1 in the reign of Alexander I were. Dissatisfaction with Speransky and his fall. Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. Congress of Vienna

Accession to the throne of Alexander I

It is believed that shortly before her death, Catherine II intended to bequeath the throne to Alexander, bypassing her son. Apparently, the grandson was aware of her plans, but did not agree to accept the throne.

After Paul's accession, Alexander's position became even more complicated, for he had to constantly prove his loyalty to the suspicious emperor. Alexander’s attitude towards his father’s policies was sharply critical. It was these sentiments of Alexander that contributed to his involvement in the conspiracy against Paul 1st, but on the conditions that the conspirators would spare his father’s life and would only seek his abdication. The tragic events of March 11, 1801 seriously affected state of mind Alexandra: he felt a sense of guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.

The beginning of the reforms of Alexander I

Alexander I ascended the Russian throne intending to implement radical reform political system Russia by creating a constitution that guaranteed all subjects personal freedom and civil rights. He was aware that such a “revolution from above” would actually lead to the elimination of the autocracy and was ready, if successful, to retire from power.

However, he also understood that he needed a certain social support, like-minded people.

The second stage of reforms of Alexander I

During these same years, Alexander I himself already felt the taste of power and began to find advantages in autocratic rule. Disappointment in his immediate circle forced him to seek support in people who were personally loyal to him and not associated with the dignitary aristocracy. He first brings closer A. A. Arakcheev, and later M. B. Barclay de Tolly, who became Minister of War in 1810, and M. M. Speransky, to whom Alexander entrusted the development of a new project for state reform. Speransky's project envisioned the actual transformation of Russia into a constitutional monarchy, where the power of the sovereign would be limited by a bicameral legislative body of a parliamentary type. The implementation of Speransky's plan began in 1809, when the practice of equating court ranks with civilian ones was abolished and an educational qualification for civil officials was introduced. On January 1, 1810, the State Council was established, replacing the Indispensable Council. It was assumed that the initially broad powers of the State Council would then be narrowed after the establishment of the State Duma.

Meanwhile, Alexander I himself experienced intense pressure from his court circle, including members of his family, who sought to prevent radical reforms. Apparently, the “Note on Ancient and new Russia”N.M. Karamzin, which obviously gave the emperor a reason to doubt the correctness of his chosen path. The factor of Russia’s international position was also of no small importance: the increasing tension in relations with France and the need to prepare for war made it possible for the opposition to interpret Speransky’s reform activities as anti-state, and to declare Speransky himself a Napoleonic spy. All this led to the fact that Alexander, who was prone to compromise, although he did not believe in Speransky’s guilt, dismissed him in March 1812.

Foreign policy of Alexander I

Having come to power, Alexander I tried to carry out his foreign policy as if with “ clean slate" The new Russian government sought to create a system of collective security in Europe, linking all the leading powers with a series of treaties. However, already in 1803, peace with France turned out to be unprofitable for Russia; in May 1804, the Russian side recalled its ambassador from France and began to prepare for a new war.

Alexander 1 considered Napoleon a symbol of violation of the legitimacy of the world order. But the Russian emperor overestimated his capabilities, which led to the disaster at Austerlitz in November 1805, and the presence of the emperor in the army and his inept orders had the most disastrous consequences. Alexander refused to ratify the peace treaty signed with France in June 1806, and only the defeat at Friedland in May 1807 forced the Russian emperor to agree. At his first meeting with Napoleon in Tilsit in June 1807, Alexander I managed to prove himself to be an extraordinary diplomat and, according to some historians, actually “beat” Napoleon. An alliance and agreement was concluded between Russia and France on the division of zones of influence. As further developments of events showed, the Tilsit Agreement turned out to be more beneficial to Russia, allowing Russia to accumulate forces. Napoleon sincerely considered Russia his only possible ally in Europe. In 1808, the parties discussed plans for a joint campaign against India and the division of the Ottoman Empire.

At a meeting with Alexander 1 in Erfurt (September 1808), Napoleon recognized Russia's right to Finland, captured during the Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809), and Russia recognized France's right to Spain. However, already at this time relations between the allies began to heat up due to the imperial interests of both sides.

Thus, Russia was not satisfied with the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, the continental blockade harmed the Russian economy, and in the Balkans each of the two countries had their own far-reaching plans. In 1810, Alexander 1 refused Napoleon, who asked for his sister's hand in marriage. Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna (later Queen of the Netherlands), and signed a provision on neutral trade, which effectively nullified the continental blockade. There is an assumption that Alexander 1 was going to deliver a pre-emptive strike to Napoleon, but after France concluded alliance treaties with Austria and Prussia, Russia began to prepare for a defensive war. On June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Russian border. Started Patriotic War 1812.

1) First quarter XIX V. was marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed.

