History and LED

The grandiose foreign policy successes of Russia in the 18th century, the sharp rise in the economic and cultural potential of the country, which became a kind of historical phenomenon is inextricably linked with the activities of Peter I, an outstanding statesman, commander and diplomat.

Introduction 3

1. Peter's domestic policy I 4

1.1 Administrative reform 4

1.2 Military reform 5

1.3 Economic reform 7

1.4 Church reform 9

2. Foreign policy Petra I 11

2.1 Grand Embassy 11

2.2 Northern War (1700-1721) 13

2.3 Prut campaign 15

2.4 Eastern policy of Peter 1. Caspian (Persian)

campaigns (1722-1723) 17

Conclusion 20

List of sources used 21

Introduction

The time of Peter the Great, or, in other words, the era of Peter's reforms, is the most important milestone in Russian history. The grandiose foreign policy successes of Russia in the 18th century, the sharp rise in the economic and cultural potential of the country, which became a kind of historical phenomenon, are inextricably linked with the activities of Peter I - an outstanding statesman, commander and diplomat.

Thanks to Peter's foreign policy, political isolation was ended, and Russia's international prestige was strengthened. Rapid growth Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century amazes not only us, but also amazed Peter’s contemporaries. All of Europe at that time watched and marveled at how this state awakened the forces dormant within and revealed the energy potential that it had hidden in its depths for so long.

The main directions of Russian foreign policy of this period - northwestern and southern - were determined by the struggle for access to ice-free seas, without which it was impossible to break out of economic and cultural isolation, and, consequently, overcome the general backwardness of the country, as well as the desire to acquire new lands, strengthen border security and improve Russia's strategic position.

The reform program matured long before the start of the reign of Peter I and they began under his grandfather and father - Tsars Mikhail and Alexei. Perestroika then affected many aspects of life. But Peter, who continued the work of his predecessors, went much further than them, invested in the transformation such energy and passion that they had never dreamed of.

The relevance of the topic is predetermined by the great interest in the history of Russia, its domestic and foreign policies, and international relations during the reign of Peter 1.

1. Peter's domestic policy I

1.1 Administrative reform

It was designed to ensure the unlimited power of the autocrat in resolving all issues of state life. The latter was characterized by strict centralization, bureaucratization of the state administration apparatus, a regular army, the inclusion of the church in common system public administration, streamlining the financial sector. Swedish central government models have had a significant influence on administrative reforms. And at the level of regional administration Estland and Livonia conquered by Russia. The highest institution of Peter the Great's administration became the Governing Senate, which replaced the former Boyar Duma in 1771. Head of the Senate since 1722. there was the Prosecutor General (previously chief secretary). Instead of orders that functioned on the basis of a personal principle, collegiums were established that operated on the principles of collegiality. In 1717 - 1718 In Russia, 12 boards were established, functioning on the basis of special regulations (charters). The presidents of the boards were Russians. And the vice-presidents are in most cases foreigners. The introduction of foreigners into the boards was supposed to increase the efficiency of the new management bodies. The transformation of local government is characterized by a set of independent reforms: city government (1699-1721), local government bodies (1708-1711, 1719), but city self-government did not have a solid foundation in Russia. A Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, in charge of the affairs of the entire urban class in Russia. In 1708-1709 was divided into 8 provinces. At the head of the provinces was a governor called the tsar. Executive and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. In 1719 they were divided into 50 provinces, which were divided into districts, headed by governors.

1.2 Military reform

During this period, a radical reorganization of the armed forces took place. A powerful regular army is being created in Russia and, in connection with this, the local noble militia and the Streltsy army are being eliminated. The basis of the army began to consist of regular infantry and cavalry regiments with a uniform staff, uniforms, and weapons, which carried out combat training in accordance with general army regulations.

The essence of the military reform was the elimination of noble militias and the organization of a permanent combat-ready army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, and regulations. The army and navy were always the main concern of the emperor. However, military reforms are important not only in themselves, but also because they had a very large, often decisive, influence on other aspects of the life of the state. The course of the military reform itself was determined by the war. The Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future standing (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. Peter I paid great attention to the fleet, the first baptism of fire of which also occurred at this time. The treasury did not have the necessary funds, and the construction of the fleet was entrusted to the so-called “companies” (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners. Start Northern War became the impetus for the final creation regular army.

Before Peter, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (streltsy, Cossacks, foreign regiments). The revolutionary change was that Peter introduced a new principle of recruiting the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic conscription. The recruitment system was based on the class-serf principle. Recruitment sets extended to the population who paid taxes and carried out state duties.

In 1699 The first recruitment was made in 1705. the sets were legalized by the relevant decree and became annual. From twenty households they took one person, single, aged from 15 to 20 years (however, during the Northern War, these periods constantly changed due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors). The Russian village suffered the most from the recruitment drives. The recruit's service life was practically unlimited. The officer corps of the Russian army was replenished by nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools. The Military (1716) and Naval regulations (1720) were adopted, and large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out.

By the end of the Northern War, Peter had a huge, strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win a grueling war that lasted almost a quarter of a century.

The main results of Peter the Great's military reforms are as follows: the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them; the emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.); creation of a powerful navy.

The development of metallurgy contributed to a significant increase in the production of artillery pieces; outdated artillery of different calibers was replaced by new types of guns. The army was the first to combine cold and firearms- a bayonet was attached to the gun, which significantly increased the fire and striking power of the army. At the beginning of the 18th century. for the first time in the history of Russia, a navy, which was not inferior in importance to the creation of a regular army. The construction of the fleet was carried out at an unprecedentedly fast pace at the level of the best examples of military shipbuilding of that time.

1.3 Economic reform

An important place in the complex of Peter's reforms is occupied by economic reforms, which are distinguished by their practical orientation. The greatest successes were achieved in the development of industry, which was determined, first of all, by the need to prioritize the needs of the army. The government did its best to stimulate the development of private capital. To build new factories, industrialists were provided with loans, various benefits and monopolies. The creation of industrial companies was encouraged. To weaken competition from foreign producers, the government established increased tariffs on goods imported from abroad. One cannot ignore the presence by the end of the 17th century. a sufficiently developed domestic market, national private capital, which largely ensured the dynamism and overall success of the reforms.

Agricultural reform:

It was this main sector of the country's economy that was least accessible to the regulatory activities of the state, because a significant part of the peasants were fully owned by the landowners. In relation to the landowners, who bring the peasants to ruin with their exactions, the government limited itself to measures of control and suggestion. In 1721 A decree was issued on the use of scythes and rakes in grain harvesting. The first vineyards were established on the Don. Livestock farming was under special state protection.

Social reform:

Transformations in the social sphere did not shake the structural basis of society, but made class boundaries even clearer, while simultaneously increasing the level of social mobility of some categories of the population. Adoption in 1722 The Table of Ranks divided the entire mass of government officials into 14 ranks and established the procedure for promotion to rank in the civil and military service not according to nobility, but according to personal merit and abilities. Peter's transformations gave impetus to the emergence and development of new social strata Russian society- bureaucracy and bourgeoisie. The old aristocracy managed to generally maintain its influence.

The power of landowners over peasants expanded simultaneously with even greater restrictions on the latter's civil rights. In 1724 A passport system was introduced in Russia, depriving peasants of the opportunity to leave their place of permanent residence without the permission of the landowner.

1.4 Church reform

Church reform played an important role in establishing absolutism. In 1700, Patriarch Adrian died, and Peter I forbade electing a successor for him. The management of the church was entrusted to one of the metropolitans, who performed the functions of “locum tenens of the patriarchal throne.” In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished, and the “Holy Governing Synod,” or Spiritual College, which was also subordinate to the Senate, was created to govern the church.

