Main styles of architecture in the 19th century. Architecture of public buildings of the 19th century

28.04.2019

M. Kozlovsky. Monument to A. Suvorov on the Champ de Mars. 1801
Suvorov appeared in the guise of Mars, dressed in armor, a helmet and a cloak.
On the pedestal of the monument are allegorical figures of the geniuses of Glory and Peace. On the shield there is an inscription: “Prince of Italy, Count Suvorov
Rymniksky"

Russian architecture of the first half of the 19th century

First quarter of the 19th century in Russia - a time of great urban development. In architecture, the main thing is the construction of civil and administrative buildings. Architecture is inextricably linked with sculpture. The synthesis of arts is one of the manifestations of a single stylistic principle, which for Russian art was high classicism, otherwise called the Russian Empire style, whose masters were A.N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharov, K.I. Rossi, V.P. Stasov.
Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin (1759-1814), son of a serf, studied painting in Moscow. After his owner A.S. Stroganov gave him freedom, Voronikhin independently studies architecture.

Voronikhin's main creation is the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg. The task facing the architect was difficult. The Cathedral of St. Petersburg was supposed to have a colonnade, like in front of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. Voronikhin placed the colonnade on the side facade facing Nevsky Prospekt; it was assumed that there would be a similar colonnade on the other side, but this plan was not realized.
The cathedral was decorated with various sculptural compositions, on which the largest Russian sculptors of that time worked - Prokofiev, Martos, Shchedrin. After the war with Napoleon, the temple became a monument to military valor: Kutuzov was buried here in the 30s. Monuments to Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly were erected in front of the cathedral.

Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov (1761-1811), after graduating from the Academy of Arts and a boarding trip to France, taught at the Academy. In 1805, Zakharov was appointed “chief architect of the Admiralty.” In 1806, he began the reconstruction of the Admiralty, which combined administrative buildings, docks and production buildings. The main facade, 406 m long, is divided into five main parts: a central tower, two wings and two buildings between them. Zakharov preserved the gilded spire of the tower, enriching its decorative frame. The sculptural decoration in an allegorical form reflects the idea of Russia as a maritime power. Thus, the relief frieze of the attic is dedicated to the “Establishment of the Fleet in Russia”, above the entrance arch there are figures crossing banners - allegories of the victories of the Russian fleet. On high pedestals, paired groups of nymphs holding spheres are allegories of round-the-world sea voyages. The composition of the building uses the Doric order, and the Ionic order in the tower.

At the beginning of the century, a number of buildings that determined the architectural appearance of St. Petersburg were created by the Swiss Thomas de
Thomon (1760-1813). One of them was the Exchange on the Spit of Vasilyevsky Island. The building body is raised on a high plinth.
After the victorious war with Napoleon, active construction began in Moscow, which was burned by the occupiers; large construction work was carried out at that time in St. Petersburg. Under the leadership of O.I. Beauvais (1784-1834) in the Kremlin, the towers and parts of the wall, blown up by the French during the retreat, were restored. Solemnity and triumphalism intensified in architecture. Ensemble development and the use of monumental sculpture developed.

The largest representative of the Empire style was Karl Ivanovich Rossi (1775-1849), who erected the General Staff building, the center of which was the triumphal arch. At the same time, the architect began creating the ensemble of the Mikhailovsky Palace. Rossi proceeded from the traditional layout scheme for Russian architecture: the main building and service wings form a single whole with the front courtyard. Behind there was a vast park. The palace closed the perspective with a street leading to Nevsky Prospekt. In the second half of the 20s. Rossi created the ensemble of the Alexandrinsky Theater, finding a favorable location for the theater in relation to Nevsky Prospekt. Rossi's last large ensemble was the buildings of the Synod and the Senate, united by an arch spanning Galernaya Street, corresponding to the composition of the Admiralty, located on the other side of the square.

