era palace coups- adopted in historical literature name of the period in political history Russia, when, as a result of the struggle of court factions with the support of the guard, a violent change of the ruler or his immediate circle occurred repeatedly. The term was introduced by V.O. Klyuchevsky and was assigned to the period 1725-1762.
Over the course of 37 years, six emperors replaced the Russian throne. Palace coups accompanied the accession to the throne of Catherine I (1725), Anna Ioannovna (1730), Elizaveta Petrovna (1741), and Catherine II (1762). In addition, the removal of the actual leaders of the government A.D. Menshikov (1727) and E.I. Biron (1740), while maintaining the power of the ruling sovereign, are also considered palace coups. A number of researchers also include the assassination of Paul I in 1801, the Streltsy uprising of 1689, and even the Decembrist uprising in 1825.
Palace coups were the result of political system Russia of this period - when the autocratic form of government with the unlimited power of the emperor was combined with the weak legal status of the highest state institutions and a fragile class structure. Both the Senate and the successive councils under the monarch (the Supreme Privy Council in 1726-1730, the Cabinet of Ministers in 1731-1741, the Conference at the Highest Court in 1756-1762) did not have a legislatively established range of powers, were directly dependent on the monarch and could not prevent palace coups. Accordingly, the political struggle was a struggle for influence on the emperor and often took the form of court conspiracies and palace coups.
A major role was played by the “Decree on Succession to the Throne” of Peter I of February 5, 1722, which abolished old order inheritance of the throne and making it dependent on the personal will of the testator; this decree made it possible for several contenders to the throne to emerge. In addition, the Romanov family male line ended with the death of Peter II (1730); from that time on, the rights to the throne of all possible contenders were undisputed.
The main weapon in the struggle of political groups was the court guard (primarily the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments). The Guards regiments during this period were a close-knit, privileged and well-paid part of the army; they were personally subordinate to the monarch, their commanders were themselves senior dignitaries. Inclusion Russian Empire into the system of international relations of that time led to the appearance at the Russian court of permanent representations of European powers, which also intervened in the political struggle and directly participated in a number of palace coups.
After the death of Peter I, a split arose in the highest echelons of power around the future contender for the throne: the grandson of Peter I, Peter, and the widow of the tsar, Ekaterina Alekseevna. In 1725, through the efforts of the new Peter the Great nobility, A.D. Menshikova, P.I. Yaguzhinsky, P.A. Tolstoy and others, with the support of the guard (its commanders, A.I. Ushakov, I.I. Buturlin, acted on behalf of the guard), Catherine I was erected.
Catherine I, who died in 1727, appointed eleven-year-old Peter Alekseevich as her successor in her will; the closest associate of Peter I, A.D., became the de facto ruler of the state. Menshikov. However, already in September 1727, as a result of the court intrigues of the Dolgorukys and A.I. Osterman, he was removed from power and sent into exile with his family.
By the time of the death of Peter II (1730), the main power functions were concentrated in the hands of the Supreme Privy Council, which included representatives of the old aristocracy (of its eight members, five represented the Dolgoruky and Golitsyn families). It was decided to invite Anna Ioannovna, the daughter of Ivan V, to the Russian throne, under the conditions of limiting autocratic power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council (“Condition”). It was not only about the elevation of a specific sovereign to the throne, but also about an attempt to change the existing form government. However, a wide circle of the nobility became aware of the plans of the “supreme leaders”, their dissatisfaction with these plans was revealed, and, relying on the guard (this time, senior officers of the guard regiments participated in political discussions), Anna Ioannovna publicly tore up the “Conditions”, maintaining the autocratic form of government ( 1730).
In 1740, the forceful tactics of a coup were tested: under the command of B.Kh. Minikh's guards arrested E.I., appointed regent under Ivan VI Antonovich, the great-grandson of Ivan V. Biron and his immediate circle. Subsequently, this type of palace coup, in which the guards participated as a strike force, became the main method political struggle. In 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, relying on her entourage and the guards regiments of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, overthrew the government of Ivan VI Antonovich, unpopular among the Russian nobility, and arrested him and his family.
In 1762, due to the widespread dissatisfaction of the nobles with the foreign policy steps of Peter III (primarily the St. Petersburg Peace of 1762, which was perceived as a unilateral rejection of acquisitions made as a result of the Seven Years' War), a conspiracy matured in the guard (the Orlov brothers, N.I. . Panin and others), and on June 28, 1762, as a result of a coup, his wife Catherine II ascended the throne.
The end of the era of palace coups is associated with the consolidation of the Russian nobility, the development of its class institutions, the final formation of the political elite of the Russian Empire and the constitution of the system of supreme state bodies.
