The realist model occupies a prominent place in the literature of “cultural inquiry”. The fate of realism in the 20th century. are determined by its transformation from a direction into a model artistic creativity. Realism - common name different directions ( critical realism, socialist realism, Italian neorealism, Latin American “magic” realism, etc.).
Among the principles that received greatest development in the realism of the 20th century, psychologism, historicism, philosophy, and documentary are primarily highlighted. Each of them was formed before this century, but acquired new shades, functions, and forms of expression. Some principles realism XIX c., on the contrary, they lose their leading positions, for example, critical pathos and concrete social analysis fade into the background (with the exception of socialist realism, where it even dominates in special forms, such as the depiction of reality in revolutionary development). By various reasons in all varieties of realism, satire as a form of critical understanding of reality, so clearly represented in realism of the 19th century, noticeably loses its position. In a certain sense, after the First World War, satirical pathos becomes less relevant. However, satire also receives new forms of expression. New forms of typification through satire are discovered in the world-wide famous novel Czech writer Jaroslav Hasek (1883-1923) “The Adventures of the Good Soldier Schweik during the World War” (1921, 1923; not completed). It's in tradition folk art recreated grotesque and at the same time real world, who is opposed by Schweik, a kind of embodiment of the “fool” from folk tales, designed to reveal the true “stupidity”, absurdity and cruelty of the bourgeois world order, its “war and peace”, presented through the prism of humor and merciless satire. Realism and humanism. Humanism in the 20th century. - the century of world social catastrophes - is experiencing a crisis that also affected realism. This crisis is anticipated in the works of G. Flaubert, his “Madame Bovary”, “Education of the Senses”, “Lexicon of Common Truths”, “Bouvard and Pécuchet”. G. Maupassant in the novel “Dear Friend” and a number of his short stories, and at the beginning of the 20th century. G. Mann in “The Loyal Subject” emphasizes extremely unattractive features in the “statistically average” hero. Jean Christophe in the epic of the same name by R. Rolland, a creator and a rich, heroic personality, is rather an exception. Such a character is not typical for realistic literature that time. Faith in man, his nobility and kindness, in the fact that he is “the crown of all living things,” as the humanists of the Renaissance believed, and in the fact that he is the embodiment of Reason, as the enlighteners believed, has been undermined. Freud, who revealed the base content of the unconscious in man, further strengthened this disappointment. The glorification of man within the framework of a realistic manner of creativity is the prerogative of the literature of socialist realism (images of a revolutionary, anti-fascist, worker, leader, leader). There are both outstanding achievements and extremely primitive schemes. Among the outstanding monuments of humanism of the 20th century. - works by Saint-Exupery, Hemingway (the top is “The Old Man and the Sea”). Principles of realism of the 20th century. turn out to be insufficient to establish the humanistic concept, and realist writers often resort to the traditions of classicism with its affirmation of proper life and romanticism with its craving for exceptional, spiritually rich individuals. Saint-Exupery. The combination of the features of realism, romanticism and classicism in their harmonious unity is characteristic of the work of the outstanding French humanist writer Antoine de Saint-Exupéry (1900 - 1944). Coming from an aristocratic family, he took part in the First World War and chose the profession of a pilot. Starting from the first story (“Pilot”, 1926), the work of a pilot, considered in everyday life, lyrical-romantic and philosophical terms, becomes main theme creativity of Saint-Exupery (novels “Southern Post Office”, 1929; “Night Flight”, 1931; “Planet of People”, 1939). In 1935 he made a trip to the USSR. During World War II, he fought against the Nazis, and during forced emigration to the United States, he wrote the stories “Military Pilot” (1942) and “Letter to a Hostage” (1943), which became part of the literature of the French Resistance movement. The writer's most famous work is philosophical tale « A little prince"(1942, publ. 1943). The dedication to Leon Vert sets out the concept of the fairy tale, showing the connection of its abstract allegorical images with the tragic situation of the French people under the conditions of fascist occupation. The peculiarity of Saint-Exupery’s work is that in his works an understanding of duty close to classicism, romance, poetry and a description of the latest technological achievements occupy an equal place. The work of Saint-Exupery gave new impetus to the development of humanistic art of the 20th century.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries in the cultural life of European countries, the struggle between realistic and decadent movements reached its peak. The people did not accept works created in the spirit of decadence, since there was a need for realistic works that clearly and truthfully depict life.
Realist writers strived for a bold and truthful depiction of the surrounding reality. Therefore, this period was called realism, or critical realism. During this period, representatives of Russian literature F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov opened up new possibilities for realistic creativity for his foreign contemporaries.
Guy de Maupassant is an incomparable creator who, in his works “Life”, “Beloved Ami”, “Mont Oriol” and others, masterfully exposed the social problems of French society.
The work of the American writer J. London was distinguished by radical sentiments. His utopian novel "The Iron Heel" contains a warning of disaster and terrible torment that may await humanity. IN autobiographical work"Martin Eden" writer reveals clashes in the field of art.
The novels of the American writer T. Dreiser “The Financier” and “Titan” convey a generalized image of a typical American monopolist, an uncrowned king, the rich man Cowperwood, who uses fraudulent methods, lies, and bribery in the struggle to get rich.