Church reform meant the elimination of the independent political role of the church. It turned into an integral part of the bureaucratic apparatus of the absolutist state. In parallel with this, the state strengthened control over church income and systematically seized a significant part of it for the needs of the treasury. These actions of Peter I caused discontent among the church hierarchy and the black clergy and were one of the main reasons for their participation in all kinds of reactionary conspiracies. Peter's church policy, like his policy in other spheres of state life, was aimed, first of all, at as much as possible efficient use churches for the needs of the state, and more specifically, to squeeze money out of the church for government programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter’s journey as part of the Great Embassy, ​​he was also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to its power. In 1701, the Monastic Prikaz was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church.

The Church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property. The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required a new legal registration. In 1721 a prominent figure of the Petrine era, Feofan Prokopovich, drew up the Spiritual Regulations, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual Collegium, which was soon renamed the “Holy Government Synod”, officially equal in rights with the Senate.

Stefan Yavorsky became president, Feodosius Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich became vice-presidents. Peter carried out church reform, which was expressed in the creation of collegial (synodal) governance of the Russian church. The destruction of the patriarchate reflected Peter’s desire to eliminate the “princely” system of church power, unthinkable under the autocracy of Peter’s time. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of church institutions to implement police policies. Subjects, under pain of heavy fines, were obliged to attend church and confess their sins to a priest.

2. Peter's foreign policy I

2.1 . Grand Embassy

The idea of ​​the "Great Embassy" (March 1697 - August 1698 d) formally had the goal of visiting the capitals of a number of European countries to conclude an alliance against Turkey. Admiral General F.Ya. was appointed as great ambassadors. Lefort, General F.A. Golovin, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz, and Duma clerk P.B. Voznitsyn. The embassy included 280 people, including 35 volunteers traveling to learn crafts and military sciences, among whom, under the name of Peter Mikhailov, was Tsar Peter himself. The embassy's route lay through Riga and Koenigsberg to Holland, which was at that time the largest maritime power in Europe (its fleet accounted for 4/5 of the entire European fleet), and England. From England the embassy returned to Holland, then it visited Vienna. In the future it was planned to go to Venice.

In addition to negotiations and clarifying the balance of power in Europe, Peter devoted a lot of time to studying shipbuilding, military affairs, getting acquainted with advanced military equipment, and various aspects of the life of European countries. He visited shipyards and arsenals, factories and schools, mints and fortresses, theaters and museums, parliament and the observatory. For several months, Peter himself worked as a carpenter at the shipyards of the East India Company in Holland, mastering shipbuilding, and received the appropriate diploma as a shipwright. The ship Peter and Paul, built with the participation of the Tsar, sailed to the East Indies several times. The "Great Ambassadors" actively sought to establish trade, technical and cultural ties with the developed European powers.

Meanwhile, relations in Europe at this time were not in favor of continuing the war with Turkey, and soon(January 14, 1699 d.) Russia, like other countries - members of the “Holy League”, had to agree to a truce concluded in Karlovtsy. At the same time, Peter became convinced that the anti-Turkish coalition had collapsed, but a favorable foreign policy situation had developed in the struggle for the Baltic, since the largest European states were busy with the upcoming War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) - the struggle for vast possessions in Europe and America due to the lack of a direct heir after the death of the Spanish King Charles II. Peter understood well that it was through the Baltic Sea that it was possible to establish strong ties with the developed countries of Europe.

Summer 1698 Mr. Peter unexpectedly had to interrupt his trip. In Vienna, he received a report of a new Streltsy revolt in Moscow. Even before Peter's arrival, the rebellion was suppressed by government troops. The Streltsy regiments marching towards Moscow were defeated near New Jerusalem (now the area of ​​the city of Istra near Moscow). More 100 The archers were executed, many of them were whipped and exiled to various cities. Upon his return, Peter forced the verdict to be reconsidered. He personally headed the new investigation. A connection was established between the rebel archers and the Moscow boyars and the disgraced Sophia. They have already executed more than 1000 Streltsy, the tsar himself and his entourage took part in the executions. Sophia, tonsured a nun under the name of Susanna, lived under the strictest supervision for the rest of her life in the Novodevichy Convent (1704).

The lack of direct economic and political ties with Western Europe restrained the growth of Russia's productive forces, slowed down the process of primitive accumulation, and was one of the reasons for its economic, political and military-technical backwardness, which ultimately could threaten its national independence.

Thus, the idea of ​​the “Great Embassy” was intended to visit the capitals of a number of European states to conclude an alliance against Turkey. The embassy did not achieve its direct goal, but it studied the international situation and prepared the ground for the struggle for the Baltic states and for access to the Baltic Sea.

2.2. Northern War (1700-1721))

The main direction of Russian foreign policy in the era under review was the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, and its content was the long Northern War (1700-1721), which took up almost all the years of Peter’s reign. The Northern War began 11 years after Peter's accession to the throne. Invaded in July 1655 Swedish troops quickly captured almost the entire territory of Polish lands with Warsaw and Krakow, as well as part of Lithuania. The successes of the Swedes were determined, first of all, by the capitulatory position of the Polish magnates and part of the gentry, who recognized the power of the Swedish king Charles X Gustav. John II Casimir fled to Silesia . The threat of loss of independence and the atrocities of the occupiers caused a patriotic upsurge of the Polish people. Resistance to the occupiers in Kraków Podgorje in December 1655 marked the beginning of the expulsion of the invaders.

Early 1656 the Swedes were expelled from the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was facilitated by the conclusion of a truce between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the beginningRussian-Swedish war 1656-58gg. However, in the summer of 1656, the Swedes, with the help of Brandenburg, again captured Warsaw. Charles X put forward a project for the division of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and enlisted the support of the Transylvanian prince Gyorgy II Rakoczi, whose troops invaded in 1657. to Poland, but were defeated. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth received the support of Austria and, at the cost of renouncing suzerainty rights over East Prussia, achieved the transfer of Brandenburg to its side (Wielawa-Bydgoszcz Treaty 1657G.). After Denmark entered the war (June 1657) against Sweden, Swedish troops almost completely left the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1658, Denmark, having suffered defeat, withdrew from the war (according toTreaty of Roskilde 1658Denmark lost Skåne and other territories). But, in the same year, she resumed the war, receiving support not only from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Austria and Brandenburg, but also from the Netherlands. At the end of the war, contradictions between opponents saved Sweden from defeat. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, seeking to retake Ukraine, which joined Russia in 1654, and Belarus, most of which was occupied by Russian troops in 1654-55, concluded with SwedenPeace of Oliva in 1660year. Denmark's hostilities against Sweden endedPeace of Copenhagen 1660 year.

As a result, the Northern War of 1655-1660. significantly weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, but in 1659. she resumed the war against Russia, which forced Russia to agree to a conclusion unfavorable for itTreaty of Kardis in 1661 with Sweden.

Peter's government showed sufficient flexibility and prudence in relation to the Western European conflict. Having declared official neutrality, Russian diplomacy at the same time tried to maintain both economic and political ties with both warring parties. Thus, Russia reserved for itself a wide field of foreign policy maneuvering, the goal of which was to achieve a favorable international situation for the successful completion of the war.

During the first half of the Northern War, Russian foreign policy traveled a long, complex and contradictory path. The Allies' plans to defeat Sweden in one or two years turned out to be untenable. The defeat at Narva not only showed the unpreparedness of the Russian armed forces to fight the Swedish army, but also predetermined the strategic line of Russian diplomacy to prevent a Swedish invasion of the country in the next few years.