He died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle between various noble factions for power began.
In 1725 A.D. Menshikov, a representative of the new family nobility, elevated the widow of Peter the 1st, Catherine the 1st, to the throne. To strengthen her power, in 1726 the empress established the Supreme Privy Council. It included associates of Peter the Great: A.D. Menshikov, Count P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, M.M. Golitsyn. From 1726 to 1730, the council, limiting the power of the Senate, actually decided all state affairs.
Supported by the guards, she, with the help of France and Sweden, arrested and imprisoned the infant emperor, exiled I. Minich, A.I. to Siberia. Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power. During her reign, there was a return to the Petrine order and its strengthening.
Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. Landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs duties were abolished.
The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to enter into an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The 100,000th anniversary has begun Russian army was sent to Austrian territory against Prussia.
In the summer of 1757, Russian troops entered Prussia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Groß-Jägersdorf. In 1758 Konigsberg was taken. In the same year, the main battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick 2nd near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykova, with the support of allied Austrian troops, practically destroyed the Prussian army as a result of a bloody battle. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. She was saved from this by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25, 1761.
After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter 3rd (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who stopped the war and returned all previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick 2nd. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter the 3rd did not understand the beliefs and customs of the Russian Orthodox Church and neglected them. Prussian policies caused dissatisfaction with his rule and led to the growing popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederica Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended services. By Orthodox traditions she became .
On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guards of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seized power. Peter the 3rd signed an act of abdication, after which he died at the hands of security officers.
In 1725, Russian Emperor Peter I died without leaving a legal heir and without transferring the throne to the chosen one. Over the next 37 years, there was a struggle for power between his relatives - contenders for the Russian throne. This period in history is usually called " era of palace coups».
A feature of the period of “palace coups” is that the transition supreme authority in the state was not carried out by inheriting the crown, but was carried out by guards or courtiers using forceful methods.
Such confusion arose due to the lack of clearly defined rules of succession to the throne in a monarchical country, which caused the supporters of one or another contender to fight among themselves.
The era of palace coups 1725-1762.
After Peter the Great Russian throne sat:
- Catherine I - the emperor's wife,
- Peter II - grandson of the emperor,
- Anna Ioannovna - the emperor's niece,
- Ioann Antonovich is the great-nephew of the previous one,
- Elizaveta Petrovna – daughter of Peter I,
- Peter III is the nephew of the previous one,
- Catherine II is the wife of the previous one.
In general, the era of revolutions lasted from 1725 to 1762.
Catherine I (1725–1727).
One part of the nobility, led by A. Menshikov, wanted to see the emperor’s second wife, Catherine, on the throne. The other part is the grandson of Emperor Peter Alekseevich. The dispute was won by those who were supported by the guard - the first. Under Catherine, A. Menshikov played a major role in the state.
In 1727, the Empress died, appointing the young Peter Alekseevich as successor to the throne.
Peter II (1727–1730).
Young Peter became emperor under the regency of the Supreme Privy Council. Gradually Menshikov lost his influence and was exiled. Soon the regency was abolished - Peter II declared himself ruler, the court returned to Moscow.
Shortly before his wedding to Catherine Dolgoruky, the emperor died of smallpox. There was no will.
Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).
The Supreme Council invited the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to rule in Russia. The challenger agreed to conditions limiting her power. But in Moscow, Anna quickly got used to it, enlisted the support of part of the nobility and violated the previously signed agreement, returning autocracy. However, it was not she who ruled, but the favorites, the most famous of whom was E. Biron.
In 1740, Anna died, designating her great-nephew baby Ivan Antonovich (Ivan VI) as heir under regent Biron.
The coup was carried out by Field Marshal Minich, the fate of the child is still unclear.
Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761).
Seize power my own daughter Peter I was again helped by the guards. On the night of November 25, 1741, Elizaveta Petrovna, who was also supported by commoners, was literally brought to the throne. The coup had a bright patriotic overtones. His main goal was to remove foreigners from power in the country. Elizaveta Petrovna's policy was aimed at continuing her father's affairs.
Peter III (1761–1762).
Peter III is the orphaned nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna, the son of Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein. In 1742 he was invited to Russia and became heir to the throne.
During Elizabeth's lifetime, Peter married his cousin, Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerb, the future Catherine II.
Peter's policy after the death of his aunt was aimed at an alliance with Prussia. The behavior of the emperor and his love for the Germans alienated the Russian nobility.
It was the emperor’s wife who ended the 37-year leapfrog on the Russian throne. She was again supported by the army - the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments. Catherine was brought to the throne like Elizabeth once was.
Catherine proclaimed herself empress in June 1762, and both the Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III signed the abdication of the throne.
