Domestic politics during the period of palace coups and the reign of Catherine II. Domestic politics during the period of palace coups

25.09.2019

Federal agency by education

State educational institution of higher education

and vocational education

"Siberian State Aerospace

University named after academician M.F. Reshetnev"

Department of History and Humanities

ABSTRACT

on Russian history

Topic: INTERNAL POLITICS DURING THE "PALACE COUP" AND THE REIGN OF CATHERINE II

Completed:

student of group IE-71

Korshun D.I.

Checked:

Ph.D., Associate Professor

Demina E.V.

Krasnoyarsk 2007

Introduction ………………………………………………………………………3

..5

1.1. Catherine I………………………………………………………………………………..5

1.2. Peter II……………………………………………………………………………….8

1.3. Anna Ioannovna……………………………………………………..…11

1.4. Ivan Antonovich……………………………………………………...15

1.5. Elizaveta Petrovna…………………………………………………….17

1.6. Peter III………………………………………………………………………………..21

Chapter 2. Catherine's reign II ………………………………………24

2.1. Personality of Catherine II……………………………………………………………24

2.2. Domestic policy Catherine II…………………………..………27

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………33

References ………………………………………………………36

Introduction

The overstrain of Russia's forces during the years of Peter's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards Peter's legacy and created conditions for political instability.

From 1725, after the death of Peter I, until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six rulers and many political forces behind them changed on the throne. This change did not always take place peacefully and legally, which is why historian V.O. Klyuchevsky figuratively and aptly called it “the era of palace coups.”

The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to Peter's legacy. Palace coups were generated by an intense struggle between various factions for power. As a rule, it most often came down to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.

Active role in political life The country at this time began to play the role of the guard, which Peter I raised as a privileged “support” of the autocracy, which took upon itself the right to control the compliance of the personality and policies of the monarch with the legacy that her “beloved emperor” left.

The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues. To a large extent, palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism of transfer of power.

The reformist course of Peter the Great was continued by Catherine II, who was able to express the national interests of the Russian people and go down in history as the great empress who ruled the country for thirty-four years (1762-1796). Outstanding historian and public figure conservative direction N.M. Karamzin wrote about the empress: “Catherine II was the true successor to the greatness of Petrov and the second transformer of the new Russia.” Her reign marked the beginning of the era of “enlightened absolutism.”

The purpose of this essay is study the internal politics of Russia during the “palace coups” and the period of the reign of Catherine II.

Tasks:

Determine the priorities of Russian rulers during the period of “palace coups” in relation to Russia’s domestic policy;

Highlight the features of the reign of Empress Catherine II;

Draw conclusions about the internal state policy of Russia during the period of “palace coups” and the reign of Catherine II.

Chapter 1. Domestic policy during the period of “palace coups”

1.1. Catherine I (1725-1727)

On January 28, 1725, the day of the death of Peter the Great, the wife of Peter I, Ekaterina Alekseevna, ascended to the Russian throne to the beat of the drums of two guards regiments approaching the imperial palace. The first persons of the state swore allegiance to her - members of the Senate, Synod, nobles, and senior military officials.

So in 1725, the former laundress became a powerful empress Russian Empire. Together with her, the associates of Peter I, led by Catherine’s favorite Menshikov, came to power. By this time, enormous power was concentrated in his hands. He was president of the Military Collegium, field marshal general, vice admiral, lieutenant colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment, and governor general of St. Petersburg. A.S. Pushkin wrote: “The semi-sovereign ruler became a complete ruler.”

At the beginning of 1726, in order to support the empress, a new supreme governing body of the country was established - the Supreme Privy Council. Its creation was the conclusion of a kind of compromise between the noble nobility and the new people who emerged under Peter I. They took part in the work of the Council on equal terms. The empress was to preside over it. Not a single decision was approved without general knowledge and discussion. Initially, the Supreme Privy Council included six people: His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Menshikov, Count Fyodor Apraksin, Baron Andrei Osterman, Count Pyotr Tolstoy, Count Gabriel Golovkin, Prince Dmitry Golitsyn. Subsequently, the composition of the Council expanded. The Senate and colleges were subordinate to him.

However, everything soon returned to normal. Menshikov actually became the head of the Privy Council. First, he defended the right to personally report to the Empress on the affairs of the Military Collegium, which he led, and then on all matters considered in the Council. During the working days of the “supreme leaders”, an audience with Catherine II was given to the Serene Highness twice: before the start of the meeting and after it. First, Menshikov consulted with the empress about what issues and how to solve them, and then gave her a report on how the meeting went.

It cannot be said that Alexander Danilovich deliberately isolated the empress from work in the Supreme Privy Council. Without a doubt, it was beneficial for His Serene Highness that Ekaterina Alekseevna looked at everything through his, Menshikov’s, eyes. But at the same time, would he be able to interfere with the empress if she expressed a desire to preside over meetings of the supreme leaders? Apparently, Catherine was also happy with this course of events. It turned out that she was not interested in government affairs. As the historian S.M. wrote about this empress. Soloviev, “the famous Livonian captive was one of those people who seem capable of ruling until they accept the rule. Under Peter, she shone not with her own light, but borrowed from the great man whose companion she was... But she did not have proper attention to affairs, especially internal ones, and their details, nor the ability to initiate and rule.”

When the mourning for her husband ended, Catherine arranged an endless celebration for herself. Balls, masquerades, regimental reviews, trips along the Neva with cannons firing, launching of galleys, awards celebrations, more balls... The empress's entertainment sometimes lasted until the morning. Day and night changed places for Catherine. Menshikov sometimes waited for hours for her to wake up in order to take care of government affairs. The French ambassador Campredon wrote in his reports: “The queen continues to indulge in pleasure with some excess to such an extent that it affects her health.” Indeed, Ekaterina Alekseevna soon began to get sick often.

Meanwhile, the internal situation of the country required the government special attention. More than 20 years of war and a series of lean years led Russia to the point where financial system the country found itself in quite difficult situation. There were not enough funds for the most urgent state needs - for example, to maintain the fleet in combat-ready condition. The arrears accumulated during the years of shortages and war, the lack of accounting for population decline, and the extension of the obligation to pay the poll tax to infants and old people who were unable to work, brought the peasantry to complete impoverishment. Desperate people, in order to escape from state extortions, punishment for arrears and, finally, from starvation, fled “abroad the Polish border and to the Bashkirs.” The villages were deserted, and the treasury deficit increased.

In the fall of 1726, Menshikov proposed his own program to improve the situation in the country. But the Most Serene Prince lacked neither the scale nor the depth of state thinking characteristic of Peter the Great. Therefore, the solution to the most important state problems was often preceded by a very superficial analysis of the state of affairs. The main point of his program was to alleviate the suffering of the working population. But Menshikov proposed to cope with this most difficult task in an unusual way.

Based on observations made literally “from the carriage window” during one of his travels around Russia under Peter I, Alexander Danilovich came to the conclusion that the trouble of the tax-paying class was not in excessive per capita taxes, but in an excess of “nettle seed” (i.e. .e. petty officials) filling local institutions. In the opinion of His Serene Highness, prosperity in the countryside could come tomorrow if today “we reduce the number of clerks and messengers of all kinds who swooped down on villages like locusts, eliminate regimental courts in the districts that collected poll taxes, and place soldiers in the barracks of the cities.”

According to Menshikov’s program, in order to reduce government expenses, it was proposed to reduce the cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus by canceling the payment of salaries to minor officials of the Patrimonial Collegium, the Justice Collegium and provincial institutions. Now such officials had to exist at the expense of accidents, i.e. bribes given by petitioners for consideration of cases.

After Peter the Great died, Russia found itself in a difficult situation. In order to strengthen her new position in the world, she needed a strong sovereign who would be able to “lead” Peter’s course further and complete the transformations he had planned. It should be noted that, despite the extremely unstable situation in the country, its foreign policy remained practically the same until the accession of Peter III to the throne.

What tasks did the Russian Empire face? Firstly, it was necessary to strengthen positions in the south of the country - there was a struggle for territories near the Black Sea, for providing convenient trade routes to Asia along the rivers flowing into the Caspian and Black Seas.