2.3. Prut campaign

Interest in the southern direction was shown by Peter I back in 1695 when the young king made a campaign against Azov - a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don, blocking the path to the Azov region and the Northern Black Sea region. The poorly prepared army was unable to take Azov by storm, and it was impossible to establish a proper siege due to the lack of a fleet. After a three-month siege of Azov (spring-summer 1695 d.) Peter was forced to retreat. Without a fleet, it was impossible to besiege the fortress from both land and sea. The first Azov campaign ended in failure. in winter 1695-96 gg. Preparations for the second campaign began. Construction of the first Russian fleet began in Voronezh. We were ready for spring 2 ships, 23 galleys, 4 fire ships and 1300 plows on which 40 thousandth Russian army in May 1696 Azov was again besieged. After the blockade from the sea 19 July the Turkish fortress surrendered, the fleet found a convenient harbor - Taganrog, they began to build a port.

In 1710, incited by Charles XII and diplomats of leading European states, the Turkish Sultandeclared war on Russia, demanding the return of Azov and the liquidation of the Russian fleet. After unsuccessful attempts to reach a compromise through diplomatic means, Peter at the end of February 1711 g. had to accept the challenge of Turkey. At the end of June 1711 The Russian army under the command of Peter entered Moldova and, having crossed the Dniester, approached the Prut. The promised help from the Moldavian ruler Cantemir was insignificant, and the Wallachian ruler Brincoveanu, betraying Russia, issued a war plan to the Sultan. As a result 9 July 1711 The 38,000-strong Russian army was surrounded at the Prut River by the 135,000-strong Turkish army and the 50,000-strong army of the Crimean Khan.

Somewhat earlier, representatives of the Orthodox Balkan peoples, who literally besieged Moscow with a request for help, with the best intentions, exaggerated the scope of the anti-Turkish movement in their countries and, in the same proportions, downplayed the difficulties awaiting the Russian army.

At the end of June 1711 Russian troops under the command of Peter entered Moldova. However, the only “help” they received was the arrival of the Moldavian ruler Cantemir with a handful of courtiers. There were no thousands of rebel troops, no promised warehouses with provisions, no water. And the Turkish army, instead of rebelling against their commanders and fleeing, surrounded the Russians. Peter, sitting in the besieged camp, became so disheartened that, sending his ambassador Shafirov to the Grand Vizier, he ordered peace to be sought at any cost. If necessary, not only give Turkey all the lands conquered in the south, but also return the entire Baltic region, except St. Petersburg, to the Swedes, and if the Swedes find this not enough, give them Pskov and the adjacent lands... In a word, it was ordered to “agree to everything except slavery."

Fortunately, the Turks had no intention of waging diplomatic battles in defense of Swedish interests, but they succeeded in defending their interests. Shafirov and Grand Vizier Baltaci Mehmet Pasha signed the Prut Peace Treaty, according to which Russia pledged to return Azov to Turkey, demolish its fortresses, Taganrog and Kamenny Zaton, destroy Russian ships on the Black Sea, not interfere in Polish affairs, not keep troops in Poland, refuse from maintaining a permanent embassy in Istanbul (which, by the standards of that time, was an unheard-of humiliation of Russian diplomacy). The bitter irony is that after the first battle, the Turkish troops, even the Janissaries, were not at all eager to go into battle. IN Prut campaign the Russian army lost over 27 thousand Human. Of these, only 4 thousand, the rest - from thirst, disease and hunger. However, upon returning to St. Petersburg, Peter acted in a completely modern way - staged a magnificent parade, as if he were the winner and unconditional triumphant.

2.4 Peter’s Eastern Policy 1. Caspian (Persian) campaigns (1722-1723))

Along with the “western” direction, Russia also showed a clear interest in the “eastern” direction. IN 1714 Buchholz's expedition south of the Irtysh founded Omsk, Semipalatinsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk and other fortresses. IN 1716-1717 gg. Peter was sent to Central Asia across the Caspian Sea, a 6,000-strong detachment of Prince A. Bekovich-Cherkassky with the goal of persuading the Khiva Khan to become a citizen and scout out the route to India. However, both the prince himself and his detachment, located in the cities of Khiva, were destroyed by order of the khan.

Other foreign policy measures of Peter's government include the Caspian (Persian) campaign 1722-1723 gg. Taking advantage of the internal political crisis in Iran, Russia intensified its foreign policy in the Transcaucasus. In summer 1722 Peter I personally led the Persian campaign of the Russian army in connection with the appeal to him for help from the son of the Persian Shah Tokhmas Mirza. 18 In July, a twenty-thousand-strong Russian detachment led by the emperor sailed from Astrakhan along the Caspian Sea. We moved along the banks nine thousands of cavalry and fifty thousands of Cossacks and Tatars. Soon Derbent was taken without a fight, and Peter returned to Astrakhan. The command of the troops was entrusted to General M.A. Matyushkin, who occupied Rasht in December, and in July 1723 troops were landed and Baku was taken.

However, the further advance of Russian troops was stopped by large-scale Turkish aggression in the Caucasus, and the unequivocal support of Turkey from England and France. In September 1723 In St. Petersburg, peace was concluded with Persia, according to which the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea with the cities of Derbent and Baku and the provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astrabad were included in the Russian Empire; Russia and Persia entered into a defensive alliance against the Porte. According to the Treaty of Istanbul dated 12 June 1724 Türkiye recognized all of Russia's acquisitions in the Caspian region and renounced its claims to Persia.The Treaty of Istanbul delimited spheres of influence in the Caucasus. The territory of predominantly Russian influence was recognized as the coastal parts of Dagestan and Azerbaijan, and Turkish - Georgia, Armenia, and the interior regions of Dagestan and Azerbaijan.

Russia was unable to retain the areas occupied as a result of the military operations of 1722-1723. The local population did not stop resisting. Russian garrisons in the conquered fortresses and in the newly founded fortifications were subject to constant attacks. The successors of Peter I on the Russian throne were unable to increase their military presence in the region, nor were they able to fight against Persia or Turkey. In 1732, a peace treaty with Iran was signed in Rasht, according to which Russia returned the provinces of Gilan, Shirvan, Mazandaran, which had been conquered from it, and the main headquarters of the Russian troops was moved to Baku. Russia in the Caspian region retained only the territory between the Kura and Terek.

However, in Dagestan, even after the Treaty of Rasht, the armed resistance of the population intensified. Turkey took advantage of this situation by transferring troops of Crimean Tatars here for military operations, both against Persia and against Russia. The Russian units had been fighting them since 1733 with varying success, requiring more and more forces and resources. In 1735, the government of Anna Ioannovna considered it best to get out of the confrontation by concluding the Treaty of Ganja with Persia, according to which it abandoned all acquisitions on the Caspian coast made under Peter I. The Russian border again moved to the Terek. The fortress of the Holy Cross, founded on Sulak during the Persian campaign, was destroyed. But instead, in the same 1735, the Kizlyar fortress was founded on the Terek, which marked the beginning of the future Caucasian fortified line.

The military-political tasks formulated in the early 20s in relation to the Caspian region were resolved during the campaign of 1722-1723, and their results were enshrined in international law. The assertion of Russia on the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea thwarted the plans of the Ottoman invaders to break through to the Caspian Sea and largely contributed to the preservation of the independence of the Persian state. The advance of the southern border south to the Caucasus Mountains strengthened Russia's position between the Black and Caspian Seas, making it difficult for the Crimean Khanate to direct the Muslim peoples of Kabarda, Dagestan and Kuban against Russia.