V.P. Stasov (1769-1848) rebuilt the Stable Yard on the Moika embankment in St. Petersburg and created the Barracks of the Pavlovsk Regiment on the Field of Mars. The center of the new facade, facing the Campus Martius, was decorated with a solemn colonnade of the Doric order. In the 30s Stasov participated in the restoration of the interiors of the Winter Palace after the fire.
Auguste Ricard de Montferrand (1786-1858). The most important event was the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral according to the design of O. Montferrand, which lasted from 1818 to 1842. The height of the building is 101.5 m, the length with porticoes is 111 m, the diameter of the dome is 21.8 m. The outside of the building is surrounded by 112 granite columns 17 m high The cathedral was built in the style of classicism with elements of baroque and renaissance, which was manifested in the sculptural decor. The pediments of the temple are decorated with high reliefs, figures of kneeling angels are installed on the corners of the roof of the building, and evangelists are installed on the pediments. In total, the cathedral is decorated with 350 statues and reliefs cast in bronze. The mighty bell, weighing 29.8 tons, made a sound that could be heard on the outskirts of the city. The interior decoration of the cathedral was amazing in its splendor. The walls are lined with white Italian marble, the panels are made of green, red marble, multi-colored jasper, and red porphyry. The interior contains mosaic and
paintings by K.P. Bryullova, F.A. Bruni, V.K. Shebuev and other Russian and foreign artists. The shrine of the cathedral was the icon of the miraculous Image of the Savior, which belonged to Peter I.

Classicism sculpture

The flourishing of sculpture was associated with the socio-political upsurge in Russia. The largest master, representative of classicism, whose works were in Arkhangelsk, Odessa, Taganrog, was Ivan Petrovich Martos (1754-1835). Martos's outstanding work was the monument to Minin and Pozharsky, on which the sculptor began work in 1804. Installed on Red Square, the monument represents Kuzma Minin pointing to Moscow, and the wounded Prince Pozharsky rising from his bed. For the Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg, Martos created the monumental high relief “Moses Giving Out Water in the Desert” on the attic of the cathedral colonnade, as well as the figure of an archangel and the statue of John the Baptist. In the late period of his creativity, Martos performed a monument to Richelieu in Odessa and M.V. Lomonosov in Arkhangelsk.

Among the sculptors who communicated with architecture are V.I. Demut-Malinovsky (1779-1846) and S.S. Pimenov (1784-1833), who worked on sculptures for the Kazan Cathedral together with Voronikhin. Pimenov made the sculpture of Alexander Nevsky, and Demut-Malinovsky - the statue of St. Andrew the First-Called. For the Admiralty, the sculptors created three colossal figures that personified the countries of the world. Since 1817, sculptors began to collaborate with K.I. Rossi, creating sculptures of the arch of the General Staff. The arch was crowned with a composition “Victory” made of sheet copper, the central figure of which was the winged Glory standing in a chariot with the emblem of the state raised. I.I. Terebenev (1780-1815) made sculptures for the Admiralty, including the 22-meter high relief “Establishment of the Fleet in Russia,” placed on the attic of the lower cube of the Admiralty tower.

B.I. Orlovsky (1796-1837) created monuments to Field Marshal Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral.
F.P. worked in small forms of sculpture. Tolstoy (1783-1873), who created a series of medallions made of plaster, porcelain, bronze, cast iron, dedicated to events The Patriotic War of 1812 and military actions of 1813-1814. Most of the medallions represent allegorical compositions. In 1814-1816. Tolstoy made four bas-reliefs with scenes from Homer's Odyssey.

F.P. Tolstoy. People's militia of 1812. Medallion. 1816
A woman is depicted sitting on a throne, personifying Russia. She hands swords to the nobleman, merchant and peasant

What was the 19th century like in Russia?— a time of state anxiety and upheaval? A rickety autocracy, uprisings of peasants and intellectuals, wars depleting the Russian land... And still the same claim to power throughout the world.

The greatness of the empire could only be reflected in one style - Russian (empire) with its restrained pomp, pretentiousness in details and overload of architectural elements. It was this architectural direction that dominated in the 19th century.

At this time, the most famous masters create their architectural masterpieces:

A.N. ;
HELL. ;
K.I. ;
V.P. .

Changes Moscow architecture of the 19th century: a fire in 1812 destroyed many buildings. Rolling up his sleeves, O.I. took up the task of restoring the modern capital. . Thanks to him, today Moscow can boast of its attractions to tourists:

Red Square Ensemble;
Ensemble Theater Square;
Manege building;
Kremlin (Alexandrovsky) Garden;
Triumphal Gate.

Almost in parallel with Bove, D.I. worked. . This one immortalized his name in the following projects:

Moscow University;
Board of Trustees;
The Lunins' house on Nikitsky Boulevard.