R. Rolland in his multi-volume novel “Jean Christophe” shows the decomposition of French and German bourgeois society. His hero, the composer Christophe, suffers from seeing meanness, hypocrisy, and careerism.
The book from this series, “Fair in the Square,” stands out for its extremely sharp denunciation of corrupt ministers through satirical means,
In this period special meaning had satire. The novel by the German satirist G. Mann “The Loyal Subject” and the trilogy “Empire” have great accusatory power. On the pages of these works you can see kings and chancellors, aristocrats and officials who betrayed their people, and even Emperor Wilhelm II.
A major master who ridiculed the existing system was French writer A. France. His work “The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard” sharply and openly ridiculed the vices of the Third Republic, moral decay ruling circles, corruption of politicians, intrigues of monarchs. The novels, stories, and articles of the recognized American satirist M. Twain are filled with bitter and angry truth. The title of M. Twain’s article “The United Lynching States” or the caustic definitions: “A senator is a person who makes laws in his free time from prison”, “Servants of the people are persons elected to their positions to distribute bribes” - already speak for themselves.
Democratic literature
The creators of democratic literature believed in the victory of the principles of equality and justice, the creative powers of man, and his ability to change the world. One of the representatives of this literature is the American writer G. Beecher Stowe. Beecher Stowe's novel Tom's Cabin is a masterpiece of world literature. It truthfully illuminates the life of slaves and slave owners in 19th century America, the contradictions between them, and the rebellion of blacks against slavery. The works “Me and My Wife” and “We and Our Neighbors” also truthfully describe American life.
“Major Barbara,” along with criticism of the evils of society, contrasts violence with forces that serve social development and justice. Rabindranath Tagore
The French writer Victor Hugo in his works “The Terrible Year”, “Les Miserables”, “The Year 93” expresses a protest against tyranny, ignorance and injustice. Hatred of colonialism, sympathy for the struggling people, their tragic life and the struggle of the outcast working person- these are the main themes of his works.
French writer Jules Verne is the greatest exponent of the science fiction novel. The heroes of the writer’s works “Five Weeks for hot-air balloon", "Journey to the Center of the Earth", "Children of Captain Grant", "The Fifteen-Year-Old Captain" - brave, brave people, challenging fate, overcoming difficulties.
Russian writer L.N. Tolstoy in last years throughout his life he criticized economic and social orders, the immoral foundations of the state and the church. A.P. Chekhov in the plays "Three Sisters" and " The Cherry Orchard" showed typical picture social reality.
Novels of this period by famous Japanese writers Roka Tokutomi "Kuroshiwo", "It's Better Not to Live", Naoe Kinoshita " Pillar of Fire"were directed against feudal remnants and the influence of Europe on the identity of Japanese culture.
The Chinese poet Hua Zongxiang in his poems called on the people to fight against foreigners.
Other masters of words also used the method of critical realism in their works. Li Baojia became famous for his novel “Our Officials,” Wu Woyao for his novel “For Twenty Years,” Liu Ye for his novel “The Journey of Jiao San,” and Zeng Pu for his novel “Flowers in the Angry Sea.” In their works, writers defended national culture from foreign influence, opened social contradictions public life of the country.
Naturalism
Naturalism revolutionized artistic representation reality. A group of artists who depicted life of that period in sharply satirical artistic colors, called themselves naturalists. The representative of this movement, the great French writer Emile Zola, set himself the goal of showing the status, lifestyle and psychology of all classes and social groups in France. Émile Zola's 20-volume Rougon-Macquart series is dedicated to depicting the life and social history of one family during the Second Empire. The novels “Germinal” and “Rout” are considered the pinnacle of his work.
Representatives of naturalism in Italy include Luigi Capuana and Giovanni Vega. In their works they reflected with artistic skill the difficult life of the people of Southern Italy and the fighters against its oppression. Among the American naturalists, Stephen Crane in his work “The Scarlet Badge of Valor” and Frank Norris in his work “The Octopus” raised complex social issues.
Decadence found clear expression in French literature and had an extremely strong influence on symbolism, which was dominated by the so-called “Cursed Poets” P. Verlaine, A. Relebo, S. Mallarmé.
Democratic literature is literature that serves not the interests of the ruling classes, but the interests of the people, their future, educating people in the spirit of faith in a bright future, truthfully reflecting reality.
Decadence (lat. decadentia - decline) is a general name for crisis, decadent phenomena in European culture. A current that reflected pessimism, a mood of hopelessness, aversion to life.
- Hello Gentlemen! Please support the project! It takes money ($) and mountains of enthusiasm to maintain the site every month. 🙁 If our site helped you and you want to support the project 🙂, then you can do this by listing cash by any of the following methods. By transferring electronic money:
- R819906736816 (wmr) rubles.
- Z177913641953 (wmz) dollars.
- E810620923590 (wme) euro.
- Payeer wallet: P34018761
- Qiwi wallet (qiwi): +998935323888
- DonationAlerts: http://www.donationalerts.ru/r/veknoviy
- The assistance received will be used and directed towards the continued development of the resource, Payment for hosting and Domain.