Secondly, it was necessary to resolve the issue with the Baltic lands, which Sweden began to lay claim to.

International relations were difficult. And in the conditions of a constant change of autocrats, it was not easy not only to strengthen the position, but also to retain those positions that were already occupied.

Russian-Turkish war. Swedish intervention

The two major military campaigns undertaken by the Russian state during this era were the Russo-Turkish War and the Seven Years' War. The Russian-Turkish war began in 1735. Anna Ioannovna, who occupied the throne at that moment, decided to give her the Caspian coast in order to improve relations with Persia. The Crimean Khanate, a former vassal of Turkey, learned about this. It decided to seize these territories and annex them. As a result, Russia declares war on Turkey. The first battles ended in victories for the Russians - they captured Azov and Ochakov. Russia lost many soldiers during the hostilities, and the results turned out to be much worse than initially expected: in 1739, the Treaty of Belgrade was signed, according to which Russia received Azov and small areas in Ukraine. However, it was not allowed to have a fleet on the Sea of Azov.

The situation in Russia was not improved by the fact that Turkey entered into an alliance with Sweden, hoping for its support in the war against the Russian Empire. And in 1741, Sweden, incited by France and Prussia, launched military operations. She wanted to regain the Baltic lands, which were transferred to Russia under the terms of the Nystadt Peace.

Fortunately, here for the young Russian state the situation turned out more successfully: after several battles in Abo, a peace treaty was signed, which not only confirmed Russia’s Baltic acquisitions, but also advanced its borders far beyond Vyborg.

Seven Years' War (1756 – 1763)

Many European states were dissatisfied with the strengthening of the position of the Russian Empire, in particular England, which was afraid of losing its stable economic situation. In an effort to weaken the young state, she even spread rumors about the aggressive intentions of the Russian government towards the German states. True, in the 30s. relations warmed somewhat - an agreement was even signed with England “On Friendship, Mutual Commerce and Navigation”, but by the 50s. the situation became tense again.

At this time, England and France were waging a fierce struggle for colonies in America and Asian lands, and in addition, they were deciding the issue of superiority at sea. To the rest European states I had to decide which side to take. The following balance of forces emerged: France and Austria fought on one side, Prussia and England on the other. Russia acted in a coalition with France and Austria against Prussia.

The campaign began, it would seem, brilliantly: in 1757, the Russian army defeated the Prussian troops at Gross-Jägersdorf. However, instead of continuing the offensive, the commander-in-chief of the Russian troops ordered a retreat. 1758 was marked by the Battle of Zorndorf, which also ended successfully for the Russians. In 1759, victories over Prussia continued: in the battle near Kunersdorf, Russian troops gained the upper hand. Luck was with the Russians, but for some reason the successive commanders-in-chief were unable to take advantage of this circumstance.

After the battle of Kunersdorf, the Prussian king Frederick was in despair. He even started talking about suicide - the situation seemed so hopeless. Russian troops entered Berlin. The keys to the city were sent to Elizaveta Petrovna. Now it was possible to consolidate the results of the victory and annex new territories to Russia. In 1761, Kolberg, a fortress on the Baltic Sea, was captured. But chance intervened - another change of monarch on the Russian throne. Peter III, having barely become the sole ruler, sent a message to his idol Frederick, in which he assured him of loyalty and eternal friendship. All the victories were in vain: a peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia did not receive any new territories. She no longer participated in the Seven Years' War.

Conclusion

The era of palace coups turned out to be a difficult time for Russia. Nevertheless, one cannot help but admit that, despite considerable internal upheaval and instability of power, Russia pursued a course that generally coincided with the plans of Peter I. Azov and some southern lands were conquered, ownership of the Baltic territories was confirmed, and part of Finland was acquired. A sharp turn in the government course, which brought losses to the state, occurred only towards the end of the era of palace coups. But, even despite this failure, the Russian Empire managed to strengthen its international position and ensure that Europe began to take it into account. This was greatly facilitated by the brilliant victories over the Prussian army, although they did not bring material acquisitions to the Russian Empire.

After his death in 1725, the reigning the house split into two lines - imperial and royal.

According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II was called the “era of palace coups”: during this time, six monarchs occupied the Russian throne, receiving it as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups with the direct participation of the guard (a privileged part of the army created by Peter I) .

In 1722, Peter I abolished the order of succession to the throne by will or conciliar appointment, replacing it with personal appointment. But he did not have time to appoint a successor. After his death, representatives of the family nobility (Golitsyn, Dolgoruky), who recognized Prince Peter as the heir, clashed with the bureaucratic authorities, who relied on Catherine I and won this fight with the help of the guards regiments. From that time on, the noble guard regiments became the main weapon of struggle between rival factions. All persons who came to the throne through a palace coup could not do without the support of the guard.

Under these conditions, there could be no question of continuing major reforms. A. D. Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. To help the Empress govern the country, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest government agency, the composition of which reflected the compromise between the competing political forces. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and the Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich, the husband of Peter’s eldest daughter. The majority turned out to be from the inner circle of Peter I.

After the death of Catherine I in 1727, according to her will, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, was proclaimed emperor, and the functions of regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council, in fact to A.D. Menshikov.

Menshikov's policies aroused dissatisfaction even on the part of his recent allies. In September 1727, he was arrested and exiled to distant Berezov, where he soon died. Having achieved predominant influence in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic group seeks to revise the transformations and, if possible, restore the order that existed in Russia before they were carried out.

In January 1730, the young emperor caught a cold during another hunt and died suddenly. During the discussion of possible candidates for the throne, the choice fell on the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the daughter of Peter I’s brother, Ivan Alekseevich. Conditions were drawn up in deep secrecy, i.e. conditions for Anna Ioannovna's accession to the throne. Prince Golitsyn suggested: “We should make it easier for ourselves... in order to add more will. We should send points to Her Majesty.”

Conditions limited autocracy, but not in the interests of the entire nobility, but in favor of its aristocratic elite of eight people, who sat in the Supreme Privy Council. According to the conditions, the right to conclude peace, establish new taxes, promote ranks, command the army, choose a successor to the sovereign, and much more passed into the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. As S.M. notes Soloviev: “All the guarantees for eight, but against eight for the rest - where are the guarantees?”

These plans did not find support among either the nobles or the guards. Taking advantage of this, Anna Ioannovna proclaimed herself an autocratic empress, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent its most active members to Siberia.

During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. The tone at court was set by the empress's favorite, the Duke of Courland Biron, who enjoyed her boundless trust. He took a dominant position at court. During the years of Bironovism, foreigners were promoted to lucrative positions, which caused protest from the Russian nobility.

The symbol of Anna Ioannovna’s reign became the Secret Chancellery (the successor to the Preobrazhensky Order), which monitored the trustworthiness of Russian subjects and was literally inundated with political denunciations. No one could consider themselves safe from “words and deeds” (an exclamation that usually began the procedure of denunciation and investigation)
Shortly before her death, the Empress appointed herself a successor - Ivan VI - the grandson of Catherine Ivanovna (daughter of Ivan V), and Biron, not his mother, was appointed regent of the child. In the conditions of general dissatisfaction with Biron, Field Marshal Minich, without much difficulty, managed to carry out another palace coup, depriving Biron of the rights of regent in November 1740. Ivan's mother was proclaimed regent

The coup could not satisfy the interests of wide circles of the Russian nobility, since the Germans still retained the leading position in the state. Taking advantage of the weakness of the government and her popularity, Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter I, dressed in a man's dress, appeared at the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment with the words: “Guys, you know whose daughter I am, follow me. Do you swear to die for me?” - asked the future empress and, having received an affirmative answer, led them to the Winter Palace. So, during the next coup, carried out on November 25, 1741 in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, representatives of the Brunswick family who were on the Russian throne were arrested. Participants in the coup received generous rewards; those who did not have the title of nobility were elevated to the nobility.