Russian architecture in the first thirds of the XIX V. reaches its peak. Period 1810-1830s - a brilliant and at the same time the final stage of Russian classicism.

After the end of the war of 1812 - 1814. extensive construction is underway in the country and, under the control of the state, large urban planning tasks are being successfully solved, majestic ensembles of streets and squares are being created, in the architecture of which the architects sought to express the triumph of the victory of the Russian people.

Peculiarities last stage architecture of classicism, reflected in early XIX V. only on individual buildings in St. Petersburg and Moscow, now appear nationwide in the field of civil, industrial and rural construction. This was facilitated by new forms of organization of construction, in particular the widespread use of uniform norms and rules for the planning and development of cities, exemplary designs of administrative buildings and facades of residential buildings. They were now created in a new way and architectural ensembles. If previously they developed around a large, central building, now the main thing became the square or street space, equipped with simultaneously designed public, administrative and residential buildings.

The type of noble estate that dominated the architecture of Russian classicism of the previous period is giving way to new types of buildings - a residential mansion in Moscow and provincial cities, an apartment building in St. Petersburg. The palace and estate forms of architecture of public buildings of the late 18th - early 19th centuries are gradually dying out.

Construction technology continues to develop, metal structures are being developed and used in public and industrial buildings.

The achievements of Russian architecture of this period are associated with the work of outstanding architects late classicism, such as Rossi, Stasov, Mikhailov - in St. Petersburg, Beauvais, Gilardi, Grigoriev - in Moscow, Sviyazev, Komarov and others - in mining areas and cities of Russia.

Since the 30s. XIX century the first signs of the collapse of classicism architecture, the disunity of its technical, utilitarian and artistic principles appear. In the 1830-1840s. a division of architecture into “high” and “low” arises. Civil architecture is beginning to be seen as a "fine art". This was alien to the progressive principles of Russian classicism architecture. These trends led to a decrease artistic requirements in the architecture of mass buildings.

Russian classicism with its hundred years of progressive development by the end of the first half of the 19th century V. has exhausted its possibilities. The canonization of the principles of classicism architecture and at the same time the unprincipled use of forms and styles of architecture from antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Renaissance led in the 1840-1850s. to the spread of stylization and eclecticism.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, the trend has changed. Ancient traditions in art and architecture come to the fore. The result is a “Russian-Byzantine” style. One of the founders of the direction was K.A. Tone. It was he who created the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, which is still considered an architectural masterpiece. And the architect K.A. Tone gained fame as the founder of the movement.

Based on the mixture of Old Russian and Byzantine traditions, numerous branches appear:

"Pseudo-Russian style";
"Russian style";
"Neo-Russian style".

The active work of the Narodniks and their desire to revive Russian culture led to the widespread use of:

Windows in the traditions of Russian architecture;
Small brick ornamentation;
Tents, kokoshniks, porches.

The following masters worked on the revival of culture:

Rezanov;
Gornostaev;
Ropet.

Last years of the 19th century. marked the rapid development of the “neo-Russian style”.

The 19th century turned out to be eventful for the Russian land: wars, uprisings and riots, the undermining of autocratic power... All this could not but affect the architecture of this era, which became a strict continuation of the classics and was filled with ancient Russian motifs.

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19th century styles

One of the main damn XIX century there was a revival of old styles, including Rococo, Greek and Gothic. This mixture, as well as the increasing use of machinery in furniture making, has led some designers and craftsmen to turn to more traditional methods of furniture making and more refined designs. Japanese design later gained influence, while Art Nouveau ("new art"), fashionable from the 1880s to 1914, looked to the past for inspiration and created new styles, such as that of Charles Rennie Mackintosh and the Vienna Workshops.

The highly overloaded Louis XV style originated in the 1730s. Spread to Italy and Germany, which created their own modifications with a tendency towards even greater excesses.

neoclassical

In the 1750s, Greek and Roman styles with their geometric shapes and strictly classical ornaments were revived. Chippendale, Ince and Mayhew created furniture in this style.

styleeraRenaissance

This style, which originated in Italy in the 13th-14th centuries, is characterized by the revival of classical design. Pieces of furniture are lavishly carved, often with architectural details, decoration of mythological figures, cherubs and acanthus scrolls.

baroque

Also originated in Italy. Furniture in this style had an architectural feature: large wall mirrors with lush carvings and frames in scrolls, and under them there were console tables with ornaments of cherubs, mythical figures or birds. The cabinets were decorated with mosaics, columns, painted panels and varnish.