Literature. Critical realism at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries Updated: January 27, 2017 By: admin
8. Literature of the early 20th century. Development of artistic and ideological-moral traditions of Russian classical literature. The originality of realism in Russian literature of the early 20th century. Realism and modernism, diversity literary styles, schools, groups.
Plan
B) Literary directions
A) Russian literature of the early 20th century: general characteristics.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. became a time of bright flourishing of Russian culture, its " silver age"(Pushkin's time was called the "golden age"). In science, literature, art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, competitions different directions, groupings and styles. At the same time, the culture of the “Silver Age” was characterized by deep contradictions that were characteristic of all Russian life of that time.
Russia's rapid breakthrough in development and the clash of different ways of life and cultures changed the self-awareness of the creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, or the analysis of social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Interest in religion revived; The religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the turning point not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of impending social explosions, of the fact that the entire familiar way of life, the entire old culture, could perish. Some awaited these changes with joy, others with melancholy and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. literature developed in other historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, it will be the word “crisis”. Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world and led to the paradoxical conclusion: “matter has disappeared.” A new vision of the world, thus, will determine the new face of realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating consequences for human spirit had a crisis of faith (“God is dead!” exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the person of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of irreligious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology for evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence, which turned into terror - all these features indicate a deep crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the early 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a feeling of exhaustion of past development will be felt, and a revaluation of values will take shape.
The renewal of literature and its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the advent of the “Silver Age” of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name of N. Berdyaev, who used it in one of his speeches in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later art critic and the editor of Apollo, S. Makovsky, consolidated this phrase by calling his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century “On Parnassus of the Silver Age.” Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write “...the silver month is bright / Cold over the silver age.”
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be designated as follows: 1892 - exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of social upsurge in the country, manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of former illusions, the mass emigration of Russian cultural figures from Russia that began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
B) Literary directions
Russian literature of the 20th century was represented by three main literary movements: realism, modernism, and the literary avant-garde. The development of literary trends at the beginning of the century can be shown schematically as follows:
Senior Symbolists: V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, F.K. Sologub et al.
Mystics-seekers of God: D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, N. Minsky.
Decadent individualists: V.Ya. Bryusov, K.D. Balmont, F.K. Sologub.
Junior Symbolists: A.A. Blok, Andrey Bely (B.N. Bugaev), V.I. Ivanov et al.
Acmeism: N.S. Gumilev, A.A. Akhmatova, S.M. Gorodetsky, O.E. Mandelstam, M.A. Zenkevich, V.I. Narbut.
Cubo-Futurists (poets of "Hilea"): D.D. Burlyuk, V.V. Khlebnikov, V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Mayakovsky, A.E. Twisted.
Egofuturists: I. Severyanin, I. Ignatiev, K. Olimpov, V. Gnedov.
Group "Mezzanine of Poetry": V. Shershenevich, Khrisanf, R. Ivnev and others.
Association "Centrifuge": B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev, S.P. Bobrov and others.
One of most interesting phenomena in the art of the first decades of the 20th century there was a revival of romantic forms, largely forgotten since the beginning of the last century. One of these forms was proposed by V.G. Korolenko, whose work continues to develop at the end of the 19th and the first decades of the new century. Another expression of the romantic was the work of A. Green, whose works are unusual for their exoticism, flights of fancy, and ineradicable dreaminess. The third form of the romantic was the work of revolutionary worker poets (N. Nechaev, E. Tarasov, I. Privalov, A. Belozerov, F. Shkulev). Turning to marches, fables, calls, songs, these authors poeticize the heroic feat, use romantic images glow, fire, crimson dawn, thunderstorm, sunset, limitlessly expand the range of revolutionary vocabulary, resorting to cosmic proportions.
A special role in the development of literature of the 20th century was played by such writers as Maxim Gorky and L.N. Andreev. The twenties are a difficult, but dynamic and creatively fruitful period in the development of literature. Although many Russian cultural figures found themselves expelled from the country in 1922, while others went into voluntary emigration, artistic life does not freeze in Russia. On the contrary, many talented young writers appear, recent participants in the Civil War: L. Leonov, M. Sholokhov, A. Fadeev, Yu. Libedinsky, A. Vesely and others.
The thirties began with the “year of the great turning point,” when the foundations of the previous Russian way of life were sharply deformed, and the party began to actively intervene in the sphere of culture. P. Florensky, A. Losev, A. Voronsky and D. Kharms were arrested, repressions against the intelligentsia intensified, which claimed the lives of tens of thousands of cultural figures, two thousand writers died, in particular N. Klyuev, O. Mandelstam, I. Kataev, I. . Babel, B. Pilnyak, P. Vasiliev, A. Voronsky, B. Kornilov. Under these conditions, the development of literature was extremely difficult, tense and ambiguous.
The work of such writers and poets as V.V. deserves special consideration. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, A.A. Akhmatova, A.N. Tolstoy, E.I. Zamyatin, M.M. Zoshchenko, M.A. Sholokhov, M.A. Bulgakov, A.P. Platonov, O.E. Mandelstam, M.I. Tsvetaeva.
C) The originality of Russian realism of the early 20th century.