It turned out to be much more difficult to fulfill economic tasks. The fighting in the Caspian region, as well as the ongoing feudal war in Persia not only caused serious blow According to Peter's plans, to switch the entire silk trade of Persia from the Levant to the Volga-Caspian route, but also led to a sharp reduction in trade turnover in Russian-Persian trade.

Conclusion

So in the first quarter XVIII V. The foreign and domestic policies of the Russian state were aimed at transforming the country into a great European power in order to respond to the historical challenge of a modernizing Europe.

Having created a strong army and the military-industrial complex that supported it, introducing organizational and technical forms and the foundations of European education, Peter made Russia great in terms of military power. However, this power was not based on the liberalization of society and the creation of new free social groups of the population, but on the tightening of serfdom and the nationalization of the entire life of its subjects.

Peter's reforms led to the formation of a military-bureaucratic state with a strong centralized autocratic power, based on a feudal economy and a strong army.

Russia's acquisition of the rank of a great power was reflected in the official recognition by the leading powers of Europe of the imperial title of Russian sovereigns. The recognition of Russia as an empire, inseparable, in essence, from the recognition of its new borders defined by the Peace of Nystadt, testified to its increased international authority.

The study of the problems of the foreign policy history of Russia, as well as internal Russian reforms, is necessary to contrast them with the tendentious political interpretation of individual representatives of modern bourgeois historiography, who are trying to prove the false thesis about the “eternal aggressiveness” of Russia, about its economic and political “expansion” and about the “innate the desire of Russian tsarism for world domination."

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3. Valishevsky, K. Around the throne / K. Valishevsky. - M.: Terra, 2004. - 255 p.

4. Dvornichenko, A. Yu. Domestic history (before 1917) / A. Yu. Dvornichenko, S. G. Kashchenko, M. F. Florinsky. - M.: Educational Center “Gardariki”, 2002. - 445 p.

5. Illarionova, E. V. History of the Fatherland/E. V. Illarionova, A. S. Fomina, S. A. Guskov. - M.: MMIEIFP, 2004. - 146 p.

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	The current state of interethnic relations between the peoples inhabiting modern Tatarstan and the actions of some radically minded figures cause deep concern today. The distortion of national policy in the republic has been elevated to the state level in Tatarstan.
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	In the second class he classifies the Turks, Crimean, Uzbek, Bashkir, Kyrgyz and Turkmen Tartars, who have almost the same dialect with the following peoples: 1) Siberian-Mohammedan Tartars living near the cities of Tobolsk, Tyumen and Tora; 2) pagan Yakuts living on the Lena River; 3) pagan Chuvash.
65010.		Tamga (to the function of the sign)	567 KB
	The obvious popularity of this term in the Turkic-Mongolian environment, from where it was borrowed into other languages, including Russian, still cannot be considered evidence of the Turkic-Mongolian origin of tamgas as a fundamentally new sign system different, for example, from writing.
65011.		Hegemony of the Oirats in Mongolia in the 15th century	32 KB
	The Mongolian state continued to exist on the territory of Mongolia, which turned into an independent political and economic organism. In the post-Yuan period, as the economic and political independence of the feudal principalities grew, the real power and authority of the Supreme Khan...
65012.		About the time of the great struggle in the steppes of Mongolia	64 KB
	Every modern Turkic people there are medieval ethnic ancestors. For example, Kazakhs are considered descendants of the Kipchaks, so they lay claim to their rich historical and cultural heritage.

Peter Alekseevich was proclaimed tsar at the age of 10, but his independent reign began in 1689 and continued until 1725. Foreign policy issues, the future first Russian Emperor began to become interested in December 1687 - he began to monitor the situation in Europe and the Mediterranean, where there was a war with the Ottoman Empire. The influence of Peter I as regards Russian foreign policy began only after 1694, after the death of his mother.

Azov campaigns

Peter I had to continue the war begun by Princess Sophia with the Ottoman Empire. The first campaign against Azov (1695) ended in failure, but in the winter of that year preparations began for a new campaign, which began in May 1696, as a result of which the fortress surrendered. Thus, Peter managed to open Russia’s first access to the southern seas.

Grand Embassy

In the spring of 1697, Peter sent the so-called Grand Embassy to Western Europe with the goal of finding allies in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. In total, the embassy consisted of about 250 people, including the king himself. During visits to a number of foreign countries, the embassy managed to recruit several hundred shipbuilders, as well as purchase military and other equipment. However, it never achieved its main goal - Europe was preparing for the War of the Spanish Succession, and the European powers did not want to get involved in the war against the Turks. Nevertheless, Russia managed to benefit from this - it was able to begin the fight for the Baltic.

Northern War

Returning from Europe, the tsar decided to reorient his foreign policy and began preparations for war with Sweden, hoping to gain access to the Baltic Sea. One of the main steps was the creation of the Northern Alliance (1699) and the conclusion of a temporary peace with the Ottoman Empire. In August 1700, Russia started a war with Sweden. The first two years were unsuccessful for Russia, but in 1703-04 Peter managed to gain a foothold in the Eastern Baltic. In 1706, the Swedish king launched a decisive offensive, during which he managed to capture Mogilev and Minsk. Then he moved south, but in this direction his troops received decisive resistance.

On June 27, 1709, the Swedes were defeated near Poltava, and their king fled to Turkey. The following year, Türkiye intervened in the war, but Peter managed to achieve a truce. The war with the Swedes resumed in 1713, and within 5 years Peter was able to win a number of victories, including in naval battles. The war ended in 1721 with the conclusion of the Peace of Nystadt, according to which Russia gained access to the Baltic, and also expanded its territory to include Estland, Ingria, Livonia and part of Karelia. In November 1722, Peter began to be called emperor.

Russo-Turkish War

When the Swedish king took refuge in Turkish territory after the defeat in the Battle of Poltava, Peter I tried to threaten Turkey with a military campaign, but the Sultan declared war on Russia in November 1710. Russia had to fight on three fronts, and as a result it was forced to give Azov to the Turks. The fighting ended in August 1711, but a peace treaty was signed only in June 1713. Movement to the East. In order to annex the possessions of the Khiva Khan to Russia, as well as to explore the routes to India, the Buchholz expedition was organized in 1714. However, the detachment was destroyed by the Khiva Khan.

Persian campaign

In June 1722, the son of the Persian Shah turned to Russia for military assistance. As a result, the Russians conquered Derbent and the western shore of the Caspian Sea, but then the Ottoman Empire entered the war, capturing western and central Transcaucasia. In September 1723, an agreement was signed with Persia, according to which Russia received the southern and western coasts of the Caspian Sea. Subsequently, Türkiye recognized the terms of the treaty and renounced its claims to Persian territories.

Until now, historians have extremely ambivalent assessments of the reign of Peter I, including his foreign policy. However, it was as a result of his actions that Russia became an empire - it not only expanded its territories, but also gained access to the sea. This fact allows us to rightfully call his actions thoughtful and successful.

Introduction. 3

Peter I the Great (1672 – 1725) 5

Foreign policy of Peter I 6

Domestic policy of Peter I 8

Peter's reforms.. 9

Army reforms. 10

Reforms in the field of social relations. 10

Urban reform. 11

Economic reforms. 12

Reforms in public administration. 13

Church reform. 14

Decree on succession to the throne. 15

Education reform. 15

Pros and cons of the reforms of the 18th century. 16

The significance of Peter's reforms. 17

Assessment of Peter's reforms. 17

Pre-Soviet historiography. 17

Soviet historiography. 18

Modern historiography. 18

Conclusion. 19

References.. 21

Introduction

Starting from the end of the 17th century in Rus', the reign of Peter I was established, which lasted almost thirty years. In historiography, this event is called the era of Peter's reforms.