Russian style in architecture of the 19th century

The democratic version of the “Russian” style is the most striking phenomenon in the architecture of the 1860-1870s. Like Wandering in painting, it sets the tone in architecture. The point is not in the number of buildings, but in the public response that it received (it is no coincidence that V. A. Hartmann’s projects were inspired by the famous “Pictures at an Exhibition” by M. P. Mussorgsky).

The work of other representatives of the new “Russian” style - I.S. Bogomolov, F.I. Kharlamova, I.P. Kudryavtseva, A.L. Guna, M.A. Kuzmina, A.I. Valberga, N.P. Basina - is developing in the direction set by Gornostaev and Hartmann. They worked a lot in stone, designing apartment buildings, and in them the pettiness, fragmentation, and disproportion of decor to the overall size of the buildings and the overload of details inherent in the direction as a whole stand out especially sharply.

There is a direct connection between the development of certain trends in the “Russian” style and the events of political history. in the unofficial direction of the “Russian” style of the 1830-1850s. nationality and nationality are not differentiated. The stratification occurs at the turn of the 1850-1860s.

In the 1860-1870s. The leading role belongs to the democratic direction, in the shadow of which the others develop. In the 1880s, after the assassination of Alexander II, due to the collapse of the tactics of individual terror, populism experienced a crisis and gradually disappeared from the scene. The same thing happens with the democratic version of the “Russian” style. Its history practically ends with the 1870s. At the same time in the 1870s. the “archaeological” and “soil” direction of the “Russian” style was formed, in the 1880-1890s. The official “Russian” style comes to life, having undergone changes corresponding to the times. All directions of the “Russian” style of the 1880-1890s. more aristocratic in the choice of motives. They are drawn primarily not from peasant architecture, folk and applied arts, but from cult or palace architecture, stone or wooden. The democratic version of the “Russian” style is the only one where a difference is made between the concepts of “national” and “folk”. The emphasis is on nationality (on the nationality of the motive). In other versions of the “Russian” style, the emphasis is not so much on nationality, but on nationality; both concepts in the 19th century. - synonyms, in the national they try to see the expression of the spirit of the people. For the "soil people" folk spirit embodied in Orthodoxy, official nationality- in autocracy. “Archaeologists” define nationality and nationality as identity. The difference in understanding of nationality corresponds to the different attitude of representatives of different directions towards heritage.

“Soil people” are interested in the general foundations of the “Russian” style, the system. In their concept, the Slavophiles come to life about the integrity of Russian folk culture, based on direct, mystically integral knowledge, which is opposed to Western rationalism, about the community and “conciliarity” of folk life with forms of culture and life organically growing from it, about the need to restore the former integrity by bringing together the intelligentsia and people. The program for creating folk culture is inspired by this very goal. In ancient Russian architecture, “soil explorers” are trying to find general patterns of manifestation of the integrity of folk culture in order to revive them in modern architectural practice. The attention of “archaeologists” is absorbed in the study of forms that give unique originality to Russian architecture. Their motto: accurate knowledge of the paternal heritage, excluding the possibility of displacement of elements of different periods and different characteristics in newly designed buildings.

Representatives of the official nationality, as before, associate the state idea with the academic tradition, their slogan is a combination of ancient Russian forms and the principles of “Italian architecture”. The differences between the directions of the “Russian” style are not absolute and rather indicate the placement of accents. “Pochvenniki” in their theories, like “archaeologists,” proceed from the need to scientifically recreate the “Russian” style. “Archaeologists,” like “soil scientists,” see understanding the characteristics of national culture as a guarantee of the truth of the style being reconstructed. Finally, the anti-academicism of both is partial and relative.

In the 1870s. active research and literary activity the head of the scientific “archaeological” direction is L.V. Dahl, but it is difficult to imagine a person more different from the temperamental Stasov than the academic Dahl, reserved in his writings, assessments and conclusions, who preferred the reliability of an exact fact and was far from politics. If Stasov constantly emphasizes the democracy of the new “Russian” style, its connection with literature, Wandering, and music, then Dal, although he sees this commonality, emphasizes something else - on originality and on the need for its revival in architecture on a truly scientific basis: “ Modern direction, to which art is currently striving, is marked by the character of nationality, in the sense that we take elements for the development of Russian art directly from folk life... Newly emerging, Russian direction constitutes a natural consequence of self-awareness developing in us and a more serious study of the depth of the spiritual life of the Russian people.”