Realism, as we know, appeared in Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century and throughout the century existed within the framework of its critical movement. However, symbolism, which made itself known in the 1890s - the first modernist movement in Russian literature - sharply contrasted itself with realism. Following symbolism, other non-realistic trends arose. This inevitably led to a qualitative transformation of realism as a method of depicting reality.
Symbolists expressed the opinion that realism only skims the surface of life and is not able to penetrate to the essence of things. Their position was not infallible, but since then the confrontation and mutual influence of modernism and realism began in Russian art.
It is noteworthy that modernists and realists, while outwardly striving for demarcation, internally had a common desire for a deep, essential knowledge of the world. It is not surprising, therefore, that the writers of the turn of the century, who considered themselves realists, understood how narrow the framework of consistent realism was, and began to master syncretic forms of storytelling, allowing them to combine realistic objectivity with romantic, impressionistic and symbolist principles.
If the realists of the 19th century close attention paid attention to the social nature of man, then the realists of the twentieth century correlated this social nature with psychological, subconscious processes, expressed in the collision of reason and instinct, intellect and feelings. Simply put, the realism of the early twentieth century pointed to the complexity of human nature, which is by no means reducible only to his social existence. It is no coincidence that in Kuprin, Bunin, and Gorky, the plan of events and the surrounding situation are barely outlined, but a sophisticated analysis of the character’s mental life is given. The author's gaze is always directed beyond the spatial and temporal existence of the heroes. Hence the emergence of folklore, biblical, cultural motifs and images, which made it possible to expand the boundaries of the narrative and attract the reader to co-creation.
At the beginning of the 20th century, four movements were distinguished within the framework of realism:
1) critical realism continues the traditions of the 19th century and involves an emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (at the beginning of the 20th century these were the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy),
2) socialist realism - a term by Ivan Gronsky, denoting the depiction of reality in its historical and revolutionary development, the analysis of conflicts in the context of class struggle, and the actions of heroes - in the context of benefits for humanity ("Mother" by M. Gorky, and subsequently most of the works of Soviet writers ),
3) mythological realism developed in ancient literature, but in the 20th century under M.R. began to understand the image and understanding of reality through the prism of known mythological stories(V foreign literature a shining example serves as the novel "Ulysses" by J. Joyce, and in Russian literature of the early 20th century - the story "Judas Iscariot" by L.N. Andreeva)
4) naturalism presupposes the depiction of reality with the utmost plausibility and detail, often unsightly ("The Pit" by A.I. Kuprin, "Sanin" by M.P. Artsybashev, "Notes of a Doctor" by V.V. Veresaev)
The listed features of Russian realism caused numerous disputes about creative method writers who remained faithful to realistic traditions.
Gorky begins with neo-romantic prose and comes to the creation of social plays and novels, becoming the founder of socialist realism.
Andreev’s work has always been in a borderline state: modernists considered him a “despicable realist,” and for realists, in turn, he was a “suspicious symbolist.” At the same time, it is generally accepted that his prose is realistic, and his dramaturgy gravitates toward modernism.
Zaitsev, showing interest in the microstates of the soul, created impressionistic prose.
Attempts by critics to define Bunin's artistic method led to the writer himself comparing himself to a suitcase covered with a huge number of labels.
The complex worldview of realist writers and the multidirectional poetics of their works testified to the qualitative transformation of realism as artistic method. Thanks to a common goal - the search for the highest truth - at the beginning of the 20th century there was a rapprochement between literature and philosophy, which began in the works of Dostoevsky and L. Tolstoy.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of modernism:
1) an idealistic attitude towards reality - consciousness is recognized as primary;
2) the desire to create your own in works new reality, and not describe an existing one;
3) works, as a rule, do not recreate objects of reality, but those images that have already been created in world culture, with the aim of understanding them more deeply;
4) the main category of modernism becomes the concept of text, which is recognized supreme reality and is formed not through the reflection of objects of reality, but through the reproduction and comprehension of “cultivated” objects localized in predecessor texts;
5) extremely valuable for modernism is the idea of constructing a text as a “journey” through the labyrinths of a deeply individualized consciousness, often characterized by a pathological character;
6) technically complicated style of writing.
RUSSIAN MODERNISM OF THE LATE XIX – BEGINNING OF THE XX CENTURY
Currents, directions, schools
Russian modernism of the late XIX – early XX
Pre-symbolism
Symbolism
Poetry schools of the 10s.
I. Annensky
early K. Balmont
Elder symbolism
symbolism
futurism
Moscow school
St. Petersburg school
A. Bely A. Blok
S. Soloviev
M. Kuzmin
N. Gumilev
A. Akhmatova O. Mandel-shtam
V. Bryusov
K. Balmont
D. Merezhkovsky
Z. Gippius F. Sologub
D. Burliuk,
N. Burliuk,
E. Guro, V. Mayakovsky, V. Khlebnikov
I. Severyanin
RUSSIAN REALISM OF THE END OF THE 19TH – EARLY 20TH CENTURIES
Typology
Russian realism of the late XIX - early XX
Classical
"Natural"
Philosophical-psychological
Heroic-romantic
Expressionistic
L.N. Tolstoy,
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Literature:
1. Sokolov A.G.
2. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. – M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
3. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
4. History of Russian literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
5. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. – M., 1998.
6. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. – St. Petersburg, 1998.
Topic 3. Specifics of realism at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries
1. Typology of realism: classical realism, philosophical and psychological realism, “natural” realism, expressionistic realism, socialist realism. Neo-naturalism.
2. Features of poetics.
Realism(from Latin realis - material, real) - a direction in world art that became widespread in the second half of the 19th century, manifesting itself in subsequent eras of cultural development.
The main features of the philosophy and aesthetics of realism:
1) ideological foundations - the ideas of materialism and positivism;
2) the desire for an objective depiction of life, which is achieved by following the principles of a) social; b) historical; c) psychological determinism (conditionality) of images;
3) nationality;
4) historicism;
5) an attempt to present the world in all its complexity and inconsistency, but at the same time whole;
6) the desire to understand the laws of reality in order to change it for the better;
7) understanding of art as a means of a person’s knowledge of himself and the surrounding reality;
8) absence of taboo topics, because the basic requirements for art are authenticity, accuracy, truthfulness.
9) hero – a common person, as a rule, a typical representative of a particular historical era, a certain social circle.
* Some literary theorists deny the existence of realism as a literary movement, believing that from the late 18th to the mid-20th century, romanticism existed in art, within which three stages are distinguished: romanticism proper, late romanticism (what is traditionally called realism) and post-romanticism (traditionally – modernism).
Features of Russian realism of the late 19th – early 20th centuries:
1) transitional nature (If in the second half of the 19th century realism was the central direction in art, then at the turn of the century modernism began to compete with it, significantly influencing it.);
2) heterogeneity (Almost each of the realist authors understands realism in his own way, expressing his ideas about it through an appeal to the traditions of romanticism (M. Gorky, V. Korolenko), expressionism (L. Andreev), impressionism (A.P. Chekhov ) and etc.);
3) preference is given to small epic forms (the genre of the novel is central to the realistic prose of the second half of the 19th century century - is practically replaced by the genres of short stories and novels.);
4) the gravity of realistic works epic genre to lyricism;
5) the desire to create symbolic images.
Types of Russian realism of the late 19th – early 20th centuries
Classical
"Natural" realism
Philosophical-psychological realism
Heroic-romantic realism
Expressionistic realism
L.N. Tolstoy,
A.P. Chekhov
A.I. Kuprin,
V.V. Veresaev
I.A. Bunin
A.M. Bitter,
A.I. Serafimovich
L. Andreev
Each individual person represents a whole world, therefore, knowledge of the laws of existence seems possible only through comprehension of the world of an individual human personality.
The highest achievements in Russian art are associated with realism, so it is necessary to continue its traditions. The main goal of a turn-of-the-century realist is to help and support a person who has lost his or her orientation in a changed world.
The most striking implementation of the idea “man is the universe.” If you want to know the world, know a person. Basis: philosophy of anthropocosmism
Ideological bias and political bias in literature; The priority becomes not the individual, but the collective principle; when creating an image, the factor of social conditioning is put at the forefront.
Realistic images should be so vivid and impressive that the reader experiences an emotional shock.
Literature:
1. Literary encyclopedic dictionary / translation by V. Kozhevnikov and P. Nikolaev - M., 1987.
2. Khalizev V.E. Theory of literature. – M., 1999.
3. Rudnev V. Dictionary of 20th century culture. – M., 1999.
4. Rudnev V. Encyclopedic Dictionary of 20th Century Culture. – M., 2001.
5. Sokolov A.G.. History of Russian literature from the 19th to the 20th century. – M., 1999.
6. History of Russian literature: in 10 T. – M.; L., 1954. T. 10.
7. History of Russian literature: in 3 T. - M., 1964. T.3.
8. History of Russian literature: in 4 T. - L., 1984. T. 4.
9. P.S. Gurevich. Culturology. – M., 1998.
10. Philosophy of culture. Formation and development. – St. Petersburg, 1998.
11. Byaly G.A. Russian realism towards the 19th century. – L., 1973.
12. Keldysh V.A. Russian realism of the 20th century. – M., 1975.
Topic 4. The fate of realism in the works of V. Veresaev, A. Kuprin, M. Gorky, L. Andreev
1. “Natural realism” by V. Veresaev and A. Kuprin. Veresaev's artistic chronicle and Kuprin's extensive way of writing.
2. M. Gorky: mythologies of reality.
3. Expressionistic paradigm in the works of L. Andreev.
V.V. Veresaev
The specificity of worldview, due to the collapse of populist ideals. The text as an “artistic chronicle of the life of the intelligentsia” of the border period. Subjects and issues: the theme of the intelligentsia, peasant theme, the theme of the mission of art. Late Veresaev: artistic literary criticism.
A.I. Kuprin
An extensive way of knowing existence. Specifics of searching for and finding a hero. Features of the plot: rehabilitation of the adventurous element. Dostoevsky and Nietzsche in the artistic consciousness of the writer. A spontaneous element in Kuprin's prose. Topics and problems. Naturalistic component in the writer’s artistic system.
"Garnet bracelet"
Genre: story
Subject: the love story of a minor official Zheltkov for Princess Vera Nikolaevna Sheina
Problem: searching for an answer to the question “What is true love? What does it require from a person?