The relevance of this work lies in the fact that the reforms of Peter the Great led to the establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia, in which the legislative, judicial and executive powers in the country belong entirely to the head of state - the emperor. The relevance of the ongoing discussions to this day indicates that the turning point that occurred during Peter’s reforms was radical and affected deep-seated driving forces Russia.

The historiographical tradition is distinguished by a variety of assessments of the influence of Peter’s reforms on the fate of Russia. N. M. Karamzin was cautious about the reforms of Peter the Great. Paying tribute to the sovereign-transformer, he at the same time criticized Peter I’s excessive passion for foreign countries, his desire to “make Russia Holland.” In the famous “History of Russia from Ancient Times,” S. M. Solovyov characterized the transformations of the first quarter of the 18th century as “our revolution began in the 18th century,” noting that “one man, gifted with unprecedented strength, took the direction of the revolutionary movement into his own hands, and this man was a born head of state" 1 . V. O. Klyuchevsky, assessing the results of the reforms, revealed the discrepancy between their plans and results.

1 Soloviev S. M. Works: In 18 books. Book VII. T. 13 -14. History of Russia from ancient times. M., 1991. P. 427

The purpose of this work is to find out the significance of the reforms of the early 18th century and the role of Peter I in reform activities. In accordance with the stated goal, I set a number of tasks for her:

· Show the main character traits of Peter I and trace his long path to power

· Describe the foreign and domestic policies of Peter the Great

· Identify the significance of each reform of Peter I

· Show the transformations of the Peter the Great era

· Show pre-Soviet, Soviet and modern historiography

The subject of this study is the contradictory attitude of historians to the reforms of Peter the Great.

The chronological scope of the study is limited to the 17th – 18th centuries.

The abstract consists of an introduction, four chapters and a conclusion. The first chapter examines the personality of Peter I, his accession to the throne and the rise in the prestige of Russia. The second and third chapters evaluate Peter's reforms. The fourth chapter shows pre-Soviet, Soviet and modern historiography. The conclusion summarizes the work.

This work uses theoretical research methods such as analysis and generalization.

Peter I the Great (1672 – 1725)

The last Tsar of All Rus' from 1682 and the first Russian Emperor from 1721. A remarkable statesman, military and cultural figure of Russia, he went down in history as a state reformer.

Peter was the youngest son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich from his second marriage to Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina - born on May 30, 1672. As a child he was educated at home, and from a young age he knew German, then studied Dutch, English and French languages. With the help of palace craftsmen, he mastered many crafts (carpentry, turning, weapons, blacksmithing and others). The future emperor was physically strong, agile, inquisitive and capable, and had a good memory.

Peter was proclaimed Tsar along with his half-brother Ivan in 1682 at the age of 10. Until the young tsars came of age, after the death of Fyodor Alekseevich, the ruler of Russia was their elder sister Sophia, who tried to retain the throne for herself forever. The struggle for power between Peter and Sophia ended in 1689 with the deposition (overthrow) of the ruler and her imprisonment in the Novodevichy Convent.

From a young age, showing interest in science and foreign lifestyles, Peter was the first of the Russian tsars to make a long trip to the countries of Western Europe. Upon returning from it, in 1698, Peter launched large-scale reforms of the Russian state and social structure. One of Peter’s main achievements was the solution to the task set in the 16th century: the expansion of Russian territories in the Baltic region after the victory in the Great Northern War, which allowed him to accept the title of Russian emperor in 1721.

Foreign policy of Peter I

The goal of Peter's foreign policy was to raise the prestige of Russia and make it an influential European power, and for this it needed to acquire sea trading ports and a powerful fleet.

Being cut off from the seas, Russia could not develop economic relations with European countries and have a serious influence on world politics. At the end of the 17th century, Russia had only one seaport - Arkhangelsk on the White Sea. But due to his remoteness, he could not solve the problems facing the country. The Baltic Sea was dominated by the Swedish Empire, which was at the peak of its power. Sweden, having achieved the position of the strongest country in Northern Europe, did not intend to tolerate the arrival of its long-time enemy, Russia, into its possessions. The Black Sea was also inaccessible - it was under the complete control of the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Pacific coast, due to its undeveloped nature and remoteness, was not even considered by Peter I as a factor in foreign policy. In this situation, there was nothing left to do but force a way out to the sea.

Peter began with the Azov campaigns. The first of them ended in defeat (1695), and the second culminated in the capture of Azov (1696), which was a remarkable military victory. During this campaign, it became clear that in order to create a Russian fleet it was necessary to assimilate the achievements of European shipbuilding, and to defeat the Ottoman Empire and gain access to the Black Sea, to gain allies. For this purpose, the Great Embassy to Europe was undertaken (1697 - 1698), in which the tsar participated incognito. It was not possible to find allies for the war with the Turks, since Europe was busy preparing for the War of the Spanish Succession. The Northern Alliance was created against Sweden with Denmark and the Polish king Augustus II.

After concluding a truce with the Turks, Russia entered the Northern War with Sweden (1700 - 1721). The reasons for this war were the desire for dominance in the Baltic, as well as the need for Russia to gain access to Europe through the Baltic Sea. During preparations for the war, the Northern Alliance was formed in 1699, which included Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Denmark and Saxony. Also in 1700, the Peace of Constantinople was concluded with the Asman Empire. The entire Northern War was divided into three large stages.

Stage I (1700 – 1704): defeat of Denmark by Charles XII (1700); failures of the Polish troops near Riga; 1700 – defeat of Russian troops near Navra; 1702 – capture of the Noterburg fortress; 1703 – foundation of St. Petersburg; 1704 – capture of Narva.

Stage II (1704 – 1709): the defeat of Poland and Saxony by Charles XII; Charles XII's campaign against Moscow; 1708 – battle of the village of Lesnoy; 1709 – Battle of Poltava.

Stage III (1710 – 1721): 1710 – 1711 – Prut campaign; 1714 – battle at Cape Gangut; 1720 – battle of Grengam Island; 1721 - Treaty of Nystad.

Results of the war: in 1721 the Peace of Nystad was concluded. Russia gained access to the Baltic Sea, annexed the territory of India, part of Karelia, Estland and Livonia and became a great European power.

Another major foreign policy event of Peter I was the Caspian Campaign (1722 – 1723). The result was the Treaty of St. Petersburg with Persia, according to which the western and southern coasts of the Caspian Sea were included in the Russian Empire.

Domestic policy of Peter I

In pre-Petrine Russia there were the first industrial manufactories, and domestic and foreign trade developed. Agricultural regions were formed. In Siberia, Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands. In the 17th century, Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with it, mastered the achievements of its technology and science, and became acquainted with its culture. This is how the German Settlement appeared in Moscow, raising the new Russian Tsar.

Fundamental changes

The power of the state at that time was determined by its access to the sea and its fleet. Russia had neither one nor the other. The main driving force behind Peter's reforms was the war and its needs. During the military reform, the noble militia and streltsy army were replaced by a professional regular army, which by the end of the Northern War numbered 200 thousand people, not counting another 100 thousand Cossacks. A whole galaxy has grown outstanding commanders. Having secured access to the Baltic Sea, by the end of Peter the Great's reign Russia had 48 ships of the line and 788 rowing ships. Wanting to quickly develop industry, focusing on the market, Peter encouraged the efforts of trade and craft people with privileges and subsidies. Everyone was given the right to search for, smelt, cook and refine metals and minerals, subject to payment of the “mining tax”. Schools have been organized to train specialists. However, labor was provided by forceful measures: peasants were assigned to factories as whole villages and thus worked off their taxes to the state; criminals and beggars were sent to the factory. In trade, high duties were introduced on foreign goods that had Russian analogues. By the end of Peter's reign, exports of Russian products were twice as high as imports. At the same time, agriculture developed slowly and mainly due to the development of fertile lands in the Middle Volga region and Siberia, where peasants moved in search of a better life.