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna reigned for twenty years from 1741 to 1761. The most legitimate of all the successors of Peter I, raised to the throne with the help of the guards, she, as V.O. wrote. Klyuchevsky, “inherited the energy of her father, built palaces in twenty-four hours and traveled from Moscow to St. Petersburg in two days, peaceful and carefree, she took Berlin and defeated the first strategist of the time, Frederick the Great... her courtyard turned into a theater foyer - everyone was talking about French comedy, Italian opera, but the doors did not close, there was a draft in the windows, water flowed down the walls - such “golden poverty”.
The core of her policy was the expansion and strengthening of the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners now had the right to exile rebellious peasants to Siberia and dispose of not only the land, but also the person and property of the serfs. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, the rights of the Senate, Chief Magistrate, and collegiums were restored. In 1755, Moscow University was opened - the first in Russia.

An indicator of Russia's increased influence on international life was its active participation in the pan-European conflict of the second half of the 18th century. — in the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In the first battle near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf on August 19, 1757, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops. At the beginning of 1758, Russian troops captured Konigsberg. The population of East Prussia swore allegiance to the Empress of Russia, Elizabeth.

The culmination of the military campaign of 1760 was the capture of Berlin on September 28 by the Russian army under the command of Chernyshov. Frederick II stood on the brink of death, but he was saved by a sharp turn in foreign policy Russia, caused by the accession to the throne of Peter III, who immediately broke the military alliance with Austria, stopped military operations against Prussia and even offered Frederick military assistance.

Peter III was on the Russian throne for a short time from 1761 to 1762. Elizabeth Petrovna’s nephew turned out to be unable to lead the state. Particular censure of Russian society was caused by his admiration for Frederick II, the presence in many of his actions, as contemporaries expressed, of “shakyness and caprice.” The breakdown of the state mechanism was obvious to everyone, which led to a new palace coup. His wife Catherine II, relying on the support of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments, proclaimed herself empress in June 1762. The Senate and Synod swore allegiance to her. Peter III's attempt to enter into negotiations did not lead to anything, and he was forced to personally sign the act of “spontaneous” oath abdication sent by Catherine.

Thus ended the era of “palace coups.”

Domestic politics during the period of palace coups and the reign of Catherine II

Chapter 1. Domestic policy during the period of “palace coups”

1.1. Catherine I (1725-1727)

So in 1725, the former laundress became the empress of the powerful Russian Empire. Together with her, the associates of Peter I, led by Catherine’s favorite Menshikov, came to power. By this time, enormous power was concentrated in his hands. He was president of the Military Collegium, field marshal general, vice admiral, lieutenant colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment, and governor general of St. Petersburg. A.S. Pushkin wrote: “The semi-sovereign ruler became a complete ruler.”

At the beginning of 1726, in order to support the empress, a new highest governing body of the country was established - the Supreme Privy Council. Its creation was the conclusion of a kind of compromise between the noble nobility and the new people who emerged under Peter I. They took part in the work of the Council on equal terms. The empress was to preside over it. Not a single decision was approved without general knowledge and discussion. Initially, the Supreme Privy Council included six people: His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Menshikov, Count Fyodor Apraksin, Baron Andrei Osterman, Count Pyotr Tolstoy, Count Gabriel Golovkin, Prince Dmitry Golitsyn. Subsequently, the composition of the Council expanded. The Senate and colleges were subordinate to him.

Meanwhile, the internal situation of the country required special attention from the government. More than 20 years of war and a series of lean years led Russia to the fact that the country's financial system found itself in a rather difficult situation. There were not enough funds for the most urgent state needs - for example, to maintain the fleet in combat-ready condition. The arrears accumulated during the years of shortages and war, the lack of accounting for population decline, and the extension of the obligation to pay the poll tax to infants and old people who were unable to work, brought the peasantry to complete impoverishment. Desperate people, in order to escape from state extortions, punishment for arrears and, finally, from starvation, fled “abroad the Polish border and to the Bashkirs.” The villages were deserted, and the treasury deficit increased.

The implementation of this program did not improve the situation of the urban and rural population, since the most burdensome and unbearable duty remained - the poll tax. They still collected it mercilessly, although in a several times reduced amount.

The system of accidents led to an unprecedented rise in Russia among officials of bribery, extortion and red tape when considering cases. The officials looked into the hands of the petitioners - whoever gives more will receive more attention.

In the end, the collection of the poll tax was entrusted to the governor, which Peter I at one time refused. This was simpler and more profitable for the state: the governor did not receive a salary from him, but lived at the expense of the population. The governors were popularly called wolves for their arbitrariness.

Meanwhile, the illness of Empress Catherine I took an increasingly dangerous course. On May 6, 1727, Ekaterina Alekseevna died, naming her successor the only survivor of male line Romanov, 11-year-old Peter Alekseevich, who ascended the throne under the name of Peter II.

1.2. Peter II (1727-1730)

After the death of Catherine I, the Russian throne was taken by Peter Alekseevich. Until he came of age, he was supposed to be under the control of a collective regent - the Supreme Privy Council. In the first months of the reign of Peter II, Menshikov's influence reached its peak: he became the de facto regent of the boy tsar.

Pyotr Alekseevich published two highest manifestos, carefully thought out by Menshikov. According to the first, all long-standing arrears (debts) were written off from the serfs, and those sent to hard labor for non-payment of the poll tax were given freedom. According to the second manifesto, Menshikov's secret enemies - princes Dolgoruky and Trubetskoy - were awarded field marshal's batons, and Burchard Minich, in addition to the rank of field marshal, was given the title of count. So His Serene Highness Prince Alexander Danilovich tried to appease his opponents. At the same time, the young sovereign announced that he was elevating Menshikov himself to the rank of generalissimo and appointing him commander-in-chief of all the armed forces of the Russian Empire.

Soon after the accession of Peter II, his engagement to Maria Menshikova (daughter of A.D. Menshikov), which took place on May 25, 1727, was noisily celebrated. According to her father's wishes, she received the title Her Imperial Highness and an annual allowance of 34 thousand rubles.

Peter settled in Menshikov's house. Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, a strict and demanding mentor, was appointed as the young man’s tutor. Mainly engaged in ancient history and spent a lot of time in fascinating conversations about the achievements of Peter the Great and his faithful companions.

Palace life quickly taught the Tsarevich hypocrisy. Peter called Menshikov “Father Alexander Danilovich,” and with his daughter Maria, his intended bride, he was friendly and even. The young emperor personified courtesy itself, lavishing signs of attention to his future father-in-law and bride. Outwardly, everything looked good in their relationship. But in his heart Peter hated Mary, who was far from brilliant in her intelligence; in his letters he called her " marble statue", "porcelain doll".

After his daughter’s engagement, Menshikov fell ill: he showed signs of tuberculosis. A strong body coped with the illness, but within a few weeks of his absence, the young monarch’s attitude towards Alexander Menshikov changed dramatically. Secret protocols of interrogations of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich were brought to light, which were signed by members of the Secret Court Menshikov, Tolstoy and Yaguzhinsky. Having familiarized himself with them, Pyotr Alekseevich was shocked by the cynical attitude of the judges towards the sincere, in his opinion, confessions of his late father. Clouds began to gather over Menshikov.

Meanwhile, Alexander Danilovich’s sense of proportion was clearly betrayed: the fear of losing everything that he had achieved through considerable labor forced him to violate the rules of decency. He demanded unquestioning obedience from the emperor. A stormy explanation took place between them, but Menshikov continued to humiliate the members of the reigning house, demonstrating his power. So, in the fall of 1727, he organized a solemn consecration of the chapel on his estate in Oranienbaum, followed by a grand banquet, where the entire St. Petersburg society was invited, except for the daughter of Peter the Great.

By the age of 13-14, Peter II was a tall, handsome man, about whom they said that he had a hard heart, a mediocre mind and a huge lust for power. Peter's true passion was hunting, in which he sometimes disappeared for three or four months at a time. If Catherine I turned Russian nobles into participants in a huge, ongoing ball, then Peter II managed to make hound hunting his main occupation. Dolgoruky and Osterman skillfully took advantage of these absences, wanting to remove the tsar from under the influence of Menshikov.