The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

• Decree “On Free Plowmen”;
• ministerial reform;
• preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;
• the granting of the Constitutions of Poland and Bessarabia;
• preparation of a draft Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;
• establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration and search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the public administration system, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

2 ) Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with Paul I’s sharp departure from Catherine’s orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by the conspirators and Alexander I, Paul's eldest son and Catherine's grandson, was elevated to the throne. The short and harsh 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine’s order - idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was to carry out limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

3 ) To prepare reforms, a Secret Committee was created in 1801, which included the closest associates - “young friends” of Alexander I:

• N. Novosiltsev;
• A. Czartoryski;
• P. Stroganov;
• V. Kochubey.

This committee was the think tank for reforms for 4 years (1801 - 1805). Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecisiveness of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue that the Secret Committee dealt with in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, the emperor in 1803 issued the Decree “On Free Plowmen” of 1803, which for the first time in the history of feudal Russia allowed landowners to release peasants for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. Chance to cancel on time serfdom was missed. Other reforms of the Secret Committee were:

• ministerial reform - instead of Peter’s colleges, European-style ministries were created in Russia;
• Senate reform - the Senate became a judicial body;
• education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parochial) to gymnasiums, broad rights were given to universities.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was dissolved due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

4 ) In 1809, Alexander I ordered the preparation new plan reforms to Mikhail Speransky, Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented government lawyer. The goal of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a “constitutional” appearance without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

while maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce the European principle of separation of powers in Russia;

for this purpose, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);

The State Duma should be elected through popular elections and endowed with legislative functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

divide the entire population of Russia into three classes - nobles, “middle class” (merchants, townspeople, townspeople, state peasants), “working people” (serfs, servants);

grant the right to vote only to nobles and representatives of the “middle class”;

introduce a system of local self-government - in each province elect a provincial duma, which would form the provincial government - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - is formed from representatives elected by provincial dumas, and thus concentrates “folk wisdom” in the Senate;

A cabinet of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint ministers and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

make a special body the connecting link between the three branches of government - the State Duma, the Judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of government and would be a “bridge” between them and the emperor;

At the top of the entire system of power there was supposed to be an emperor - a head of state endowed with broad powers and an arbiter between all branches of government.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

in 1810 the State Council was created, which became a legislative body appointed by the emperor;

At the same time, ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The remaining proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

5 ) The turning point in the course of reforms was the “Note on ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations", sent to the emperor in 1811 by a famous historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin’s “Note” became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky’s reforms. In this “Note on Ancient and New Russia,” N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, opposed reforms that would lead to turmoil, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky’s reforms were stopped. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into honorable exile.

6 ) After the Patriotic War of 1812, reform activities resumed again. Reforms took place in two directions:

• improvement of the national-state structure;
• preparation of the draft Constitution of Russia.

Within the first direction:

• Alexander I granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland in 1815;
• autonomy was granted to Bessarabia, which in 1818 was also granted a constitutional document - the “Charter of Education of the Bessarabia Region”.

As part of the second direction, in 1818 the preparation of an all-Russian draft Constitution began. The work on preparing the project was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev. The prepared draft - the State Charter of the Russian Empire - contained the following main provisions:

• a constitutional monarchy was established in Russia;
• a parliament was established - the State Sejm, consisting of two chambers - the Senate and the Ambassadorial Chamber;
• The embassy chamber was elected by noble assemblies, after which the deputies were approved by the emperor;
• The Senate was entirely appointed by the emperor;
• the initiative to propose laws was assigned only to the emperor, but the laws had to be approved by the Sejm;
• the emperor alone exercised executive power through ministers appointed by him;
• Russia was divided into 10 - 12 governorships, united on the basis of a federation;
• governorships had their own self-government, which largely copied the all-Russian one;
• fundamental civil liberties were secured - freedom of speech, press, and the right to private property;
• serfdom was not mentioned at all (it was planned to begin its gradual abolition simultaneously with the adoption of the Constitution).

The main problem that hampered the adoption of the Constitution was the question of the abolition of serfdom and the procedure for its abolition. For this purpose, 11 projects were submitted to the emperor, each of which contained the most different offers about this question. The first step to implement these proposals was the partial abolition of serfdom in Russia, initially carried out in the Baltic states.

• in 1816, the emperor issued the “Regulations on Estonian Peasants”, according to which peasants on the territory of Estonia (Estonia) were freed from serfdom;
• in 1817 and 1819 similar regulations were issued concerning the peasants of Courland and Livonia;
• Baltic peasants became personally free, but were freed without land, which remained the property of the landowners;
• liberated peasants had the right to rent land or buy it.

However, the decision to abolish serfdom throughout Russia was never made. Its consideration dragged on for several years until Emperor Alexander I died in 1825, after which it was removed from the agenda altogether. The main reasons for the delay in resolving the peasant issue (and with it the adoption of the Constitution) were the personal indecisiveness of Alexander I and the opposition of the top nobility.