After his death in 1725, the reigning the house split into two lines - imperial and royal.
According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II was called the “era of palace coups”: during this time, six monarchs occupied the Russian throne, receiving it as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups with the direct participation of the guard (a privileged part of the army created by Peter I) .
In 1722, Peter I abolished the order of succession to the throne by will or conciliar appointment, replacing it with personal appointment. But he did not have time to appoint a successor. After his death, representatives of the family nobility (Golitsyn, Dolgoruky), who recognized Prince Peter as the heir, clashed with the bureaucratic authorities, who relied on Catherine I and won this fight with the help of the guards regiments. From that time on, the noble guard regiments became the main weapon of struggle between rival factions. All persons who came to the throne through a palace coup could not do without the support of the guard.
Under these conditions, there could be no question of continuing major reforms. A. D. Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. To help the Empress govern the country, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest government agency, the composition of which reflected the compromise between the competing political forces. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich - husband eldest daughter Petra. The majority turned out to be from the inner circle of Peter I.
After the death of Catherine I in 1727, according to her will, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, was proclaimed emperor, and the functions of regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council, in fact to A.D. Menshikov.
Menshikov's policies aroused dissatisfaction even on the part of his recent allies. In September 1727, he was arrested and exiled to distant Berezov, where he soon died. Having achieved predominant influence in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic group seeks to revise the transformations and, if possible, restore the order that existed in Russia before they were carried out.
In January 1730, the young emperor caught a cold during another hunt and died suddenly. During the discussion of possible candidates for the throne, the choice fell on the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the daughter of Peter I’s brother, Ivan Alekseevich. Conditions were drawn up in deep secrecy, i.e. conditions for Anna Ioannovna's accession to the throne. Prince Golitsyn suggested: “We should make it easier for ourselves... to add more will. We should send points to Her Majesty.”
Conditions limited autocracy, but not in the interests of the entire nobility, but in favor of its aristocratic elite of eight people, who sat in the Supreme Privy Council. According to the conditions, the right to conclude peace, establish new taxes, promote ranks, command the army, choose a successor to the sovereign, and much more passed into the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. As S.M. notes Soloviev: “All the guarantees for eight, but against eight for the rest - where are the guarantees?”
These plans did not find support among either the nobles or the guards. Taking advantage of this, Anna Ioannovna proclaimed herself an autocratic empress, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent its most active members to Siberia.
During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. The tone at court was set by the empress's favorite, the Duke of Courland Biron, who enjoyed her boundless trust. He took a dominant position at court. During the years of Bironovism, foreigners were promoted to lucrative positions, which caused protest from the Russian nobility.
The symbol of Anna Ioannovna’s reign became the Secret Chancellery (the successor to the Preobrazhensky Order), which monitored the trustworthiness of Russian subjects and was literally inundated with political denunciations. No one could consider themselves safe from “words and deeds” (an exclamation that usually began the procedure of denunciation and investigation)
Shortly before her death, the Empress appointed herself a successor - Ivan VI - the grandson of Catherine Ivanovna (daughter of Ivan V), and Biron, not his mother, was appointed regent of the child. In the conditions of general dissatisfaction with Biron, Field Marshal Minich, without much difficulty, managed to carry out another palace coup, depriving Biron of the rights of regent in November 1740. Ivan's mother was proclaimed regent
The coup could not satisfy the interests wide circles Russian nobility, since the Germans still retained a leading position in the state. Taking advantage of the weakness of the government and her popularity, Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter I, dressed in a man's dress, appeared at the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment with the words: “Guys, you know whose daughter I am, follow me. Do you swear to die for me?” - asked the future empress and, having received an affirmative answer, led them to the Winter Palace. So, during the next coup, carried out on November 25, 1741 in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, representatives of the Brunswick family who were on the Russian throne were arrested. Participants in the coup received generous rewards; those who did not have the title of nobility were elevated to the nobility.
Empress Elizaveta Petrovna reigned for twenty years from 1741 to 1761. The most legitimate of all the successors of Peter I, raised to the throne with the help of the guards, she, as V.O. wrote. Klyuchevsky, “inherited the energy of her father, built palaces in twenty-four hours and traveled from Moscow to St. Petersburg in two days, peaceful and carefree, she took Berlin and defeated the first strategist of the time, Frederick the Great... her courtyard turned into a theater foyer - everyone was talking about French comedy, Italian opera, but the doors did not close, there was a draft in the windows, water flowed down the walls - such “golden poverty”.
The core of her policy was the expansion and strengthening of the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners now had the right to exile rebellious peasants to Siberia and dispose of not only the land, but also the person and property of the serfs. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, the rights of the Senate, Chief Magistrate, and collegiums were restored. In 1755, Moscow University was opened - the first in Russia.