Peter II soon announced that he no longer needed assistants and would lead the country himself. He moved from Menshikov's house to Peterhof, and in September 1727, on his orders, Major Prince Saltykov placed the head of the Supreme Privy Council under house arrest. Seeing the guard at the door, the unbending Menshikov fainted for the first time in his life. He wrote to the emperor, reminding him of his previous services to the fatherland, but received no answer. Later, at the insistence of Peter II, the court moved to Moscow. Next to the tsar appeared a grandmother - nun Elena (the exiled first wife of Peter I, Evdokia Lopukhina). Increasingly, the transformations of Peter I were ridiculed. The Old Moscow nobility rallied more and more closely around the young tsar.

Having been crowned king on February 24, 1728, Peter II dealt the final blow to Menshikov. The building that Alexander Danilovich had been building for so long fell apart like a house of cards. The fall of His Serene Highness was rapid. He was deprived of ranks and titles, Russian and foreign orders, including for the Poltava victory, and his property was confiscated.

The investigation into the case of Alexander Menshikov dragged on for several months. The sentence was harsh - exile with his family to Siberia, to the village of Berezovo. On the way, his wife died, then his daughter Maria. Soon he himself died of tuberculosis.

Having eliminated a powerful enemy, the young emperor lost the meaning of life. If earlier in Osterman’s lessons he imagined himself as Brutus, preparing the murder of Caesar, who seemed to him to be Menshikov, now the classes did not bother the sovereign at all, and examples from Roman life inspired boredom. For some time, the hassle of moving to Moscow distracted the emperor from painful thoughts. But soon even hunting became no joy for him, although the forests near Moscow had not seen this kind of scale of bear baiting since the time of Alexei Mikhailovich the Quiet.

To top it all off, Pyotr Alekseevich’s beloved sister Natalya became seriously ill. Peter II could not find a place for himself from loneliness until he became close to the lively princess Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgorukova, who was ready to do anything if only the emperor would put it on her finger wedding ring. The young emperor spent everything with her free time, leaving state affairs to Osterman. Her father, a retired diplomat, knew how to win over any interlocutor, always finding the right tone and topic of conversation. At court they openly talked about the fact that the Dolgorukovs had “damaged” Peter.

Gradually, Peter II began to grow cold towards Princess Catherine and began to treat her rudely even in the presence of dignitaries. As they said, the reason for this was rumors that the girl was allegedly unfaithful to him. The Dolgorukovs sounded the alarm, and on November 30, 1729, the betrothal of Pyotr Alekseevich and Ekaterina Dolgorukova took place in the Lefortovo Palace. Peter II announced a decree according to which all Dolgorukovs received senior positions under the emperor, and the wedding was scheduled for January 19, 1730.

The depressed state of mind of the emperor, who was tormented by his conscience for the fate of Menshikov and Elizabeth (daughter of Peter I), worsened after his secret meeting with Osterman. Sensing inevitable changes with the rise of the cunning, despotic Dolgorukovs, the vice-chancellor came to Moscow for Christmas, hoping to dissuade Peter from getting married. Andrei Ivanovich did most of the talking. The emperor listened, only occasionally asking questions about specific facts of bribery and embezzlement of new relatives. One can only guess what he meant when he said goodbye to Osterman: “I will soon find a way to break my chains.”

Russia was moving further and further away from the achievements and plans of Peter I. Peter II announced the cessation of shipbuilding in the Baltic: “When need requires the use of ships, I will go to sea, but I do not intend to walk along it like my grandfather.”

Under the new government, headed by Dolgoruky and Osterman, steps were taken to improve the damaged economy: some monopolies, including those on the sale of salt, were abolished. Russia sought to avoid being drawn into military conflicts. Peace contributed to the revival of the national economy.

In 1730 in Moscow in full swing Preparations were underway for the king's wedding. However, a few days before the celebration, at two o'clock in the morning on January 19, the 14-year-old emperor caught a cold and soon died.

1.3. Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

Since there was no direct heir in the male line, the conversation turned to inheritance through the female line. Peter I's daughters Anna (and therefore her son Peter) and Elizabeth were immediately rejected: according to the nobility, their mother, Empress Catherine I, was of vile origin. The Russian noble aristocracy did not forgive Peter I for his choice; now they dictated their will to the country.

The rulers chose the 37-year-old Dowager Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the daughter of Peter’s co-ruler Ivan Alekseevich who died in 1698, who was completely dependent on the political and material support of Russia. “We need to make it easier for ourselves,” said Prince Golitsyn. “So lighten up so that you can increase your willpower.”

Golitsyn developed a program for the political reorganization of the country, its transition from an autocratic form of government to an oligarchic one. For Russia, this would be a step forward along the path of civilizational development.

The supreme leaders agreed with this program and immediately began to develop the conditions (conditions) for inviting Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne.

They demanded that the ruler not enter into marriage and not appoint a successor for herself. This would mean that the hereditary monarchy would cease to exist in Russia. The ruler should not have made decisions on key issues without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, i.e. autocratic power was limited. The empress did not have the right to declare war and make peace, to burden her subjects with new taxes, to introduce military ranks above the rank of colonel. The Guard and other army units came under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Privy Council. Without a trial, the ruler could not take away estates and property from the nobles and, at her own will, provide them with estates and lands inhabited by peasants. Anna Ioannovna was obliged not to elevate nobles to court ranks without the consent of the Council. In addition, the leaders wanted to put the country's budget under their control. The condition ended with the phrase: “And if I don’t fulfill this promise and don’t keep it, then I will be deprived of the Russian crown.”

Anna Ioannovna signed the conditions and began to get ready for Moscow. It seemed that another palace coup had been a success and Russia had entered into new way development, having received in the form of a Constitution, which regulates the relations between the monarch and the country.

However, Russia was not ready for such a turn of events. The project of the supreme leaders excited the entire noble class. The nobles who gathered in Moscow for the wedding of Peter II put forward counter projects for the reorganization of the country. They proposed expanding the composition of the Supreme Privy Council, elevating the role of the Senate, and giving society the opportunity to elect the country's governing institutions and leading officials, in particular the presidents of the colleges. At the same time, the nobles demanded the abolition of the law on single inheritance and a limitation of service life. The nobility went further than the leaders; it wanted liberties for the whole class. However, there was not a word in the projects about the abolition of serfdom.

The leaders were confused and tried to maneuver in order to maintain the power they had seized. They tried to find a compromise between standards and noble projects. And at this time, a new formidable force was growing in the political life of Russia. Among the nobility, the autocratic party became increasingly stronger. Its mainspring was the guard regiments, the government bureaucracy, and part of the nobility, which hated presumptuous nobles. In this environment, my project began to be developed government structure Russia: the destruction of the Supreme Privy Council, the elimination of conditions, the restoration of unlimited autocracy, the revival of the power of the Senate as it was under Peter I. For this group of people, Peter’s absolutism was an ideal example of governing the country.

Anna Ioannovna had information about all this full information. When approaching Moscow, she stopped for several days in one of the villages, where a deputation from the Preobrazhensky regiment and cavalry guards vigorously welcomed her and demanded the restoration of autocracy.

Already in Moscow, Anna Ioannovna received a new petition, in which the nobles asked her to accept autocracy and destroy the standards. The Empress demanded that the condition be brought and, in front of the audience, tore them apart. Thus ended the attempt to limit autocracy in Russia.

Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people devoted and close to her. Her favorite, Chief Chamberlain Ernst Johann Biron, was summoned from Courland. Since then, he was constantly with the queen and directed her actions. A representative and educated man, Biron preferred to remain in the shadows, but held in his hands all the threads of governing the country. The fundamental interests of Russia were alien to Biron. Matching him were the head of government A.I. Osterman and the head of the army - Field Marshal B.H. Minikh. Immigrants from German lands were placed at the head of the guards regiments.

Anna Ioannovna destroyed the Supreme Privy Council. Instead, a Cabinet consisting of three people appeared. The leading role in it belonged to A.I. Osterman. The Secret Chancellery (a body of political investigation) was also recreated.

At the insistence of Biron and Osterman, Anna Ioannovna removed D.M. from power. Golitsyn, who ended up in the Shlisselburg fortress. The Dolgorukys were sent to their estates, and then sent to Berezov, where Menshikov had recently languished.

To strengthen her position, the empress carried out a number of measures. The service life was set at 25 years. The law on single inheritance was repealed, and now estates could be divided between sons; estates were finally equalized with estates and were to be called estate-votchina. The Cadet Corps was created, from where the children of the nobility immediately became officers and did not have to pull the soldier's burden, as under Peter. All this reconciled the nobility with the authorities.