7) In the 1820s. In the circle of Alexander I, the conservative-punitive direction prevailed. His personification was P. Arakcheev, who began his career as a military adviser to Alexander and in the 1820s. who actually became the second person in the state. This period of decline of reforms was called “Arakcheevism”. It was during this period that plans to adopt a Constitution and abolish serfdom were finally thwarted. The most odious decision of P. Arakcheev was the creation of new social units in Russia - military settlements. Military settlements became an attempt to unite the peasant and the soldier in one person and in one way of life:

• since maintaining the army was expensive for the state, Arakcheev proposed transferring the army to “self-financing”;
• for these purposes, soldiers (yesterday's peasants) were forced, simultaneously with military service, engage in peasant labor;
• the usual military units and barracks and other attributes of the life of soldiers in peacetime were replaced by special communities - military settlements;
• military settlements were scattered throughout Russia;
• in these settlements, peasants spent part of the time engaged in drill and military training, and part of the time in agriculture and ordinary peasant labor;
• In military settlements, strict barracks discipline and semi-prison rules reigned.

Military settlements under Arakcheev became widespread. In total, about 375 thousand people were transferred to the regime of military settlements. Military settlements did not enjoy authority among the people and aroused hatred among most settlers. Peasants often preferred serfdom to life in such military-peasant camps. Despite partial changes in the system of government, the reforms of Alexander I did not solve the main issues:

• abolition of serfdom;
• adoption of the Constitution;
• democratization of the country.

Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born on December 12, 1777 in St. Petersburg. He was the favorite grandson of Catherine II and the eldest son of the heir to the throne, Paul. The child and his father were strained relationship, so he was raised by his crowned grandmother.

Heir to the throne

At this time, the ideas of enlightenment and humanism were popular. Alexander I was brought up according to them. short biography the future monarch contained lessons based on the work of Rousseau. At the same time, the father accustomed the child to military affairs.

In 1793, the young man married a German princess, who received the name Elizaveta Alekseevna at baptism. At the same time, he served in the Gatchina troops, which were created by Paul. With the death of Catherine, her father became emperor, and Alexander became his heir. In order for him to become accustomed to state affairs, Alexander was made a member of the Senate.

Alexander 1, whose short biography was full of ideas of enlightenment, was infinitely far from his father with his views. Paul often argued with his son and even forced him to swear allegiance several times. The emperor was maniacally afraid of conspiracies, which were common in the 18th century.

On March 12, 1801, a group of nobles was organized in St. Petersburg. At the center of it was a group of nobles. Researchers are still arguing whether Alexander knew about the plans of the conspirators. One way or another, it is certain that when Paul was killed, the heir was informed about it. So he became the Emperor of Russia.

Reforms

The first years of his reign, the policy of Alexander 1 was entirely aimed at internal transformation countries. The initial step was a broad amnesty. She freed many freethinkers and victims during Paul's reign. Among them was one who lost his freedom for publishing the essay “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow.”

Subsequently, Alexander relied on the opinion of high-ranking associates who formed a secret committee. Among them were friends of the emperor’s youth - Pavel Stroganov, Viktor Kochubey, Adam Czartoryski, etc.

The reforms were aimed at weakening serfdom. In 1803, a decree appeared according to which landowners could now free their peasants along with the land. The patriarchal order of Russia did not allow Alexander to take more decisive steps. The nobles could resist the changes. But the ruler successfully banned serfdom in the Baltic states, where Russian orders were alien.

Also, the reforms of Alexander 1 contributed to the development of education. Additional funding was received by Moscow State University. It was also open (young Alexander Pushkin studied there).

Speransky's projects

Mikhail Speransky became the emperor's closest assistant. He prepared a ministerial reform, which was approved by Alexander 1. A brief biography of the ruler received another successful initiative. New ministries replaced the ineffective colleges of the Petrine era.

In 1809, a project was being prepared on the separation of powers in the state. However, Alexander did not dare to give life to this idea. He was afraid of the grumbling of the aristocracy and the next palace coup. Therefore, Speransky eventually faded into the shadows and was sent into retirement. Another reason why the reforms were curtailed was the war with Napoleon.

Foreign policy

At the end of the 18th century, France experienced Great Revolution. The monarchical system was destroyed. Instead, first a republic appeared, and then the sole rule of the successful commander Napoleon Bonaparte. France, as a hotbed of revolutionary sentiments, became an enemy absolute monarchies Europe. Both Catherine and Paul fought with Paris.

Emperor Alexander 1 also entered into However, the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805 led to the fact that Russia was on the verge of defeat. Then the policy of Alexander 1 changed: he met with Bonaparte and concluded the Peace of Tilsit with him, according to which neutrality was established, and Russia had the opportunity to annex Finland and Moldova, which was done. It was on the new northern territory that the emperor applied his reforms.