The result of the management reform was the strengthening of the absolute power of the monarch, which subjugated all spheres of state life, including religious ones.

At the cost of hard efforts, Russia has changed radically, becoming a strong power and gaining new horizons for its further development.

Peter's reforms

The reign of Peter the Great lasted 36 years, and for 28 of them Russia was at war. Petrine reforms are closely related to the solution of foreign policy problems facing the Russian state. Only a militarily and economically powerful power could effectively defend its own interests on the world stage. A huge role in the implementation of the necessary transformations was played by the personality of Peter 1 himself, who did not spare either himself or others for the good of the Fatherland. He lacked educated and reliable “helpers,” and the sovereign tried to delve into all matters. He once admitted that this was “extremely difficult,” since he was “in one right hand forced to hold sword and pen."

Army reforms

· Peter I established recruitment kits for manning the army. The required number of recruits was distributed among the tax-paying classes. Relatives said goodbye forever to those called up for military service, since it was for life. The nobility was also charged with unlimited service

· In 1705 the navy was created

· Military schools were created

· New military and naval regulations have also been put into effect.

Related information.

The ongoing reforms of Peter I

Transformations of Tsar Peter I(Fig. 1) had a profound impact on various spheres of life of Russian society. The changes affected the social structure, economy, government system, armed forces, church, culture and way of life. The ideology of Peter's reign and reforms was based on the traditional idea of ​​the “divine origin” of royal power. Inherited from the father of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, this scheme was strengthened by the rationalistic views of European philosophers of the second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries.

Rice. 1. Portrait of Peter I.

Tsar Peter's persistence in reforming the country was explained by his irresistible desire for something new. He was hostile to antiquity, which he associated with childhood memories of the cruel, irreconcilable struggle of the court clans of the Naryshkins and Miloslavskys.
Then, in May 1682, before the eyes of nine-year-old Peter, enraged archers, trained by the Miloslavskys, threw people close to Peter onto spears. Instead of receiving the rightful throne, Peter and his mother were forced to leave the Kremlin and be content with the royal residence near Moscow in the village of Preobrazhenskoye. Peter made up for his withdrawal from the ceremonial Kremlin way of life with children's games and hobbies. His passion for “Mars” and “Neptune” fun became protection from the hated sister of Princess Sophia and the Streltsy, who in the minds of the growing Peter were the main embodiment of hostile antiquity. Peter found an alternative to it in the German settlement located next to Preobrazhensky, in which foreigners lived who served the Moscow kings. The atmosphere of small Europe captivated the young tsar, and new acquaintances - the Swiss F. Lefort, the Scotsman P. Gordon and others became for Peter the first suppliers of European ideas, knowledge and skills. Despite the fact that in 1698 the Naryshkins managed to defeat the Miloslavskys, Peter did not return to the traditional behavior of the Moscow kings, but still spent most of his time in his military amusements.
During these years, his “campaign” was formed around Peter - the chicks of Petrov’s nest (A.D. Menshikov, F.M. Apraksin, F.Yu. Romodanovsky, G.I. Golovkin, N.I. Repnin, etc.) - Environment The reformer’s attitude was formed on the unusual principles of informality, heterogeneity, and a certain “democracy” in communication, and was also determined by the role of the tsar himself, first among equals, in the “campaign.”
The tsar's first serious undertaking was the Azov campaigns (1695-1696). After their successful completion, Peter celebrated a triumph, which became convincing proof of the fidelity of his chosen path. Peter’s final rejection of Moscow antiquity developed after a long trip abroad to Europe as part of Grand Embassy(1697-1698). Having seen with his own eyes the many advantages of the European world, Peter strengthened his intentions to transform Russia.
His return home was marked by brutal reprisals against participants in the new Streltsy revolt and the hasty introduction of external attributes European civilization(chronology, clothing, barbering, tobacco, etc.). From this time until the death of Peter in 1725, a period of continuous reforms began in Russia.
The main task of the reformer tsar was to achieve the greatness of Russia. Using the example of the Azov Victoria, Peter became convinced that the shortest path to glory lay through the battlefields. However, “infant play” led to serious embarrassment near Narva at the very beginning of the Northern War with Sweden.
Peter responded to military defeat reform of the armed forces l countries. A regular army and navy were created in Russia. The reform, grandiose in scale, required reforming other spheres of life of Russian society.
In the matter of renewing the country, Tsar Peter was guided by certain principles. He was convinced that the greatness of Russia could only be ensured with the help of the power of a “regular” state. The reformer Tsar saw it in the form of a huge mechanism, in which properly arranged parts in mutual interlock ensure the operation of the entire system. The main worker, designer and responsible for the result is the absolute monarch, whose power is not limited by anyone or anything. The monarch acts through active fiat intervention in all spheres of society. According to N.I.’s calculations Pavlenko, Peter issued 150-160 decrees a year. The implementation of the monarch’s decrees, and therefore the ultimate success, depend on the regularly organized and clear, like clockwork, work of the state’s administrative structures.
By the end of Peter's reign, administrative reforms culminated in the creation of an integral system of authorities of higher, central and local government. Church reform played an important role in this process, eliminating the patriarchate and turning the church into part of the state apparatus.
Peter's reforms were carried out in the traditional way for Russia - at the expense of its own population. The state needed enormous funds for the needs of the regular army and navy, as well as for the maintenance of the new state apparatus. Unlike the major colonial powers of Europe, Russia did not have external sources of enrichment, so Peter shifted all the burdens of reforms onto the shoulders of the Russian people. The tsar’s social policy, which we will discuss in detail below, was characterized by the desire to maximize the burden on all social groups of the population and determine the place of each in the creation of the “common good.” In practice, this led to a sharp deterioration in the situation of the largest group of the country's population - the peasants.
As a result of the tax reform The country introduced a poll tax. In the first quarter of the 18th century. Russian society had to experience colossal pressure from the state, which people had never faced before. The participation of the population in the endless construction projects of the nascent empire, constant exactions and state duties, government services combined with abuses by the authorities - all this caused discontent among the “lower classes” and active social struggle.
The military power and prosperity of the country that Peter dreamed of could be ensured economic reforms. The Peter the Great era became a time of grandiose construction for the creation of heavy industry, the spread of manufactories and craft workshops, the construction of cities, fortresses, harbors and shipyards. The state did its best to attract society to industrial production, literally forcing people to engage in crafts, trade and entrepreneurship.
Peter understood that to achieve the goal of reform, the creation of new administrative institutions, the construction of fortresses and the spread of industry would not be enough. It was necessary to fight the antiquity rooted in everyday life, contrast it with European values ​​and educate a new subject - a secular, educated and businesslike person, therefore, the ongoing reforms of culture and life introduced previously unknown rules of life and correct, from the point of view of the tsar, stereotypes of behavior in society civilized man. Since, according to the tsar’s conviction, in a “regular” state a person’s private life should also be regularly organized, life according to regulations penetrated not only into public relations, but also invaded the area of ​​personal needs: tastes, views, relationships with God, thoughts and feelings. All this had to comply with regulations and instructions, and strict and unconditional obedience to the rules was guarded by a police state exercising total control.
During the years of Peter the Great's reforms, the most important tool for their implementation was the coercion of society. The desire to “forcibly make happy” was explained by Peter’s confidence that he knew the path to universal happiness, and society did not know its backwardness and it was in vain to expect activity from him. In the legislative acts and statements of Peter, violence often appears as an element in the education of erring subjects, who, as the tsar hoped, having corrected themselves after punishment, would themselves see and recognize the correctness of the strict monarch-teacher. However, Peter's education was not limited to punishment. An important incentive for the reorganization was the personal example of the king - “a worker on the throne.” Passion for a specific cause (military, naval or craft), originating as amusement in youth, over time grew into a concept of power and became a program of action, the meaning of the king’s life.
Throwing out the cry: “do as I do,” Peter through his personal labor formed a new type of servant of the Fatherland—a powerless slave of “state benefit.” " Table of ranks"(1722) took into account personal achievements in service.