The new government met the industrialists halfway: the old order of providing enterprises with serf labor was confirmed. Moreover, entrepreneurs were allowed to buy peasants without land. The scope of serf labor in the economy expanded.

The times of Anna Ioannovna are sometimes called the Bironovschina. However, one cannot associate Bironovism only with the dominance of individuals German origin. Rather, it was a clan whose members were devoted to the queen, but this devotion was, as a rule, based on material interests - the key positions they received provided high incomes, the opportunity to enrich themselves through bribes and theft of the state treasury.

The concept of “Bironovism” includes the creation in Russia of a strong political investigation, a powerful repressive organization. The Secret Chancellery focused on persecuting those who opposed the empress and her favorite. The most high-profile case of the Secret Chancellery was the trial of administrator A.P. Volynsky, who opposed German dominance in the country. He was executed.

From the second half of the 1730s, Anna Ioannovna was less and less involved in government affairs. The empress's craving for entertainment and luxury blossomed in full bloom. Balls, masquerades, gala lunches and dinners, accompanied by illuminations and fireworks, replaced each other.

At the turn of the 1730s-1740s, Russia was in a state of deep economic, political and moral crisis. The country's finances could not withstand the extravagance of the court and ineffective wars. The situation was aggravated by a climate of fear, denunciations and repression. German dominance in ruling circles was felt more and more strongly, which outraged a significant part of the Russian nobility. Guards officers refused to obey foreign commanders.

Due to Anna Ioannovna's serious illness, the question of inheriting the throne arose. The empress had no children, and had to again choose heirs on the side. Anna Ioannovna settled on Ivan Antonovich, the two-month-old son of her niece Anna Leopoldovna, who married the Duke of Brunswick Anton Ulrich. The couple had already lived in Russia for a long time under the care of Anna Ioannovna.

Soon after this she began to feel ill. The doctor who treated her declared that the empress’s position was hopeless. Anna Ioannovna called Biron to her and, showing him the document according to which he became regent under the infant emperor, said that, in her opinion, this was his death sentence. On the morning of October 17, 1740, the Empress ordered the clergy to be called and asked to read the funeral service. “I’m sorry, everyone,” she said and breathed her last.

1.4. Ivan Antonovich (1740-1741)

Anna Ioannovna transferred the throne to her closest relatives on the line of Tsar Ivan, bypassing the heirs on the Peter's line - his daughter Elizabeth and Anna Petrovna's 12-year-old son, who bore the name of his grandfather - Peter.

Ernst Johann Biron sought to become a regent for an infant who, according to Anna Ioannovna’s will, could become a full-fledged ruler only from the age of 17.

Having decided on an heir, the sick empress could not decide on a regent. Biron and people close to him insisted on the candidacy of the favorite. But Anton Ulrich and Anna Leopoldovna had their own people at court. As parents they also laid claim to the regency. Anna Ioannovna hesitated and only when the doctor told her that her hours were numbered did she write Biron’s name in her will.

A foreigner came to power in the country, who was in no way connected either with the reigning dynasty or with Russia. This caused the indignation of the Brunswick family - the father and mother of the infant emperor, other influential Germans, primarily Ostermann and Minich, the Russian nobility and guard. Everyone united against Biron. The initiator of the conspiracy was the cunning Osterman, and the executor was Minikh, who received Anna Leopoldovna’s consent to his regency. Biron's fate was decided. His regency lasted only three weeks. Ernst Johann was arrested and sent to the Shlisselburg fortress.

Anna Leopoldovna declared herself ruler. But Anna Leopoldovna was least suitable for the role of the head of a state like Russia: she did not know what to do with the power she had received, and was openly burdened by state responsibilities. Caring for her own child was more important to her than government affairs.

The Bironovism in Russia ended, but the dominance of the Germans only strengthened: Anna Leopoldovna, Duke Anton Ulrich, Minich, and Osterman became the political core of Russia. The winner was Osterman, who eliminated all his rivals from the political arena. All the threads of governing the country, its foreign and domestic policies now converged in his hands.

The victory of the Brunswickers and Ostermann became the peak of the rule of immigrants from German lands in Russia, but they were never able to retain power. These were weak statesmen. Anna Leopoldovna was more interested in entertainment; her husband Anton Ulrich had neither military nor organizational talents. The Germans who headed the boards understood little about Russian affairs; sometimes they could not even speak Russian.

The split between the German leadership and Russian society became deeper and deeper. There was unrest in the guards. The positions of the German temporary workers were fragile.

On the night of November 24-25, 1741, the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, carried out a palace coup. 30 guardsmen burst into Anna Leopoldovna's chambers. Anna and her husband woke up and could not understand what was happening. Anna was allowed to get dressed, and her husband, Prince Anton Ulrich, was wrapped in a blanket and thrown into a sleigh that stood at the porch.

The soldiers were given orders not to wake up or needlessly frighten the children sleeping in the next room. The guards crowded around the children's cradles and tried not to make noise. An hour passed like that. Finally, little John began to stir and cry, and the soldiers began to argue about who should carry the child. His nurse, expecting reprisals every moment, took the baby, who was screaming, in her arms, wrapped him in the hem of her own fur coat, and so went, surrounded by a convoy, to the sleigh that was waiting for them. One soldier snatched John's newborn sister, Princess Catherine, from her cradle. He did it so awkwardly that he dropped the girl on the floor, after which she remained deaf and lopsided for the rest of her life.

Elizabeth issued several manifestos, proving that she had more rights to the Russian throne than John and his mother. The Empress publicly stated that the Brunswick family would be sent with honor abroad, to Germany, and even ordered them to be taken to the western border of Russia. They only reached Riga, where they were arrested. From then on, every step and word uttered by any of the prisoners was immediately reported to Elizaveta Petrovna.

Years passed. One prison was replaced by another. When it was ordered to deliver the prisoners to Rannenburg, the commander of the convoy, who knew little geography, almost brought them to Orenburg. The last refuge of the Brunswick family was the bishop's house in Kholmogory. Little John was separated from his parents. They never found out what happened to the child, and he lived quite close to his parents and brothers and sisters for 12 years without even realizing it.

1.5. Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)

At the end of November 1741, with the support of the guard, another palace coup took place, which brought the youngest daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, to power.

Upon ascending the throne, Elizabeth proclaimed herself the continuator of the work of her great father. Following Peter's "principles" determined, in particular, the empress's interest in economic issues, the development of industry and trade. Encouraging noble entrepreneurship, Elizabeth ordered the establishment of the Noble Loan Bank in 1753, which issued loans to landowners secured by land. In 1754, the Merchant Bank was founded. New factories were created at a rapid pace ( industrial enterprises). In Yaroslavl and Serpukhov, Irkutsk and Astrakhan, Tambov and Ivanovo, in the cities of Siberia, on noble estates, manufactories produced cloth and silk, canvas and ropes. There was an experience of transferring state-owned factories (in particular, those in the Urals) to the nobles. A monopoly of the nobles on distillation was introduced, which gave them colossal profits. The government reduced government monopolies, rightly believing that freedom and competition of private entrepreneurs and traders would promote economic development.

Due to the shortage of civilian workers, the use of sessional and assigned peasants expanded. Feudal labor remained the basis of large-scale production.

The decision of Elizabeth's government, made in 1753, to abolish internal customs duties, which had been levied on Russian cities and roads since ancient times, had important consequences. As a result of this reform, it was possible to put an end to the economic fragmentation of Russia. Now it was possible to transport goods throughout the country without any payments. The internal apparatus of customs, where corruption flourished, was eliminated. The new protectionist tariff protected the interests of domestic industrialists. This was a bold step at that time. In France, for example, internal customs ceased to exist only during the revolution of the late 18th century, and in Germany - in the 30s of the 19th century.