Finland was annexed as a Grand Duchy with its own Diet and civil rights. And subsequently this province was the freest in the entire state throughout the 19th century.

However, in 1812 Napoleon decided to attack Russia. Thus began the Patriotic War, known to everyone from Tolstoy’s “War and Peace.” After the Battle of Borodino, Moscow was surrendered to the French, but this was a fleeting success for Bonaparte. Left without resources, he fled Russia.

At the same time, Alexander 1, whose short biography is full of various events, led the army in the Foreign Campaign. He triumphantly entered Paris and became a hero throughout Europe. The triumphant leader of the Russian delegation at the Congress of Vienna. The fate of the continent was decided at this event. By his decision, Poland was finally annexed to Russia. It was given its own constitution, which Alexander did not dare to introduce throughout the country.

Last years

The last years of the autocrat's reign were marked by the fading of reforms. The emperor became interested in mysticism and became seriously ill. He died in 1825 in Taganrog. He had no children. The dynastic crisis became the reason for As a result, Alexander's younger brother Nicholas came to power, who became a symbol of reaction and conservatism.

Introduction

Liberal reforms 1801-1815

War with Napoleon

Conservative period of the reign of Alexander I

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

The topic of the test is “Russia during the reign of Alexander I.”

It is generally accepted that the 19th century. in Russia began with the accession of Alexander I in March 1801. The new reign coincided with the strengthening of European influences, with the more rapid development of economic and social processes, indicating the formation of capitalist relations. Alexander I ruled the vast country for almost a quarter of a century, from 1801 to 1825. This time was filled with turbulent events and expectations of changes in the life of the country. The most contradictory testimonies from contemporaries about the emperor remain in history. At the beginning of his reign, he shocked those around him with liberal statements, searching for ways to radically reform the system of public administration, and ended his life and reign with a reputation as a persecutor of liberal ideas, a religious mystic and an “enthusiast” of pan-European political reaction.

The object of the test is Russian history.

The subject is the period of the reign of Alexander I.

The purpose of the test is to study Russia during the reign of Alexander I. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Characterize the period of liberal reforms of Alexander I.

Consider the reign of Alexander I during the war with Napoleon.

Study the conservative period of the reign of Alexander I.

Methodological basis Research is such general scientific research methods as analysis and synthesis, historical method. When writing the test, we used scientific works in the field of history of such domestic authors as Lichman B.V., Bokhanov A.N., Arslanov R.A. and etc.

1. Liberal reforms 1801-1815.

On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the last palace coup took place in Russia. Conspirators from the highest St. Petersburg nobility killed Emperor Paul I. His eldest son Alexander ascended to the Russian throne. The young emperor was a complex and contradictory person. This was explained by the innate traits of his character and the conditions in which he was brought up.

In early childhood, Catherine II tore the crown prince away from his father’s family and personally oversaw his education and upbringing. Alexander had to maneuver between his father and grandmother, dissemble and hide his true feelings. Some contemporaries noted his hypocrisy and insincerity. A.S. Pushkin gave him a very figurative description: “The ruler is weak and crafty, a bald dandy, an enemy of labor, accidentally warmed by fame...” Others noted his friendliness, ability to charm, attract people to himself. Alexander received an excellent education for that time. His teachers were outstanding writers and scientists of Russia. The mentor of the future emperor was the Swiss politician F. Laharpe, a republican, an opponent of slavery, and an adherent of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, which he tried to instill in his student. There is no doubt that in the first years of his reign, Alexander clearly saw the political and economic lag of Russia behind the advanced European countries, thought about the possibility and necessity of some modernization of the country. However, his political consciousness changed significantly with age. A liberal in the first years of his reign, he gradually turned into a conservative and even in the last years of his life a reactionary politician. His deep religiosity, reaching the point of mysticism, was reflected in specific domestic and foreign policy actions in 1815 - 1825.

Having ascended the throne, Alexander made it clear that he intended to carry out reforms on the most pressing social issues. political problems.

Having become emperor, Alexander I fully demonstrated himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted politician, extremely prudent in his reform activities.

Speaking about the personality and history of the reign of Alexander I, one cannot fail to say about his comrades-in-arms, about those people whom he brought closer to himself and on whom he relied. They, their mentality, their ideals largely characterize him himself.

As is known, by the middle of 1801 he freed himself from the titled participants in the conspiracy, the conservative aristocrats Panin, the Zubov brothers and their supporters. Only General Bennigsen survived, but he was also forbidden to live in the capital for some time. His “young friends” shone on the political stage. A. Czartoryski headed, albeit briefly, the foreign department, V.P. Kochubey replaced him in this high post. Constantly nearby, among the members of the Secret Committee, were N.N. Novosiltsev and P.A. Stroganov. Laharpe appeared in Russia; all of them were supporters of a constitutional monarchy, their ideal was the English state structure, they were obvious opponents of serfdom, but they proposed carrying out reforms carefully, gradually, taking them into account the real Russian reality. Alexander constantly consulted in matters with his young general adjutants, representatives of the highest nobility, but very liberal-minded people - princes P.M. Volkonsky and P.P. Dolgoruky. Already in 1803, he attracted M.M. Speransky and made N.M. the official historiographer. Karamzin.