The “archaeological” trend, one of the brightest, but not the only representative of which was Dahl, was born and developed in line with the liberal social movement of the post-reform decades. A significant role in its formation was played by the revival of patriotic feelings caused by the Russian-Turkish war, waged under the banner of liberation Slavic peoples. His supporters, far from Stasov’s radicalism, but quite frank in their democratic sympathies and anti-monarchist sentiments, are grouped around the publication that began publishing in 1872. magazine "Architect". They all share N.I.’s belief. Rochefort that the decline and rise of architecture are directly dependent on political system. In particular, the decline of architecture in the era of classicism was caused by the oppression of absolutism, since the rigidity of the norms it imposed in art excluded the possibility of free creativity.

Dahl, an architect by training, went down in the history of Russian architecture as its historian. Convinced that “the past is a rich source of elements of original art,” he made the study of the Russian heritage his life’s work. “Although the Russian style, by virtue of already historical conditions, and could not develop such expedient and perfect forms as, for example, Gothic or Romanesque, but, nevertheless, the main principles of the expediency and meaningfulness of Byzantine architecture, which served as the foundation for our architecture, passed into its forms. But these principles are still dark for us or have not been explored at all by us. Without carefully studying them, we will fall into mistakes that sharply contradict aesthetic requirements; we will place forms of different origins side by side and different eras, not at all suspecting our delusion. The fruit of such a frivolous attitude towards art will be a violation of the harmony of the parts and, therefore, a lack of integrity and completeness.

Understanding the logical origin of parts in a whole work of architecture is possible only through serious historical study of it. That's why we need historical research our monuments, and especially now, in view of the development of domestic architecture.” This is Dahl's credo - precise knowledge and precise use of his results.

Since 1872 until his death (1878) Dahl annually made expeditions to study ancient monuments. First of all, those architectural motifs and details that could be directly used were sketched and measured - platbands, portals, porches, galleries, cornice profiles, window bars and church fences, wooden carvings of piers, towels, carved fans and ridges of peasant huts.

“Archaeologists” were aware that only the motive could be reproduced. Dal writes about this without mincing words: “Our modern Russian style borrows motifs not from the basic forms of arrangement of the ancient building, not from those few structural elements that were processed in the original way by the life of the people... but is limited to the reproduction and development of ornaments of Russian origin. This direction is partly due to insufficient familiarity with the original forms of ancient Russian architecture, and mainly due to the fact that these forms can no longer satisfy the modern way of life.” But Dahl, and none of his contemporaries, conclude that using motifs from ancient Russian architecture is unacceptable. For pragmatists, positivists and rationalists of the late 19th century. The thought of returning to antiquity seems absurd and impossible. They, the people of their time, value progress, believe in science and want to extract the maximum possible from it, not only technically, but also artistically. “Archaeologists” tried to revive not ancient Russian architecture, but nationality in modern architecture. And they sought to make knowledge of the motives of antiquity the property of architects all the more persistently because they were convinced of the existence of a material equivalent of the national idea. "In pursuit of originality, our contemporary art greedily seizes on every motif for ornamentation that is found in antiquity or among the people, and from this gradually creates his own style.”

Research on the history of Russian architecture, the department of Russian architecture in the magazine “Zodchiy”, historical departments at the All-Russian Polytechnic Exhibition in Moscow in 1872, at the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibitions in 1882. in Moscow and in 1896 in Nizhny Novgorod, reports at meetings of the Moscow and St. Petersburg architectural societies, archaeological congresses (the history of architecture was then considered a branch of archeology), and trips of pensioners around Russia did their job. The classicist non-addressed form, interpreted in the “Russian” style in general, is gradually disappearing from the work of architects. The drawing of details becomes more and more characteristic and concrete, and motifs of different origins are placed side by side less and less often, which is what Dahl was so afraid of.