Elizabeth Petrovna began her reign with a slight reduction in the poll tax. At the same time, the serfs were not allowed to swear allegiance to the new empress. The gentlemen took the oath for them. This clearly indicated the internal political orientation of the new government: serfdom still remained unshakable. Elizabeth only somewhat limited the use of serf labor in industry, since its unprofitability was increasingly making itself felt. The right to buy peasants into factories was also limited, and the number of registered peasants was reduced. The Empress announced the liquidation of the Cabinet and the establishment of the Imperial Council. It included the empress's closest supporters. The leader became Osterman's rival, the experienced dignitary Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who returned from exile shortly before the coup. Old Russian surnames began to shine - Trubetskoy, Naryshkin, Cherkassky, Kurakin. The Shuvalovs and A.G. received high court ranks. Razumovsky. Field Marshal Vasily Dolgoruky was appointed president of the Military Collegium.

The Senate again became the Governing (main after the Empress) body of power in the country; it was replenished with Russian nobles. Elizaveta Petrovna restored some of Peter's collegiums and the Chief Magistrate. Terror against the Russian nobility and nobility ceased, but the Secret Chancellery continued to exist. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, 80 thousand people passed through its dungeons.

The Empress encouraged the construction of new ships in the Baltic and restored the quantitative composition of the Russian army. The government apparatus was partially reduced, the principle of unity of command was strengthened, and prosecutorial supervision was restored to its previous extent.

Elizabeth significantly expanded the rights and liberties of the nobles. In particular, she abolished Peter I's law on undergrowth, according to which the nobles had to begin military service With youth soldiers. Under Elizabeth, children were assigned to the corresponding regiments from birth. Thus, at the age of ten, these youths, without knowing the service, became sergeants, and were already 16-17 year old captains in the regiment. Elizaveta Petrovna also reduced the term civil service in the army, navy, in the control system. The nobles received the right to exile offending peasants to Siberia, and these people were counted as recruits given to the state. Nobles could also sell their serfs to others to serve as recruits.

During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, favorable conditions developed for the development of Russian culture, especially science and education. The Academy of Sciences participated in organizing expeditions to Far East for the purpose of a detailed study of the northeastern borders of the Russian Empire. In the middle of the 18th century, a four-volume work by naturalist I.G. appeared. Gmelin “Flora of Siberia” with a description of 1200 plants and the first ethnographic work in Russia “Description of the Land of Kamchatka”, written by S.P. Krasheninnikova.

The decree of 1744 “On the unification of schools in the provinces in one place and the education of all ranks of people in them...” facilitated access to schools for children from unprivileged sections of the population. In the 40-50s, two more were added to the first gymnasium in St. Petersburg that existed since 1726 - at Moscow University (1755) and in Kazan (1758). And in 1752, the Navigation School, founded by Peter I, was reorganized into the Naval Gentry Cadet Corps, where officers of the Russian Navy were trained.

On January 25, 1755, Elizabeth signed a decree establishing Moscow University. The spread of university education in Russia was cherished dream Russian scientist and educator M.V. Lomonosov. Having won over Vice-Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov and the even more influential favorite I.I. Shuvalov, Lomonosov drew up a project for opening a university in Moscow. Along with this event is the establishment in 1756 of the Russian professional theater by Fyodor Volkov and Alexander Sumarokov, and in 1758 - the Academy of Arts.

The emergence of interest in fine arts in Russian society during the time of Elizabeth Petrovna is directly related to the empress’s own passion for them. One might say that professional theatre, opera, ballet, and choral singing emerged from the walls of her palace. Even during the difficult years of Anna Ioannovna’s reign for young Elizabeth, many performances were staged at the crown princess’s “small court.” Her courtiers and singers took part in them. The plays were “on the topic of the day.” In an allegorical form, they talked about the sad fate of the semi-disgraced princess and the political situation in the country. Elizabeth did not lose interest in the theater even as an empress. She enjoyed the performances, even if she saw them more than once. The plays of A.P. were especially popular in Russia in the mid-18th century. Sumarokova. Not only celebrations and holidays, but also the usual feasts of Elizabeth Petrovna were necessarily accompanied by the playing of an orchestra and the singing of court musicians. As the famous historian E.V. writes. Anisimov, “in Elizabethan times, music became an integral and indispensable part of the life of the palace and the St. Petersburg nobility.” The Imperial Orchestra of highly professional Italian and German musicians performed works by Western European composers. Concerts were also given: initially intended for court society, they later became public. Citizens could also visit them. At these concerts, Russian listeners became acquainted with the harp, mandolin, and guitar.

Bloomed magnificently at court Italian opera. No expense was spared in organizing the performances. These were majestic performances with ballet numbers and recitations that made an indelible impression on the audience. Along with Italian musicians and artists, young Russian singers also took part in the performances. Their performance of difficult Italian arias delighted the audience. IN ballet performances Russian dancers began to appear more and more often. This is how the foundations of Russian national opera and ballet.

Elizabeth was very worried about the appearance of Moscow and St. Petersburg. She issued many decrees that concerned the appearance and life of both capitals. Houses in these cities had to be built according to certain plans. Due to frequent fires in the Moscow Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod, it was forbidden to build wooden buildings, cab drivers were not allowed to drive fast along city streets, etc. Many remarkable architectural monuments date back to the reign of Elizabeth, including the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Great Palace in Peterhof, the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace, the Smolny Monastery Cathedral, the palaces of the Elizabethan nobles Vorontsov, Stroganov and Stagelman in St. Petersburg. All these masterpieces were created by architect V.V. Rastrelli. In 1755, by order of the Empress, the famous Amber Room (office), which was once a gift to Peter I by the Prussian king Frederick William I, was brought from St. Petersburg and installed in the Tsarskoye Selo Palace.

Elizaveta Petrovna pursued a tough, purely Petrine policy in the field of religion and national relations. Lutheran churches were converted into orthodox churches, severe repressions began against the Old Believers, and bearded men began to be taxed again. Twice, by her decrees, Elizaveta Petrovna announced the expulsion from the empire of Jews who did not accept Christianity.

From the mid-50s, the empress's health began to deteriorate. The peak of the disease's exacerbation occurred at the end of 1761. The heir to the throne Pyotr Fedorovich and his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna were near the dying woman’s bed. On December 25, at four o’clock in the afternoon, Elizaveta Petrovna’s life was interrupted.

1.6. Peter III (1761-1762)

According to the will of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the grandson of Peter I, Peter Fedorovich, ascended the throne in 1761. The short reign of Peter III began.

During the few months that Pyotr Fedorovich was in power, he made many tragic mistakes that led to his death. At the same time, Peter III carried out several important government reforms that advanced Russian civilization.

A decree was prepared to destroy the Secret Chancellery. Thus, the emperor wanted to strike a blow at one of the most terrible medieval search systems in Europe. Another decree of the emperor deprived industrialists of the right to buy serfs into factories. A ban was introduced on the oppression of Old Believers. Peter III proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance in Russia. His government developed a project for the secularization (transfer to the state) of church lands. This meant that the clergy could no longer establish their own rules in their domains. Peter III continued the line of Peter I to subordinate the Church to the state. Pyotr Fedorovich set as his goal the promotion of the development of the urban class in the Western spirit. He wanted to attract Western entrepreneurs to Russia and generally build life in the country in a European manner.

The policy of Peter III turned out to be extremely close to the policy of Peter the Great, but times have changed. The emperor did not have a strong foothold in Russian society. His influential layers, primarily the guard, did not accept the actions of the emperor.

The attitude towards him did not improve even after the Manifesto on the Freedom of the Nobility (1762), according to which the nobility was exempted from the compulsory 25-year service. The government motivated this by the fact that under Peter I it was necessary to force the nobles to serve and study. The nobility showed patriotic zeal and zeal in the service of the state, and now there was no longer any point in coercion. Thus, Peter III connected his Manifesto directly with the policies of his grandfather and its beneficial results for Russia. The nobility rejoiced. Now a significant part of it had the right to start their own farming, but this could not have a positive impact on the overall development of the country’s economy.

The manifesto freed part Russian population from forced service. This was a step towards further liberation of the population from general bondage, which was opposed in every possible way by the liberated nobility itself, which literally clung to its serfs.