The last years of the reign of Peter I were overshadowed by illness, the unresolved issue of succession to the throne, associated with tragic circumstances family life monarch. Peter's firstborn, Tsarevich Alexei, was born in 1690. His mother, Peter's first wife, Evdokia Lopukhina, was tonsured into a monastery in 1698. Peter did not love the prince, who was living evidence of his unsuccessful marriage. Alexey did not become his father's reliable associate. After the Tsar's marriage to Catherine in February 1712, the relationship between son and father completely deteriorated. In 1715, Tsarevich Alexei had a son, who was named Peter in honor of his grandfather. Two weeks later, Tsar Peter and Catherine also had a boy, who also received the name Peter. All the attention of Peter and Catherine focused on their own son, whom the royal parents called the heir to the throne. No one spoke about Tsarevich Alexei and his son Peter. From that time on, Tsar Peter launched an offensive against his son, threatening him with deprivation of his inheritance. In 1716, Alexei was unexpectedly summoned to the Tsar, but on the way, the frightened Tsarevich fled to Austria. Peter was beside himself with rage and began an investigation, entrusting the PA. Tolstoy to lure Alexei to Russia. By bribing the prince's mistress Euphrosyne, Tolstoy achieved his goal - Alexei was subjected to interrogation and torture. In the summer of 1718, a trial was held and the prince was sentenced to death. On June 26, 1718, Tsarevich Alexei was killed.

Rice. 2. Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei.

It would seem that the matter of succession to the throne was resolved, but in April 1719, Peter and Catherine were shocked by misfortune - their son Peter died at the age of three and a half years. During the 22 years of his marriage with Catherine, Peter had 11 children, but only two daughters, Anna and Elizabeth, survived. In 1722, the emperor issued a decree on succession to the throne, according to which the sovereign, by his will, appointed as heir whomever he wanted. However, the lack of a suitable candidate tormented Peter. The emperor did not take his daughters and nieces into account, using them in marriage diplomacy. The son of the executed Tsarevich Alexei, Peter, did not inspire confidence in the emperor. In 1724, Peter held the coronation of his wife Catherine, but soon after this the emperor became aware of her betrayal. Peter could only hope that he would still have time to appoint an heir to the throne. However, dying in agony on the night of January 27-28, 1725, the first Russian emperor was unable to express his last will.

Introduction

By the end of the 17th century, Russia remained one of the backward countries of Europe. The dynamic development of Western civilization, Russia's isolation from European markets, and the dominance of medieval relics confronted the country with the need for radical reforms. Decisive changes in all spheres of Russian society are associated with the name of the outstanding statesman and commander Peter I.

Peter's accession took place in an atmosphere of intense struggle for power between various boyar factions. Using the Streltsy uprising of 1682, the Miloslavskys and their supporters came to power. Ivan and Peter were declared kings, their sister, Princess Sophia, became regent, concentrating real power in her hands. Smart, ambitious, one of the most educated women of her time, Sophia was a serious rival in the struggle for power. Being a fan of European fashion (especially Polish), ignoring the prevailing ideas in Rus' about the role of women in society, decisively destroying medieval stereotypes of behavior, she herself actively participated in the development of domestic and foreign policy.

Question No. 1. Domestic and foreign policy of Peter I

Peter spent his youth in Preobrazhenskoye, indulging in military “fun,” navigating on the Yauza River and self-education under the guidance of smart and practical foreigners. In 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina and, according to the prevailing ideas in Rus', he became an adult; a regent was no longer needed. Trying to stay in power, Sophia attempted a coup d'etat, but was defeated and was exiled to the Novodevichy Convent. All power was in the hands of Peter, Mother Queen Natalya Kirillovna and their entourage.

By this time, the main features of the young tsar’s political strategy had generally been formed, aimed at transforming Russia into an equal European power. A major role was played by the “Great Embassy” to Europe in 1697-1698, in which Peter himself was incognito. Although the official goal of the trip - the creation of a broad anti-Turkish coalition in Europe - was not achieved, its main result was Peter's direct familiarization with the technical and cultural achievements of the European powers. He visited Germany, Holland, England and Austria. Peter's particular attention was drawn to the order of government of German cities, shipbuilding at Dutch and English shipyards, medicine, the education system and the activities of large European scientific centers. He did not hide his firm intention to learn from Europeans: “I am a student and am looking for teachers.” Few of the arrogant European diplomats were then able to discern the ambition of a great reformer behind the childish curiosity and assertiveness of the young king.

The pace of transformation in Russia under Peter I is amazing. This can be seen in the example of legislative activity. For 20 years - from 1700 to 1720. - 1,700 legislative acts were issued that radically changed the life of the country. In 1720-1725 1200 legislative acts were issued. All reform activities of Peter I are conventionally divided into two periods. Reforms of the first period - 1700-1721. - were carried out mainly based on current needs caused by the conduct of the Northern War. In the second period, transformations were carried out with greater planning and prudence.

One of the central activities of Peter was military reform. The army began to be formed on the basis of recruitment; from 1699, regiments of the “new system” with uniform weapons, equipment, uniforms, a system of recruitment and training replaced the rifle army. By 1708, instead of 40 thousand people, the army was already 113 thousand. At least 30 manufactories worked for its needs. Special officer schools were opened to train command personnel. Shipbuilding developed - by the end of the reign of Peter I, Russia had the largest fleet in the Baltic.

The creation of a new army was based on a powerful economic base. On Peter's initiative, measures were taken for the extraction and processing of ores in the Urals and the North. Metallurgical and weapons factories were built, producing iron, cast iron, cannonballs and cannons; State-owned manufactories were created for the production of gunpowder, cloth, canvas and other military equipment. In just a quarter of a century, Russia has become a developed economic power: industry has grown 7-10 times. The basis for the economic breakthrough was, firstly, financial reform - the minting of small change coins - which revived the domestic market, and, secondly, a change in the taxation system - the introduction of a poll tax instead of the previously adopted household or land tax. The latter measure especially affected the development of agriculture, contributing to an increase in plowing and the development of new territories. However, in general, the strengthening of serf relations in agriculture continued, the size of landownership and the duration of corvée labor increased. The most important role in this direction was played by the general census of 1718-1742. The social significance of this reform was that it extended serfdom to those segments of the population that were there before free.

In the field of trade during this period, the principles of mercantilism and protectionism were especially pronounced. As a result, by the end of the reign of Peter I, Russia had an active trade balance. It came out on top in Europe in the production and export of iron, and raw materials for industry appeared in imports. The main result of this activity was Russia's achievement of economic independence from Western countries.