There are two periods in the reign of Alexander I: before the war with Napoleon 1812 - 1814. (the period of preparation for liberal reforms) and after the war (the period of predominance of conservative tendencies).

The era of liberalism. Having ascended the throne, Alexander did not risk straightforwardly pursuing a policy of absolutism. His first domestic political activities were related to the correction of the most odious orders of Paul I, which caused indignation not only among the St. Petersburg aristocracy, but also among the general Russian public. He spoke out against the despotism and tyranny of his father, promised to pursue policies according to the laws and the heart of his grandmother Catherine P. This combined both his liberal views and the desire to gain popularity in society. Alexander restored the “Charter of Grants” abolished by Paul to the nobility and cities, and declared a broad amnesty for people who had been persecuted under Paul. Free entry and exit abroad, the import of foreign books were again allowed, restrictions on trade with England and regulations in everyday life, clothing, that irritated people were abolished. public behavior etc. These measures created Alexander's reputation as a liberal.

A major role in the initial period of reforms under Alexander I was played by a body that in historiography was called the Secret Committee. This name is purely conditional, since the private circle of young aristocrats, friends and relatives of the emperor did not have official status. The specifics of its meetings determined another name - intimate, and Alexander himself dubbed it the Committee for the Public Welfare, by analogy with the committee of the times of Republican France. The committee began holding its meetings on June 24, 1801, however, as mentioned above, they were not of an official nature: gathering in the emperor’s office in an informal setting, young friends discussed with him a wide variety of political, social and economic problems.

Considering the political activities of the Secret Committee, it must be admitted that it did not play a special role. historical role in carrying out reforms in Russian Empire. The secret committee, rather, became a kind of preparatory structure for the further promotion of liberalism, but only in terms of its promotion from top to bottom. A number of the ideological quests of the committee members looked utopian or could be considered an anachronism against the background political life modern Western Europe. Certain projects can be regarded as a rejection of adherence to previous ideological concepts, a kind of hesitation on the question of the optimal paths for the socio-political development of Russia.

It is advisable to roughly divide the problems that the Secret Committee considered into two main groups: political and socio-economic. The issues of politics are the granting of the constitution and political reforms. Social and economic issues included the transformation of the education system (more precisely, its creation as a single national structure) and the liberation of the landowner peasants, which in the conditions of Russian reality would also be a political act.

The result of the activities of the Secret Committee of the country was the reform of higher government agencies. On September 8, 1802, a Manifesto was published, according to which, instead of collegiums, the following ministries were established: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.

In resolving the peasant issue discussed in the Secret Committee, Alexander I was extremely careful. The emperor considered serfdom to be a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms.

It was Alexander who took the initiative to regulate the state of relations between the landowner and the serf, as well as to implement policies designed to really alleviate the situation of the peasants. The practice of distributing state peasants to landowners was stopped. As a result, this led to an increase in the share of relatively free state and appanage peasants, who before the abolition of serfdom accounted for at least 50% of the total peasant population of the country. Landowners were forbidden to send peasants to hard labor and to Siberia (1809), or to publish advertisements for the sale of peasants. Alexander sought more - a ban on selling serfs without land, but was unable to overcome the resistance of senior dignitaries. And the published decree was violated, because landowners began to print advertisements for “rental” to peasants, which in reality meant the same sale.

On March 1803, a decree “On free cultivators” was issued. He established the rules for the liberation of serfs and allotment of land to them. The results of this decree were small. In 1804 - 1805 New laws were issued on the status of peasants in Livonia and Estonia. They received limited rights to self-government.

During the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of serfs passed into the category of “free tillers”.

Since the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Secret Committee began to decline, and its place was taken by the Committee of Ministers. To continue the transformation, Alexander I needed new people who were personally loyal to him. A new round of reforms was associated with the name of M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan for state reforms called “Introduction to the Code of State Laws.” According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of State Duma, judicial - in the hands of the Senate, executive - in the ministries). According to M. Speransky’s plan, the entire population of Russia was divided into three classes: the nobility, the “middle estate” (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the “working people” (serfs, artisans, servants). All classes received civil rights, and the nobles received political rights.

The Emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations affected exclusively central system public administration: in 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body under the emperor.

In 1810 - 1811 the reform of the ministerial management system, begun back in 1803, was completed. According to the “General Establishment of Ministries” (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, naval, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the Main Directorate Post Office, State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict autocracy was introduced. Ministers appointed by the tsar and accountable only to him formed the Committee of Ministers, the status of which as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.

