level of income, the close connections of this indicator with the list of professions and level of education, status, etc.);
Methods for studying public opinion and public sentiment (based on identifying the attitude of various sectors of society to events, facts of social interest, the most significant for people, to satisfy their needs for self-preservation, consumption, communication, self-expression, etc.);
Methods for studying political leadership (represent a combination of various technologies for analyzing society’s attitude towards specific political leaders and the use of special tests to identify their psychological characteristics that are most preferable to society);
Methods “Profile of Organizational Characteristics” by R. Likert and “Scale of Organizational Paradigms” by L. Konstantin (intended to identify leadership, group interaction and cooperation, motivation, communication, decision-making process in the course of management);
Methods for studying the socio-psychological climate (allow us to identify the emotional, behavioral and cognitive components of relations in society).