Peter III had powerful opposition in the person of a significant part of the Russian elite, the guard, the clergy and, first of all, his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. The German princess more and more definitely made claims to the Russian throne. Patiently and persistently she wove a web of conspiracy against her husband, everywhere she spoke of her devotion to the interests of Russia, which was in contrast to the Holstein line of Peter III. The emperor's undertakings that were truly useful for Russia were passed off as the initiative of his assistants. Attention focused on his mistakes and unseemly personal behavior. WITH light hand Catherine and her assistants, such a distorted image of Peter III went down in Russian history for a long time. Meanwhile, the uncontrollable desire for power of Catherine herself was hushed up. Many years later, she admitted in her notes that she came to Russia with the motto: reign or die.

The leader of Catherine's party, which condemned everything that Peter III did and widely notified the court and guards about his connections with the Germans, became the educated nobleman Nikita Ivanovich Panin. This also included the commander of the Izmailovsky regiment, the chief prosecutor, the chief of police, and officers of the guards regiments. A major role among the conspirators was played by Grigory Orlov, Catherine Alekseevna’s favorite, his four brothers, and non-commissioned officer of the horse guards Grigory Potemkin (1739-1791), a future outstanding figure in Catherine’s reign.

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 28, 1762, the spring of the conspiracy unfolded. Alexei Orlov appeared at the palace in Peterhof, where Catherine lived at that time, and told her: “Everything is ready to proclaim you.”

The guardsmen of the Izmailovsky, Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments swore allegiance to the new empress. Ekaterina Alekseevna, who received the title of autocratic empress Catherine II, began to take the oath of office for members of the Governing Senate, the Most Serene Synod and government officials. Peter III, realizing that the coup had already occurred and regiments were swearing allegiance to Catherine one after another, renounced his rights to the throne and asked to be released to Holstein. However, Catherine had no intention of collecting deposed emperors: Ivan Antonovich was still alive in Shlisselburg. A decision was brewing to eliminate Peter III physically. How this actually happened remained forever hidden from history.

The Emperor was arrested and taken to country palace in the town of Ropshu. The prisoner spent only seven days there. There is information that the guards strangled Peter III. The Guard again placed their man on the throne. At the same time, Catherine II carried out a double coup: she simultaneously usurped the rights to the throne of her son Pavel Petrovich and took his place on the throne.

The reign of Catherine II began, whom her contemporaries proclaimed Great.

Chapter 2. The reign of Catherine II (1762-1796)

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Catherine I (1725-1727)

So in 1725, the former laundress became the empress of the powerful Russian Empire. Together with her, the associates of Peter I, led by Catherine’s favorite Menshikov, came to power. By this time, enormous power was concentrated in his hands. He was president of the Military Collegium, field marshal general, vice admiral, lieutenant colonel of the Preobrazhensky regiment, and governor general of St. Petersburg. A. S. Pushkin wrote: “The semi-sovereign ruler became a complete ruler.”

It cannot be said that Alexander Danilovich deliberately isolated the empress from work in the Supreme Privy Council. Without a doubt, it was beneficial for His Serene Highness that Ekaterina Alekseevna looked at everything through his, Menshikov’s, eyes. But at the same time, would he be able to interfere with the empress if she expressed a desire to preside over meetings of the supreme leaders? Apparently, Catherine was also happy with this course of events. It turned out that she was not interested in government affairs. As the historian S. M. Solovyov wrote about this empress, “the famous Livonian captive was one of those people who seem capable of ruling until they accept the rule. Under Peter, she shone not with her own light, but borrowed from the great man whose companion she was... But she did not have proper attention to affairs, especially internal ones, and their details, nor the ability to initiate and rule.”

Meanwhile, the illness of Empress Catherine I took an increasingly dangerous course. On May 6, 1727, Ekaterina Alekseevna died, naming her successor the only surviving male Romanov, 11-year-old Peter Alekseevich, who ascended the throne under the name Peter II.

Peter II (1727-1730)

Peter settled in Menshikov's house. Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, a strict and demanding mentor, was appointed as the young man’s tutor. We studied mainly ancient history and spent a lot of time in fascinating conversations about the achievements of Peter the Great and his faithful companions.

To top it all off, Pyotr Alekseevich’s beloved sister Natalya became seriously ill. Peter II could not find a place for himself from loneliness until he became close to the lively princess Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgorukova, who was ready to do anything if only the emperor would put a wedding ring on her finger. The young emperor spent all his free time with her, leaving state affairs to Osterman. Her father, a retired diplomat, knew how to win over any interlocutor, always finding the right tone and topic of conversation. At court they openly talked about the fact that the Dolgorukovs had “damaged” Peter.

In 1730, preparations for the Tsar’s wedding were in full swing in Moscow. However, a few days before the celebration, at two o'clock in the morning on January 19, the 14-year-old emperor caught a cold and soon died.

Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)

The supreme leaders agreed with this program and immediately began to develop the conditions (conditions) for inviting Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne.

They demanded that the ruler not enter into marriage and not appoint a successor for herself. This would mean that the hereditary monarchy would cease to exist in Russia. The ruler should not have made decisions on key issues without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, i.e. autocratic power was limited. The empress did not have the right to declare war and make peace, to burden her subjects with new taxes, or to promote them to military ranks above the rank of colonel. The Guard and other army units came under the jurisdiction of the Supreme Privy Council. Without a trial, the ruler could not take away estates and property from the nobles and, at her own will, provide them with estates and lands inhabited by peasants. Anna Ioannovna was obliged not to elevate nobles to court ranks without the consent of the Council. In addition, the leaders wanted to put the country's budget under their control. The condition ended with the phrase: “And if I don’t fulfill this promise and don’t keep it, then I will be deprived of the Russian crown.”

Anna Ioannovna signed the conditions and began to get ready for Moscow. It seemed that another palace coup had been a success and Russia had embarked on a new path of development, having received in the form of a Constitution that regulates relations between the monarch and the country.

The leaders were confused and tried to maneuver in order to maintain the power they had seized. They tried to find a compromise between standards and noble projects. And at this time, a new formidable force was growing in the political life of Russia. Among the nobility, the autocratic party became increasingly stronger. Its mainspring was the guard regiments, the government bureaucracy, and part of the nobility, which hated presumptuous nobles. In this environment, they began to develop their own project for the state structure of Russia: the destruction of the Supreme Privy Council, the elimination of conditions, the restoration of unlimited autocracy, the revival of the power of the Senate as it was under Peter I. For this group of people, Peter’s absolutism was an ideal model for governing the country.

Anna Ioannovna had complete information about all this. When approaching Moscow, she stopped for several days in one of the villages, where a deputation from the Preobrazhensky regiment and cavalry guards vigorously welcomed her and demanded the restoration of autocracy.

Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people devoted and close to her. Her favorite, Chief Chamberlain Ernst Johann Biron, was summoned from Courland. Since then, he was constantly with the queen and directed her actions. A representative and educated man, Biron preferred to remain in the shadows, but held in his hands all the threads of governing the country. The fundamental interests of Russia were alien to Biron. Matching him were the head of government A. I. Osterman and the head of the army, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich. Immigrants from German lands were placed at the head of the guards regiments.

At the insistence of Biron and Osterman, Anna Ioannovna removed D. M. Golitsyn from power, who ended up in the Shlisselburg fortress. The Dolgorukys were sent to their estates, and then sent to Berezov, where Menshikov had recently languished.

The times of Anna Ioannovna are sometimes called the Bironovschina. However, Bironovism cannot be associated only with the dominance of people of German origin. Rather, it was a clan whose members were devoted to the queen, but this devotion was, as a rule, based on material interests - the key positions they received provided high incomes, the opportunity to enrich themselves through bribes and theft of the state treasury.

The concept of “Bironovism” includes the creation in Russia of a strong political investigation, a powerful repressive organization. The Secret Chancellery focused on persecuting those who opposed the empress and her favorite. The most high-profile case of the Secret Chancellery was the trial of the administrator A.P. Volynsky, who spoke out against German dominance in the country. He was executed.

Ivan Antonovich (1740-1741)

Ernst Johann Biron sought to become a regent for an infant who, according to Anna Ioannovna’s will, could become a full-fledged ruler only from the age of 17.