At the beginning of 1811, the State Council refused to approve the draft of new reforms. The failure of Speransky’s entire plan became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom. The growing opposition of conservatives became so threatening that Alexander I was forced to stop the reforms. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.

The most liberal reforms were in the sphere of culture: the creation of a formally unified classless education system, the opening of lyceums, 5 new universities, the introduction of liberal university statutes that provided for significant independence of universities, the approval of a liberal censorship statute, etc.

Thus, the reforms at the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were very limited, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.

. War with Napoleon

During the reign of Alexander I, the largest event in Russian history occurred - the Patriotic War of 1812. This war was preceded by Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. In 1805, Russia entered the war with Napoleon in alliance with Austria and England. However allied forces were defeated at Austerlitz. In 1806, a new anti-Napoleonic coalition formed (Russia, England, Prussia). In 1807, in the battle of Friedland, the Russian army was again defeated. Alexander I had to enter into negotiations with Napoleon; as a result, the Treaty of Tilsit was concluded between Russia and France (1807). According to this clause, Russia had to join the “continental blockade” of England, i.e. break off all trade relations with England. This was disadvantageous for Russia, since England was its main trading partner. The Tilsit peace turned out to be fragile. Less than two years later, disagreements began again between Russia and France. Napoleon accused Alexander of violating the continental system, which was ruinous for Russian trade, and of unwillingness to help him in the fight against Austria, where Russian troops, according to Alexander’s secret command, actually avoided joint action with the French army. But Napoleon himself did not comply with the conditions of the Peace of Tilsit: contrary to them, he increased the Duchy of Warsaw, formed as a counterweight to Russian influence in the West, and deprived the Duke of Oldenburg, a close relative of Alexander, of his possessions.

This led to a worsening of Russian-French relations.

In 1810, Napoleon openly declared his desire for world domination. By this time in Europe, only Russia and England retained their independence. To subjugate Russia, Napoleon began to prepare for a new war.

June 1812 Napoleon's Grand Army invaded Russia. The Patriotic War began, exalting Alexander and Russia and leading to the fall of Napoleon.

December 1812 Alexander I issued a Manifesto ending the war.

Russia, with Alexander at its head, not only defended its existence as a state, but then liberated all of Europe from the power of a hitherto invincible conqueror.

The Napoleonic invasion was a huge misfortune for Russia. Many cities were reduced to dust and ashes. In the fire of the Moscow fire, precious relics of the past disappeared forever. Industry and agriculture suffered enormous damage. Subsequently, the Moscow province quickly recovered from the devastation, and in Smolensk and Pskov, until the middle of the century, the population was less than in 1811.

The sacrificial role that befell Moscow in the dramatic events of 1812 further increased its importance as the spiritual center of Russia. On the contrary, dignitary Petersburg, the court, and the official government found themselves on the periphery of events. It was as if they were almost forgotten about in that terrible year. Alexander I never managed to get closer to the people. Arakcheev, Rostopchin, the police cart - all this still separated him from common people, from society.

The war with France disrupted the reform plans of Alexander I. Having defeated Napoleon, Russia became the main guarantor of the Vienna international system, which maintained the status quo on the continent. The new international situation was not favorable to domestic reforms.

After Alexander became the guarantor of the European order approved by the Congress of Vienna, reactionary features began to be revealed in his policies. In this regard, we can point to the creation of military settlements introduced into the country on the initiative of Count A.A. Arakcheeva.

. Conservative period of the reign of Alexander I

The second period of the reign of Alexander I (1815 - 1825) is characterized by most historians as conservative in comparison with the first - liberal. The strengthening of conservative tendencies and the establishment of a strict police regime is associated with the activities of the all-powerful A.A. Arakcheeva. However, it was precisely at this time that a number of liberal reforms were carried out, which does not allow us to unambiguously assess the second half of the reign of Alexander I as conservative. The Emperor did not abandon attempts to resolve the peasant issue and implement his constitutional ideas.

Since 1816, these attempts were resumed and they began, strange as it may sound, with the organization of military settlements. The fact is that the idea was based on progressive and humane intentions. In addition to the self-sufficiency of the army, which, of course, was important, the emperor tried, with the help of military settlements, to reduce the number of serfs in the western and central provinces. By buying up land and peasants from landowners devastated by the war, the government narrowed the boundaries of the spread of serfdom, because military settlers were supposed to become, in fact, state peasants. In reality, military settlements became the cause of disturbances and riots. By the end of the reign of Alexander I, 375 thousand state peasants under the command of Arakcheev became military settlers. In fact, the settlers were enslaved twice - as peasants and as soldiers. Their life was regulated by army norms. Minimal offenses were punishable by cruel punishments.