Style: realistic with pronounced elements of romanticism
The concept of love in the story
Concept
The essence of the concept
Examples from the text
Love in performance Zheltkova
Love is knightly service to the Beautiful Lady. This feeling does not require an answer, does not insist on anything. Love presupposes complete self-denial, since only the happiness and peace of the beloved being matters to the lover. Suffering caused by love is accepted as a blessing, since true love, even unrequited love, is the highest happiness that can be sent to a person.
For example, a letter to Princess Vera on her name day, a farewell letter.
Love in performance
Prince Vasily
Love in life modern man- a somewhat comical feeling: it belongs more in ancient novels than in reality, where ardent passion often turns into a funny anecdote. The most logical way to develop a feeling of love is to develop it into a feeling of friendship. However, this confidence wavers somewhat after meeting Zheltkov.
For example, the album of Prince Vasily, which contains illustrated semi-anecdotal stories of love interests, the heroes of which are people from his closest circle (Vera, Lyudmila, etc.)
Love in performance
Faith
True love has not yet touched her. Having not experienced this feeling herself, she is content with the calm, even, rather friendly than love, relationship established between her and Prince Vasily. Zheltkov’s death demonstrates to her the power of true love, fulfilling his last will, she experiences a kind of catharsis - purification through suffering. Thus, she comes close to understanding the true essence of love.
For example, final scenes story: visiting Zheltkov’s apartment after his death and saying goodbye to him, feelings and thoughts evoked by Beethoven’s music, the feeling that she and Prince Vasily will no longer be able to live as before.
Love in performance
Anna
The main thing in life is to get maximum impressions and pleasures. Love in reality is most successfully realized in the form of light flirting, which does not make anyone suffer, but brings only joy and entertainment.
For example, scenes with Vasyuchko, the idea of a gift for Vera is an old prayer book, converted into a lady’s notebook.
Love as seen by a general Anosova
The stories about love told by the old general most clearly confirm the concept of love, the bearer of which in the story is Zheltkov: true love requires self-sacrifice and self-denial from a person. He is the first to understand that life path Vera was crossed by that very “love that all women dream of, but which men are no longer capable of.” Emasculation of the essence of a love feeling, from the point of view of General Anosov, will lead to catastrophic consequences for humanity.
For example, the scene of an evening walk after Vera’s name day is the memoirs of General Anosov (love stories).
A.M. Bitter
The “mediumistic” role of Gorky’s personality in Russian cultural life at the turn of the century. The specificity of the romantic paradigm in his early work: epigonism or neo-mythologization (transformation of the mythology of the Old Testament and rethinking of Nietzsche’s mythology). Anarchistic and systematizing tendencies in artistic thinking. Prose of early Gorky. The novel “Mother” - “The Gospel of Maxim”?
Pre-October creativity of A.M. Gorky (1868-1936): play “At the Depths”
Genre and content features of the play -
Realism (from the Latin “realis” - real, material) is a direction in art that arose at the end of the 18th century, reached its peak in the 19th, continues to develop at the beginning of the 20th century and still exists. Its goal is the real and objective reproduction of objects and objects of the surrounding world, while preserving them typical features and features. In progress historical development of all art in general, realism acquired specific forms and methods, as a result of which three stages are distinguished: educational (Era of Enlightenment, late 18th century), critical (19th century) and socialist realism (early 20th century).
The term “realism” was first used by the French literary critic Jules Jeanfleury, who in his book “Realism” (1857) interpreted this concept as art created to counter movements such as romanticism and academicism. It acted as a form of response to idealization, which is characteristic of romanticism and the classical principles of academicism. Having a sharp social orientation, it was called critical. This direction reflected acute social problems in the art world and assessed various phenomena in the life of society of that time. Its leading principles consisted of an objective reflection of the essential aspects of life, which at the same time contained the height and truth of the author’s ideals, in the reproduction of characteristic situations and typical characters, while maintaining the fullness of their artistic individuality.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
Realism of the early twentieth century was aimed at searching for new connections between man and the reality around him, new creative ways and methods, original means artistic expression. Often it was not expressed in its pure form; it is characterized by a close connection with such movements in the art of the twentieth century as symbolism, religious mysticism, and modernism.
Realism in painting
Appearance this direction in French painting primarily associated with the name of the artist Gustave Courbier. After several paintings, especially significant for the author, were rejected as exhibits at the World Exhibition in Paris, in 1855 he opened his own “Pavilion of Realism”. The declaration put forward by the artist proclaimed the principles of a new direction in painting, the goal of which was to create living art that conveyed the morals, customs, ideas and appearance of his contemporaries. “Courbier’s realism” immediately caused a sharp reaction from society and critics, who claimed that he, “hiding behind realism, slanderes nature,” called him an artisan in painting, made parodies of him in the theater and denigrated him in every possible way.