The most important place in the activities of Peter I was occupied by reforms in the field of public administration. In 1708-1710 a new administrative division was introduced: 8 provinces headed by governors who had full executive and judicial power at the local level. By 1719, instead of provinces, the province became the main unit of administrative management; about 50 of them were created. The highest bodies of state power also underwent changes. By the end of the 17th century, the Boyar Duma and Zemsky Sobors finally lost their importance. In 1711, the Senate was created as a temporary and then permanent body with broad administrative, judicial and partly legislative powers. Members of the Senate were appointed by the sovereign. In 1722, the position of prosecutor general was established to control its activities, which placed this collegial body under the authority of the tsar.

Further bureaucratization of the state apparatus was accompanied by an increase in embezzlement and corruption. To combat these phenomena, the institution of fiscals was created, whose role was to secretly supervise the activities of state institutions.

The system of executive power has also undergone changes. Instead of a cumbersome and confusing system of command administration in 1717-1719. 12 boards were created. The General Regulations regulated the work of the boards and reflected the basic principle of the division of their powers - functional. Each board dealt with a specific branch of government: foreign affairs, military, manufacturing, etc.

Peter I's policy towards the church was harsh; in the first years of his reign, the Monastic Order was established, which exercised financial control over the activities of the church. The seized funds were used primarily to create a fleet. In 1721, the patriarchate was abolished and the Holy Synod (in fact, a board for religious affairs) was established. It was headed not by a clergyman, but by a secular person; the church turned into one of the organs of the state apparatus.

The social structure of Russian society has also undergone significant changes. The Decree on Single Inheritance of 1714 was important for strengthening the economic base of the feudal class, according to which one person could inherit property. This prevented the fragmentation of estates, promoted local and patrimonial land ownership, stimulated the interest of the noble class in education and public service. The process of class consolidation in the cities also took place under the control of the state: craft workshops were created (on a professional basis), merchants received significant benefits.

In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was established, in which the principle of service (civil and military) was closely linked to the conferment of the title of nobility. The service hierarchy consisted of 14 ranks, from ranks 14 to 9 - personal nobility, from rank 8 - hereditary. Much higher value began to have personal abilities and business qualities, a significant blow was dealt to the “breed” principle. However, the latter circumstance should not be exaggerated: thanks to the Table of Ranks, the Russian nobility was a more open class than the Western European one, but key positions in government remained with representatives of noble families. The brilliant career of a provincial was the exception, not the rule, and in this sense, the social policy of Peter I was more moderate than radical. The result of the state and class transformations of Peter I was the establishment of an absolutist form of government in Russia.

In general, the reform activities of Peter I became a reflection of the inconsistency historical era, of which he himself was a representative. Armed with the idea of ​​the “common good,” Peter I made a huge personal contribution to government. Despite the harshness and despotism in the methods of carrying out reforms, the growth and strengthening of Russia is evident. The attitude of descendants towards Peter I was most accurately expressed, perhaps, by the Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky: “Absolute power in itself is disgusting as a political principle. The civil conscience will never recognize him. But one can put up with a person in which this unnatural force is combined with self-sacrifice, when an autocrat, without sparing himself, goes ahead in the name of the common good, risking being broken by insurmountable obstacles and even by his own cause. This is how they put up with a stormy spring thunderstorm, which, breaking down centuries-old trees, refreshes the air and with its downpour helps the shoots of new crops.”

At the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The traditional directions of Russian foreign policy remained western and southern. To expand economic, trade and cultural ties with the West, it became necessary to access the warm seas - the Baltic and Black. There remained an unresolved problem of relations with the Crimean Khanate, whose rulers, relying on the help and support of Turkey, were disturbing the southern borders of Russia. Peter I was determined to continue the policies of his predecessors. In 1695, a campaign was launched against Azov, but after a long siege of the fortress, the Russians were forced to retreat with numerous losses. In November 1695, a gathering of noble militia was announced, and in January of the following year, everyone was called up to participate in the campaign against Azov, including slaves who were declared free. In Voronezh they began building a fleet. In the spring and summer of 1696, the Russians launched a new campaign against Azov. The Turkish garrison, blocked in the fortress, capitulated. With the capture of Azov, a decision was made to build Taganrog - the harbor of the future fleet.

The “Grand Embassy” showed that the southern direction of foreign policy had exhausted itself. A war with Sweden over the Baltic became inevitable. A new army and navy were created at a rapid pace, and alliances were concluded with Poland, Saxony and Denmark against Sweden. At the cost of great effort, it was possible to conclude peace with Turkey for 30 years, which made it possible to avoid a war on two fronts. In August 1700, Russia declared war on Sweden. However, the start of hostilities turned out to be extremely unsuccessful for Russia and its allies. Denmark was the first to capitulate, and the Northern Alliance was under threat. In November 1700, the Russian army suffered a major defeat near Narva. The failure only doubled Peter's energy: the necessary transformations in the economic and military spheres proceeded at a rapid pace.

Already in 1701-1704. Russian troops won a number of victories over the Swedes and went ashore Baltic Sea. In 1703, at the confluence of the Neva River into the Gulf of Finland, the city of St. Petersburg was founded, which became new capital countries.

Charles XII, counting on the support of the Ukrainian hetman Mazepa, sought to gain a foothold in Ukraine, but he failed. In September 1708, near the village of Lesnoy, a 16,000-strong Swedish army was defeated and a convoy with provisions and fodder was captured. The army of Charles XII found itself in strategic encirclement. On June 27, 1709, Russian troops won important victory near Poltava, in which the leadership talent of Peter I, the heroism and courage of the Russian troops were fully demonstrated. The Poltava victory radically changed the course of the war in favor of Russia. Charles XII fled to Turkey, however, proposals for peace were rejected by him. Sweden still had a strong fleet in the Baltic, and the balance of power in Europe had changed: England, Holland, Austria, and France were frightened by the strengthening of Russia's position and became potential allies of Sweden. The Turkish government started a war against Russia. During the Prut campaign, Russian troops found themselves in a difficult situation, but thanks to the efforts of diplomacy, peace was concluded, as a result of which Russia lost Azov.

In May 1714, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron at Cape Gangut. This victory a complete surprise for Europe. Panic began in Stockholm, the royal court hastily left the capital, Russian troops landed on the east coast of Sweden, and Cossack patrols appeared in the vicinity of the Swedish capital. In July 1720, the Russian squadron completely defeated the superior Swedish naval forces at Grengam. The outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion. From April to August 1721, difficult negotiations took place between Sweden and Russia in the Finnish city of Nystadt, which ended with the establishment of “eternal peace.” Russia received the most important territories: the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, Estland, Livonia. This was a victory for Russian diplomacy, which made it possible to solve the most important national problem posed by history to Russia.

The victory in the Baltic made it possible to subsequently concentrate on the eastern and southern directions. In 1722-1723 Peter I undertook the Persian campaign, which ended with the annexation of the western and southern coasts of the Caspian world with the cities of Derbent, Baku and others to Russia. The Persian campaign contributed to the strengthening of economic and political ties North Caucasus and Transcaucasia with Russia. Türkiye was forced to recognize all the Caspian lands annexed to Russia. However, a number of problems remained unresolved. Military expeditions were sent by Peter I to Central Asia.

Thus, international situation By the end of the reign of Peter I, Russia had become significantly stronger; it had won the right to pursue an independent policy in Europe. With the increasing role of Russia in international affairs, the struggle between the leading powers for spheres of influence has intensified. In general, at the beginning of the 18th century, the main directions of Russian foreign policy for a long period were determined.