An indicator of Russia's increased influence on international life was its active participation in the pan-European conflict of the second half of the XVIII V. — in the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763.
Russia entered the war in 1757. In the first battle near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf on August 19, 1757, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops. At the beginning of 1758, Russian troops captured Konigsberg. The population of East Prussia swore allegiance to the Empress of Russia, Elizabeth.
The culmination of the military campaign of 1760 was the capture of Berlin on September 28 by the Russian army under the command of Chernyshov. Frederick II stood on the brink of death, but he was saved by a sharp turn in foreign policy Russia, caused by the accession to the throne of Peter III, who immediately broke the military alliance with Austria, stopped military operations against Prussia and even offered Frederick military assistance.
Peter III was on the Russian throne for a short time from 1761 to 1762. Elizabeth Petrovna’s nephew turned out to be unable to lead the state. Particular censure of Russian society was caused by his admiration for Frederick II, the presence in many of his actions, as contemporaries expressed, of “shakyness and caprice.” The breakdown of the state mechanism was obvious to everyone, which led to a new palace coup. His wife Catherine II, relying on the support of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments, proclaimed herself empress in June 1762. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III's attempt to enter into negotiations did not lead to anything, and he was forced to personally sign the act of “spontaneous” oath abdication sent by Catherine.
Thus ended the era of “palace coups.”
1725-1727 – reign of Empress Catherine I, widow of Peter Alekseevich, who came to power as a result of a palace coup led by A.D. Menshikov
725, December - formation of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, at which an academic gymnasium and an academic university were opened
1725-1730 – Bering’s first expedition
1727-1730 – reign of Emperor Peter II Alekseevich (grandson of Peter I)
1727, September 8 - by order of the Supreme Privy Council, A.D. Menshikov was placed under house arrest and then exiled to the city of Berezov ( Western Siberia). As a result, under Peter II, temporary workers, the princes Dolgoruky, occupied a prominent place.
1730-1740 - reign of Anna I Ioannovna, Peter's niece. Members of the Supreme Privy Council decided to crown Anna Ioannovna, Duchess of Courland, and not Peter's daughter Elizabeth. Anna Ioannovna was offered to sign “conditions”, according to which the Empress undertook not to appoint senior government officials, not to resolve issues of war and peace, not to manage finances and not to appoint an heir to the throne without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council. “The Supreme Leaders’ Plot” caused protests among the nobility and clergy. On February 28, 1730, taking advantage of this, Anna tore up the “standards”.
1730, March 4 - the manifesto of Anna I abolished the Supreme Privy Council and restored the Governing Senate. In reality, the reins of government were exercised by the Cabinet of Ministers of 3 people, established on October 18, 1731, which included Osterman, Count Golovkin, Prince Cherkassy
1730-1740 - “Bironovism” - the period of the reign of Anna I, when in fact the state was ruled by her favorite E. Biron. This period is characterized in historiography as the “dominance of foreigners” in power.
1731 - the right to dispose of estates, limited by the Decree on Single Inheritance, was returned to the nobles. Noble estates could again be divided between heirs
1736 - decree on the “eternal assignment” of craftsmen to manufactories
1739 - a law came into force limiting the service life of nobles to 25 years
1740-1741- John VI Antonovich (son of Anna Ioannovna’s niece Anna Leopoldovna). Initially, the late empress appointed the favorite Biron as regent for the infant John. In November 1740, as a result of a conspiracy, Biron was arrested. John's mother Anna Leopoldovna was declared regent. However, in the fall of 1741, as a result of a guards coup, Elizaveta Petrovna became empress.
1741-1761 – reign of Elizabeth I Petrovna
1741 - Elizabeth abolished the Cabinet of Ministers and established a personal office - “Her Majesty’s Cabinet”
1752 – formation of the Marine Nobility Corps
1754 – establishment of the Noble Bank, which issued loans secured by estates
1755 – foundation of Moscow University
1756 – the public “Russian theater for the presentation of comedies and tragedies” was formed
1757 – establishment of the Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg
1760 – nobles are given the right to exile peasants to Siberia for misdemeanors
1761-1762 – reign of Peter Sh Petrovich, grandson of Peter II and great-nephew of the Swedish king Charles XII
1762, February 18 - Manifesto “On the Liberty of the Nobility”, which freed nobles from mandatory civil service in peacetime
1762, February 21 - abolition of the Secret Chancellery, which carried out extrajudicial arbitrariness in political matters
1762, February 28 – Manifesto, which allowed schismatics who fled abroad to return to their homeland “without any fear or fear”
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