(Gustave Courbier "Self-portrait with a black dog")
Realistic art is based on its own special view of surrounding reality, which criticizes and analyzes many aspects of society. Hence the name of realism of the 19th century “critical”, because it criticized, first of all, the inhumane essence of the cruel exploitative system, showed the abject poverty and suffering of the offended common people, injustice and permissiveness of those in power. Criticizing the foundations of the existing bourgeois society, realist artists were noble humanists who believed in Goodness, Supreme Justice, Universal Equality and Happiness for everyone without exception. Later (1870), realism splits into two branches: naturalism and impressionism.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
The main themes of artists who painted their canvases in the style of realism were genre scenes urban and rural life of ordinary people (peasants, workers), scenes of street events and incidents, portraits of regulars in street cafes, restaurants and nightclubs. For realist artists, it was important to convey the moments of life in its dynamics, to emphasize the individual characteristics of the acting characters as believably as possible, to realistically show their feelings, emotions and experiences. The main characteristic of paintings depicting human bodies is their sensuality, emotionality and naturalism.
Realism as a direction in painting developed in many countries of the world such as France (Barbizon school), Italy (it was known as verismo), Great Britain (Figurative school), USA (Edward Hopper's Garbage Pail School, art school Thomas Eakins), Australia (Heidelberg School, Tom Roberts, Frederick McCubbin), in Russia it was known as the movement of Itinerant artists.
(Julien Dupre "The Shepherd")
French paintings, written in the spirit of realism, often belonged to the landscape genre, in which the authors tried to convey the nature around them, the beauty of the French province, rural landscapes, which, in their opinion, perfectly demonstrated the “real” France in all its splendor. The paintings of French realist artists did not depict idealized types, there were real people, everyday situations without embellishment, there was no usual aesthetics and the imposition of universal truths.
(Honoré Daumier "Third Class Carriage")
The most prominent representatives French realism in painting there were artists Gustav Courbier (“The Artist’s Workshop”, “The Stone Crusher”, “The Knitter”), Honoré Daumier (“The Third Class Car”, “On the Street”, “The Laundress”), Francois Millet (“The Sower”, “The Pickers” Kolosev", "Angelus", "Death and the Woodcutter").
(François Millet "The Ear Pickers")
In Russia, the development of realism in fine arts is closely related to the awakening of public consciousness and the development of democratic ideas. Progressive citizens of society denounced the existing political system, showed deep sympathy for the tragic fate of the ordinary Russian people.
(Alexey Savrasov "The rooks have arrived")
The group of Itinerant artists, formed towards the end of the 19th century, included such great Russian masters of the brush as landscape painters Ivan Shishkin (“Morning in a Pine Forest”, “Rye”, “Pine Forest”) and Alexey Savrasov (“The Rooks Have Arrived”, "Rural View", "Rainbow"), masters of genre and historical paintings Vasily Perov (“Troika”, “Hunters at a Rest”, “Rural Procession at Easter”) and Ivan Kramskoy (“Unknown”, “Inconsolable Grief”, “Christ in the Desert”), outstanding painter Ilya Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga ”, “They didn’t expect”, “Religious procession in the Kursk province”), a master of depicting large-scale historical events Vasily Surikov (“Morning of the Streltsy Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”, “Suvorov’s Crossing of the Alps”) and many others (Vasnetsov, Polenov, Levitan),
(Valentin Serov "Girl with Peaches")
By the beginning of the twentieth century, the traditions of realism were firmly entrenched in the fine arts of that time, and were continued by such artists as Valentin Serov (“Girl with Peaches” “Peter I”), Konstantin Korovin (“In Winter”, “At the Tea Table”, “Boris Godunov” . Coronation"), Sergei Ivanov ("Family", "The Arrival of the Voivode", "Death of a Migrant").
Realism in 19th century art
Critical realism, which appeared in France and reached its peak in many European countries by the middle of the 19th century, arose in opposition to the traditions of the previous movements in art, such as romanticism and academicism. His main task became an objective and truthful reflection of the “truth of life” using specific means of art.
The emergence of new technologies, the development of medicine, science, various branches of industrial production, the growth of cities, increased exploitative pressure on peasants and workers, all this could not but affect cultural sphere that time, which subsequently led to the development of a new movement in art - realism, designed to reflect the life of the new society without embellishment and distortion.
(Daniel Defoe)
The English writer and publicist Daniel Defoe is considered the founder of European realism in literature. In his works “Diary of the Plague Year”, “Roxana”, “The Joys and Sorrows of Mole Flanders”, “The Life and Amazing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe”, he reflects various social contradictions of that time, they are based on the statement about the good beginning of every person, which can change under the pressure of external circumstances.
The founder of literary realism and the psychological novel in France is the writer Frederic Stendhal. His famous novels“Red and Black”, “Red and White” showed readers that the description of ordinary scenes of life and everyday human experiences and emotions can be performed with the greatest skill and elevate it to the rank of art. Also among the outstanding realist writers of the 19th century are the French Gustave Flaubert (“Madame Bovary”), Guy de Maupassant (“Dear Friend,” “Strong as Death”), Honore de Balzac (series of novels “ Human Comedy"), the Englishman Charles Dickens ("Oliver Twist", "David Copperfield"), the Americans William Faulkner and Mark Twain.
At the origins of Russian realism stood such outstanding masters of the pen as playwright Alexander Griboyedov, poet and writer Alexander Pushkin, fabulist Ivan Krylov, and their successors Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolai Gogol, Anton Chekhov, Leo Tolstoy, Fyodor Dostoevsky.