In the 1870-1890s. Along with Dahl’s calm archaeology, V.O.’s militantly aggressive pochvenism, flavored with a fair amount of nationalism, is being formed. Sherwood, architect, sculptor, philosopher, architectural theorist.

He builds his architectural concept based on the philosophical doctrine of the late Slavophile N.Ya. Danilevsky - the creator of the theory of cultural-historical type and partly his successor in this matter, K.N. Leontyev. According to this theory, each of the historical peoples personifies a certain idea, embodying it in a culture that, like a living organism, is born, reaches maturity and, having exhausted itself, dies. Since the idea of a people and its spirit are eternal and unchangeable, the principles in which it is embodied are also unchangeable. The great geniuses of the past are great because they were able to penetrate the innermost secrets of the spirit.

Sherwood sees his task in understanding how the idea of the Russian people is manifested in art, and to formulate the eternal laws of beauty that underlie it. Confident of their existence, Sherwood fearlessly sets about identifying them, then modeling the system of Russian architecture. He does not allow even a shadow of doubt that “it is destined to the bearer of pure Christian faith - the Russian people - to restore the fullness and all-round manifestation of the spiritual idea in architecture.”

A supporter of the integrity of the artistic system, Sherwood, however, still understands it mechanically, in isolation from the structural and planning basis of the buildings. At the same time, his method - synthesis as a result of analysis - anticipates the research methodology in modernity, the goal of which is always to synthesize the past, and not to identify the individual, although characteristic, as in eclecticism.

A herald of the ideas of the 20th century, an apologist for spirituality and integrity, an enemy of rationalism and analysis, Sherwood, a true opponent of academicism, does not accept the Renaissance, but motivates his antipathy differently than Stasov or Gogol. His revival repels him because of the lack of a “clearly defined idea” - the renewal of pagan art, according to Sherwood, is not an idea; the restoration of pagan morality would be the fall, not the rise, of humanity. The source of the flowering of art is faith. The sincerity of religious feeling determines the perfection of pre-Raphaelian art. In the post-Louis periods, that is, after the French bourgeois revolution of 1789, “the ideal mood that evokes creativity gradually disappeared. Rationalism, and then positivism, expressed in extreme materialism, did not have the slightest claim to inspire art, and yet history proves that only a spiritual idea is capable of causing great creativity...” What is the conclusion from this situation? For Sherwood, there is only one: “An educated society, armed with true knowledge, is obliged to develop the Russian idea, arising from its own fundamental principles and coinciding with the highest requirements of reason in all manifestations of its life, and therefore in art, especially since our ancestors left us a huge and wonderful material that awaits conscious evaluation and sincere inspiration."

Having substantiated the need to revive ancient Russian architecture, Sherwood sets out an ideal scheme of its techniques, reconstructed based on the conviction that “the integrity of the Russian idea and the ability of our ancestors to implement it in architecture was manifested not only in individual houses, but throughout the entire Kremlin... in it, every element testifies about the spiritual and state life of the people; The Kremlin is a whole poem, full of feeling and thought... a group of buildings, apparently disconnected from each other, is integrity and unity. This is the kind of unity we should look for in our buildings.”

The ideological integrity of ancient Russian architecture corresponds to artistic integrity, materialized in architectural forms: “... the graceful feeling of the people demanded, in turn, artistic association, which found its logical justification in schemes of purely geometric shapes and lines. The most perfect and unifying form is the cone.”

The advantages of the cone in comparison with the frontal construction are obvious: for viewing the latter, only one point of view is acceptable - directly opposite the middle (classical point of view along the central axis), only from this point of view the distorting effect of perspective cuts is not observed. Cone or octahedron, giving balance to perspective directions, looking the same with different points vision. This is St. Basil's Cathedral, where we will find division and unity, subordinated to a strictly geometric scheme - the octagonal shape and the regular grouping of masses predominate in it. However, in modern conditions, Sherwood continues, the cone-shaped grouping of masses is applicable only in rare cases: in buildings freely located in a square or open space. Therefore, in the prevailing construction practice of continuous development, a cone-derived “diagram of defining lines, the simplest of which is an isosceles triangle,” should be used.