Since 1816, A.A. became the all-powerful temporary worker. Arakcheev is a good organizer, a career military man, who, however, became one of the gloomy figures of the 19th century. He was rude, categorical and proudly declared that he served not the Fatherland, but the sovereign. Since 1816, Alexander I stopped listening to the traditional reports of ministers, reading only brief extracts from them, which were prepared in Arakcheev’s office. Thus, Arakcheev actually became prime minister.

In 1816, on the initiative of the Estonian nobles, Alexander signed a decree freeing the peasants of the province from serfdom. The peasants received personal freedom, but lost their right to land and thereby found themselves completely dependent on the landowners. According to the same scenario, serfdom was abolished in Courland (1817) and Livonia (1819). Thus, in 1816-1819. In the Baltic states, serfdom was abolished for the first time in the history of the Russian Empire. It was not possible to push the landowners of Little Russia to such an initiative.

However, in 1816-1819. on behalf of the emperor, Arakcheev’s office and the Ministry of Finance secretly prepared projects for the liberation of all serfs, and the projects were quite radical, in some ways ahead of the Regulations of February 19, 1861. Arakcheev proposed freeing the peasants by buying them out from the landowner, followed by allotment of land at the expense of the treasury. According to Finance Minister Guryev, relations between peasants and landowners should be built on a contractual basis, and various forms of land ownership should be introduced gradually. Both projects were approved by the emperor, but neither of them was ever implemented. Rumors about the impending fall of serfdom began to actively circulate throughout Russia and caused negative reaction landowners.

By personal order of Alexander, work on constitutional projects was carried out secretly, almost simultaneously with the development of projects on the peasant issue. On November 27, 1815, Alexander granted the Constitution to the Kingdom of Poland. According to the Constitution, the king (aka Russian Tsar) exercised executive power; a certain part of the legislative functions was concentrated in the Sejm. The first chamber of the Sejm - the Senate - was appointed by the king for life from representatives of the clergy and senior officials. The second chamber - the Ambassadorial Chamber - was elected on the basis of a property qualification (payment direct tax at least 100 zlotys). Peasants were not given the right to vote. The constitution declared personal integrity, freedom of the press, independence of the judiciary, and recognition of the Polish language as the official language. It was one of the most liberal constitutions of that time.

Alexander viewed the Polish Constitution as the first step towards introducing constitutional government in Russia. In 1818, speaking at the opening of the first Polish Sejm, he clearly stated that Poland was only the beginning, and that a constitutional order was the immediate future of all of Russia. Perhaps the emperor made it clear to the nobility that he was ready to cede a significant part of his power to them if the landowners agreed to abolish or soften serfdom.

In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers (among them was the poet P.A. Vyazemsky) led by former member of the Secret Committee, head of the Russian administration in the kingdom of Poland N.N. Novosiltsev, to develop a draft constitution for Russia. In 1819, such a project called “State Charter of the Russian Empire” was presented to the sovereign and approved by him. The draft Russian constitution declared the main political freedoms, the equality of all citizens before the law and significantly limited the rights of the autocrat. The Constitution provided for the creation of a representative body (the State Sejm or Duma), consisting of two chambers (the Senate and the Ambassadorial Chamber). The Senate was formed by the king from members of the imperial family and senators. The embassy chamber was appointed by the emperor from among candidates elected by noble assemblies and townspeople. The law was considered adopted if, after discussion in the chambers, it was approved by the king. The Constitution proclaimed freedom of speech, press, freedom of religion, equality of all citizens before the law, inviolability of person and property, independence of the court, and responsibility of officials. The issue of serfdom was not raised in the draft constitution. According to the Charter, the emperor was endowed with broad rights: he determined the personal composition of the chambers of the Duma and had significant legislative prerogatives.

Novosiltsev’s constitution was a step back in comparison with Speransky’s project (the system of appointment to the Duma instead of election; the addition of Speransky’s property qualification to the class principle of Novosiltsev, since most of the deputies were elected from the nobility). However, Alexander I never decided to implement this project. The emperor did not feel support for his undertakings either in his family, or in the court-bureaucratic spheres, or in circles landed nobility.

After 1822, he finally lost interest in state affairs and transferred them to the jurisdiction of the ministers, or rather, to the jurisdiction of Arakcheev. By decree of 1822, Alexander I restored the right of landowners to send serfs to settle in Siberia “for bad offenses.”

Conclusion

reform war Alexander reign

Thus, the following conclusions can be drawn.

Characteristics of the first stage of Alexander's reign. This period, remembered by contemporaries as the wonderful beginning of the Alexandrov days, was very promising and in its essence meant not only a return to the policy of enlightened absolutism, but also giving it a new quality.

All articles of the Charter of the Nobility demoted by Paul were completely restored, which returned him the status and position of a privileged class. The Letter of Complaint to the cities was confirmed. An amnesty for prisoners was carried out.

Formation of the Secret Committee, which performed the functions of an unofficial government and was involved in preparing reforms.