A foreigner came to power in the country, who was in no way connected either with the reigning dynasty or with Russia. This caused the indignation of the Brunswick family - the father and mother of the infant emperor, other influential Germans, primarily Ostermann and Minich, the Russian nobility and guard. Everyone united against Biron. The initiator of the conspiracy was the cunning Osterman, and the executor was Minich, who received Anna Leopoldovna’s consent to his regency. Biron's fate was decided. His regency lasted only three weeks. Ernst Johann was arrested and sent to the Shlisselburg fortress.

The split between the German leadership and Russian society became deeper and deeper. There was unrest in the guards. The positions of the German temporary workers were fragile.

Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)

At the end of November 1741, with the support of the guard, another palace coup took place, which brought the youngest daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, to power.

Upon ascending the throne, Elizabeth proclaimed herself the continuator of the work of her great father. Following Peter's "principles" determined, in particular, the empress's interest in economic issues, the development of industry and trade. Encouraging noble entrepreneurship, Elizabeth ordered the establishment of the Noble Loan Bank in 1753, which issued loans to landowners secured by land. In 1754, the Merchant Bank was founded. New manufactories (industrial enterprises) were created at a rapid pace. In Yaroslavl and Serpukhov, Irkutsk and Astrakhan, Tambov and Ivanovo, in the cities of Siberia, on noble estates, manufactories produced cloth and silk, canvas and ropes. There was an experience of transferring state-owned factories (in particular, those in the Urals) to the nobles. A monopoly of the nobles on distillation was introduced, which gave them colossal profits. The government reduced government monopolies, rightly believing that freedom and competition of private entrepreneurs and traders would promote economic development.

Due to the shortage of civilian workers, the use of sessional and assigned peasants expanded. Feudal labor remained the basis of large-scale production.

Elizabeth Petrovna began her reign with a slight reduction in the poll tax. At the same time, the serfs were not allowed to swear allegiance to the new empress. The gentlemen took the oath for them. This clearly indicated the internal political orientation of the new government: serfdom still remained unshakable. Elizabeth only somewhat limited the use of serf labor in industry, since its unprofitability was increasingly making itself felt. The right to buy peasants into factories was also limited, and the number of registered peasants was reduced. The Empress announced the liquidation of the Cabinet and the establishment of the Imperial Council. It included the empress's closest supporters. The leader became Osterman's rival, the experienced dignitary Alexei Petrovich Bestuzhev-Ryumin, who returned from exile shortly before the coup. Old Russian surnames began to shine - Trubetskoy, Naryshkin, Cherkassky, Kurakin. The Shuvalovs and A.G. Razumovsky received high court titles. Field Marshal Vasily Dolgoruky was appointed president of the Military Collegium.

Elizabeth significantly expanded the rights and liberties of the nobles. In particular, she abolished Peter I's law on minors, according to which nobles had to begin military service from a young age as soldiers. Under Elizabeth, children were assigned to the corresponding regiments from birth. Thus, at the age of ten, these youths, without knowing the service, became sergeants, and were already 16-17 year old captains in the regiment. Elizaveta Petrovna also reduced the period of public service in the army, navy, and in the management system. The nobles received the right to exile offending peasants to Siberia, and these people were counted as recruits given to the state. Nobles could also sell their serfs to others to serve as recruits.

During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, favorable conditions developed for the development of Russian culture, especially science and education. The Academy of Sciences participated in organizing expeditions to the Far East with the aim of studying in detail the northeastern borders of the Russian Empire. In the middle of the 18th century, the four-volume work of naturalist I. G. Gmelin “Flora of Siberia” with a description of 1200 plants and the first ethnographic work in Russia “Description of the Land of Kamchatka”, written by S. P. Krasheninnikov, appeared.

On January 25, 1755, Elizabeth signed a decree establishing Moscow University. The spread of university education in Russia was the cherished dream of the Russian scientist and educator M. V. Lomonosov. Having won over Vice-Chancellor M.I. Vorontsov and the even more influential favorite I.I. Shuvalov to his side, Lomonosov drew up a project for opening a university in Moscow. Along with this event is the establishment in 1756 of the Russian professional theater by Fyodor Volkov and Alexander Sumarokov, and in 1758 - the Academy of Arts.

The emergence of interest in the fine arts in Russian society during the time of Elizabeth Petrovna is directly related to the empress’s own passion for them. One might say that professional theatre, opera, ballet, and choral singing emerged from the walls of her palace. Even during the difficult years of Anna Ioannovna’s reign for young Elizabeth, many performances were staged at the crown princess’s “small court.” Her courtiers and singers took part in them. The plays were “on the topic of the day.” In an allegorical form, they talked about the sad fate of the semi-disgraced princess and the political situation in the country. Elizabeth did not lose interest in the theater even as an empress. She enjoyed the performances, even if she saw them more than once. The plays of A.P. Sumarokov were especially popular in Russia in the mid-18th century. Not only celebrations and holidays, but also the usual feasts of Elizabeth Petrovna were necessarily accompanied by the playing of an orchestra and the singing of court musicians. As the famous historian E.V. Anisimov writes, “in Elizabethan times, music became an integral and indispensable part of the life of the palace and the St. Petersburg nobility.” The Imperial Orchestra of highly professional Italian and German musicians performed works by Western European composers. Concerts were also given: initially intended for court society, they later became public. Citizens could also visit them. At these concerts, Russian listeners became acquainted with the harp, mandolin, and guitar.

Italian opera flourished at court. No expense was spared in organizing the performances. These were majestic performances with ballet numbers and recitations that made an indelible impression on the audience. Along with Italian musicians and artists, young Russian singers also took part in the performances. Their performance of difficult Italian arias delighted the audience. Russian dancers began to appear more and more often in ballet performances. This is how the foundations of Russian national opera and ballet were laid.

Elizabeth was very worried about the appearance of Moscow and St. Petersburg. She issued many decrees that concerned the appearance and life of both capitals. Houses in these cities had to be built according to certain plans. Due to frequent fires in the Moscow Kremlin and Kitay-Gorod, it was forbidden to build wooden buildings, cab drivers were not allowed to drive fast along city streets, etc. Many remarkable architectural monuments date back to the reign of Elizabeth, including the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, the Great Palace in Peterhof, the Great Tsarskoye Selo Palace, the Smolny Monastery Cathedral, the palaces of the Elizabethan nobles Vorontsov, Stroganov and Stagelman in St. Petersburg. All these masterpieces were created by the architect V.V. Rastrelli. In 1755, by order of the Empress, the famous Amber Room (office), which was once a gift to Peter I by the Prussian king Frederick William I, was brought from St. Petersburg and installed in the Tsarskoye Selo Palace.

Elizaveta Petrovna pursued a tough, purely Petrine policy in the field of religion and national relations. Lutheran churches were turned into Orthodox churches, severe repressions against Old Believers began, and bearded men began to be taxed again. Twice, by her decrees, Elizaveta Petrovna announced the expulsion from the empire of Jews who did not accept Christianity.

Peter III (1761-1762)

According to the will of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the grandson of Peter I, Peter Fedorovich, ascended the throne in 1761. The short reign of Peter III began.

The manifesto freed part of the Russian population from forced labor. This was a step towards further liberation of the population from general bondage, which was opposed in every possible way by the liberated nobility itself, which literally clung to its serfs.

Peter III had powerful opposition in the person of a significant part of the Russian elite, the guard, the clergy and, first of all, his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. The German princess more and more definitely made claims to the Russian throne. Patiently and persistently she wove a web of conspiracy against her husband, everywhere she spoke of her devotion to the interests of Russia, which was in contrast to the Holstein line of Peter III. The emperor's undertakings that were truly useful for Russia were passed off as the initiative of his assistants. Attention focused on his mistakes and unseemly personal behavior. With the light hand of Catherine and her assistants, such a distorted image of Peter III entered the history of Russia for a long time. Meanwhile, the uncontrollable desire for power of Catherine herself was hushed up. Many years later, she admitted in her notes that she came to Russia with the motto: reign or die.

The emperor was arrested and taken to a country palace in the town of Ropsha. The prisoner spent only seven days there. There is information that the guards strangled Peter III. The Guard again placed their man on the throne. At the same time, Catherine II carried out a double coup: she simultaneously usurped the rights to the throne of her son Pavel Petrovich and took his place on the throne.