The painting of the period of realism of the 19th century is characterized by an objective image real life. French artists, led by Theodore Rousseau, painted rural landscapes and scenes from street life, proving that ordinary unadorned nature can also be a unique material for creating masterpieces of fine art.
One of the most scandalous artists realists of that time, who caused a storm of criticism and condemnation, was Gustav Courbier. His still lifes, landscape paintings (“Deer at a Watering Hole”), genre scenes (“Funeral in Ornans”, “Stone Crusher”).
(Pavel Fedotov "Major's Matchmaking")
The founder of Russian realism is the artist Pavel Fedotov, his famous paintings “The Major’s Matchmaking”, “ Fresh gentleman“, in his works he exposes the vicious morals of society, and expresses his sympathy for the poor and oppressed people. Continuers of its traditions can be called the movement of Peredvizhniki artists, which was founded in 1870 by fourteen best artist graduates of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Arts together with other painters. Their first exhibition, opened in 1871, was a huge success with the public; it showed a reflection of the real life of ordinary Russian people living in terrible conditions of poverty and oppression. These are famous paintings by Repin, Surikov, Perov, Levitan, Kramskoy, Vasnetsov, Polenov, Ge, Vasiliev, Kuindzhi and other outstanding Russian realist artists.
(Konstantin Meunier "Industry")
In the 19th century, architecture, architecture and related applied arts were in a state of deep crisis and decline, which predetermined unfavorable conditions for the development of monumental sculpture and painting. The dominant capitalist system was hostile to those types of art that were directly related to social life collective ( public buildings, ensembles of broad civil significance), realism as a direction in art was able to fully develop in the fine arts and partly in sculpture. Outstanding realist sculptors of the 19th century: Constantin Meunier (“The Loader,” “Industry,” “The Puddle Man,” “The Hammerman”) and Auguste Rodin (“The Thinker,” “The Walker,” “The Citizens of Calais”).
Realism in 20th century art
In the post-revolutionary period and during the creation and prosperity of the USSR, socialist realism became the dominant direction in Russian art (1932 - the appearance of this term, its author Soviet writer I. Gronsky), which was an aesthetic reflection of the socialist concept of Soviet society.
(K. Yuon "New Planet")
The basic principles of socialist realism, aimed at truthful and realistic image surrounding world in its revolutionary development, there were principles:
- Nationalities. Use common speech patterns and proverbs to make literature understandable to the people;
- Ideology. Designate heroic deeds, new ideas and ways necessary for the happiness of ordinary people;
- Specifics. Depict the surrounding reality in the process of historical development, corresponding to its materialistic understanding.
In literature, the main representatives of social realism were the writers Maxim Gorky (“Mother”, “Foma Gordeev”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, “At the Depth”, “Song of the Petrel”), Mikhail Sholokhov (“Virgin Soil Upturned”, the epic novel “Quiet”) Don"), Nikolai Ostrovsky (novel “How the Steel Was Tempered”), Alexander Serafimovich (story “Iron Stream”), poet Alexander Tvardovsky (poem “Vasily Terkin”), Alexander Fadeev (novels “Destruction”, “Young Guard”) and etc.
(M. L. Zvyagin "To work")
Also in the USSR, the works of such foreign authors as the pacifist writer Henri Barbusse (the novel “Fire”), the poet and prose writer Louis Aragon, the German playwright Bertolt Brecht, the German writer and communist Anna Seghers (the novel “The Seventh Cross”) were considered among the socialist realist writers. , Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda, Brazilian writer Jorge Amado (“Captains of the Sand”, “Donna Flor and Her Two Husbands”).
Prominent representatives of the direction of socialist realism in Soviet painting: Alexander Deineka (“Defense of Sevastopol”, “Mother”, “Future pilots”, “Physical worker”), V. Favorsky, Kukryniksy, A. Gerasimov (“Lenin on the podium”, “After the rain”, “Portrait of the ballerina O.V. Lepeshinskaya"), A. Plastov ("Bathing the Horses", "Tractor Drivers' Dinner", "Collective Farm Herd"), A. Laktionov ("Letter from the Front"), P. Konchalovsky ("Lilac"), K. Yuon (" Komsomol members”, “People”, “New Planet”), P. Vasiliev (portraits and stamps depicting Lenin and Stalin), V. Svarog (“Hero-pilots in the Kremlin before the flight”, “May Day - Pioneers”), N Baskakov (“Lenin and Stalin in Smolny”) F. Reshetnikov (“Deuce Again,” “Arrived on Vacation”), K. Maksimov and others.
(Vera Mukhina monument "Worker and Collective Farm Woman")
Outstanding Soviet sculptors-monumentalists of the era of socialist realism were Vera Mukhina (monument “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”), Nikolai Tomsky (bas-relief of 56 figures “Defense, Labor, Leisure” on the House of Soviets on Moskovsky Prospekt in Leningrad), Evgenia Vuchetich (monument “Warrior” Liberator" in Berlin, the sculpture "The Motherland Calls!" in Volgograd), Sergei Konenkov. As a rule, especially durable materials such as granite, steel or bronze were selected for large-scale monumental sculptures, and they were installed in open spaces to perpetuate particularly important historical events or heroic-epic deeds.