The practice of distributing state peasants to landowners was stopped. Landowners were forbidden to send peasants to hard labor and to Siberia, or to publish advertisements for the sale of peasants.

A decree on free cultivators was adopted, which allowed serfs to buy their freedom with land, but with the consent of the landowner.

The second period of the reign of Alexander I (1815 - 1825) is characterized by most historians as conservative in comparison with the first - liberal. The strengthening of conservative tendencies and the establishment of a strict police regime is associated with the activities of the all-powerful A.A. Arakcheeva.

The main directions of the reactionary policy: cane discipline was restored in the army, one of the results of which was the unrest of 1820 in the Semenovsky regiment. In 1821, Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were destroyed. The censorship that persecuted free thought intensified. A decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges. In 1822, Alexander I renewed the right of landowners to exile serfs to Siberia and send them to hard labor.

List of sources used

1.Arslanov R.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. / R.A. Arslanov. - M.: Higher. school, 2006. - 784 p.

2.Bokhanov A.N. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century. in 3 books. Book II. History of Russia from the beginning of the 18th century to late XIX century./ A. N. Bokhanov, M. M. Gorinov. - M.: AST Publishing House LLC, 2004. - 608 p.

.Kryzhanyuk O.V. The secret committee and its projects. / O. V. Kryzhanyuk // Archive. - 2000. - No. 11. - P. 36 -38.

.Lichman B.V. Russian history. Theories of learning. Book two. The twentieth century. / B.V. Lichman. - Ekaterinburg: SV - 96, 2004. - 304 p.

.Orlov A.S. History of Russia./ A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, N.G. Georgieva. - M.: "PROSPECT", 2005. - 544 p.

.Potaturov V.A. National history: Lecture notes./ V.A. Potaturov. - M.: MIEMP, 2004. - 92 p.

.Radugin A.A. History of Russia (Russia in world civilization): Course of lectures / A.A. Radugin. - M.: Center, 2004. - 352 p.

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.Sakharov A.N. Alexander I./ A.N. Sakharov. - M.: Science. 1998. - 287 p.

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It’s not simple, because he ascended the throne after the murder of his father, and became famous not only for holding the highest position in the state.

Read more about his life and work in the article.

Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich

Childhood, upbringing and education

On December 12, 1777, All-Russian autocrat Alexander Pavlovich Romanov was born in St. Petersburg. WITH early childhood he was instilled with a love for various sciences and military affairs.

It is noteworthy that his grandmother wanted to see her grandson Alexander on the throne, since she considered her own son Paul not a very good candidate for governing the state.

And this is not surprising, because many of Alexander’s character traits were similar to those of Catherine, who was actively involved in raising her grandson in Tsarskoe Selo.

From his youth, Alexander I showed outstanding mental abilities.

In life he was a man of liberal views.

At the same time, one cannot help but note the fact that he was lazy to engage in serious activities for a long time, requiring perseverance and long-term concentration.

Personal life

On September 17, 1793, the emperor married Elizaveta Alekseevna. After some time, he began to serve in the Gatchina troops and already in 1796 received the rank of colonel of the guard.

A year later, Alexander I became commander of the Capital Division and performed a number of other duties, and already in 1798 he sat in the Senate.

Alexander as heir

Having received it as a child good upbringing and education, Alexander had his own views and ideas, which were fundamentally different from the worldview of his father, Paul.

Heated arguments and even quarrels often arose between the son and his parent.

On March 12, 1801, a sharp turn occurred in the biography of Alexander I. On this day, a Palace coup took place in St. Petersburg, in which Paul was killed, and Alexander I became Emperor of Russia.

Reforms of Alexander I

At the very beginning of his reign, Alexander seriously took up political reforms within the state. He signed an amnesty law that freed many freethinkers imprisoned during his father's reign.

In many ways, the autocrat’s goal was the desire to weaken the oppression of serfdom. So, in 1803 he issued a decree on free cultivators. Now the landowners could free their peasants along with their land allotments.

A special merit of Alexander I was the reform concerning the development of education. For example, Moscow State University received good funding, and later the famous Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was inaugurated.

Speransky's projects

One of the closest assistants of Alexander I was Mikhail Speransky. It was he who developed the ministerial reform, according to which new ministries came to replace ineffective collegiums. This became an important milestone in the biography of Alexander I.

In 1809, a bill on separation of powers was created. However, given the fact that Alexander was afraid of grumbling from the aristocracy, he did not give this project development.

After some time, Speransky was removed from his position.

Alexander's foreign policy

Under Alexander I, Russia joined the anti-French coalition. Over time, the situation changed, and the emperor personally met with him to improve relations.

They concluded the Peace of Tilsit between the countries, according to which neutrality was established between Russia and France.

This allowed the Russian Empire to annex Moldova and Finland to its territories, which ultimately happened.

As a result, the younger brother of Alexander I, Nicholas, ascended the Russian throne.

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