Sherwood considers the way of recreating the “Russian” style by democrats, who tried to derive the features of ancient Russian architecture from a peasant’s wooden hut, to be pseudo-scientific. Even Tone is indirectly accused of the democratic interpretation of the national prototype, since the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, according to Sherwood’s description, is a hut enlarged many times over, the true dimensions of which can only be perceived when removed by about five miles. But, as a true monist of the 19th century, Sherwood contrasts the prototype of democratically minded supporters of the folk and national style - the hut - with another prototype - the temple, on the grounds that “religion in ancient Rus' was almost the only leader of the intellectual life of the people, which completely penetrated into the private life of a person. The church style, which expressed the animating idea of the people, also passed on to civil architecture.” In accordance with the idea of the cultural-historical type, which considered each people as the bearer of a certain idea, art is assigned the role of an exponent of this idea. “The idea of Russian architecture combines elevation and breadth.”

This idea, according to Sherwood, defines the system of compositional techniques of ancient Russian architecture, its fundamental forms are square and octagon, the most common size is the length of a log, the leading compositional technique is the addition of identical volumes, which determine the unity and diversity of the appearance of ancient buildings. That is, Russian buildings are based on a single module, specific, strictly geometric schemes and an axial arrangement of volumes. But if the general concept of buildings is built on straight lines, then the shapes of each part are combined with curves to avoid monotony. However, the exclusive predominance of curves is also not allowed. The most artistic is the combination of straight, broken and curved lines connected by a smooth curve. Their variations, invariably traced in Russian architecture, also add variety to the appearance of buildings.

Finally, Sherwood reveals another pattern that permeates Russian architecture, starting from general forms buildings and ending with their smallest details - a common attraction for all is the square pattern. “The square scheme was followed in ancient Russian buildings down to the smallest detail; the square divided the cornices and walls of buildings and not only was it used as a diagram, but the square itself served as a decoration in the Russian style and was called a fly.” Unlike a cone, it cannot be the bearer of a unifying principle, but “represents an unconditionally correct, perfect, simplest and stable form of proportions; with its logic and correctness it satisfies reason and feeling.”

The use of symmetry is equally original in Russian architecture. A separate form or part of a building is always symmetrical, but in the overall composition symmetry is often replaced by balance or, as Sherwood puts it, balance. The nature of its manifestation is also diverse: symmetrically located, but having different details, elements of the same size, different in shape and detail; opposite parts of the building that are equal in mass (one is taller and thinner, the other is wider and lower); finally, two or three relatively small elements, balanced by one large one. If there is a clear violation of symmetry (there is a tower in the center, a porch adjoins the low part of the building on the side), the law of unifying lines comes into force - a triangle diagram, with the vertex at the highest point.

Russian architects also use scale in a unique way. At the top, parts of the building become smaller, and the building appears slimmer and taller. Revealing on the facade the internal division of the building, its spatial structure, gives the master the opportunity to emphasize the scale, comparing the total masses of the structure with its small elements, for example, the porches pushed forward.

And one more feature of Russian buildings - the building material - brick, left open, “by monotonous repetition gave cadence to the details of the building and even served as a form of decoration: it was either pushed forward, then deepened, or placed vertically with an edge, interrupting the monotonous lines of the belts and parts of the cornice, in in which bricks were placed, corners one above the other, in several rows with gradual ledges downwards, teeth and crackers were made, and placed in rows in the form of rhombuses. These techniques in ancient architecture were so diverse that one brick in itself could serve as a luxurious decoration.”

As the embodiment of this theory, the building of the Historical Museum in Moscow was born (1874-1883). It is difficult to say what preceded what - the building of theory or the theory of the building. Most likely, thorium was born from work on the project; the project was, as it were, the materialization of the theory. The difference in dates is 1874. - time of development of the initial project and 1895. - the release date of the book does not contradict this. The stages of formalizing Sherwood’s thoughts into a coherent, comprehensively motivated theory are recorded in his letters to I.E. Zabelin, an explanatory note to the competition project of the Historical Museum (1874), and in a brochure of 1879. “A few words about the Historical Museum. E. I. V. heir to the crown prince.” The book only summed up many years of work.

However, if the system modeled by Sherwood ancient Russian architecture and is close to the truth, the Historical Museum was unable to initiate the revival of ancient architecture. The structure designed by him reveals kinship with the works that Sherwood contemptuously calls copies, arguing: “... the collected material, arranged over the years, does not yet constitute a science, the task of which is to discover the laws of phenomena and raise them to common principles, but archaeologists demanded copies of their favorite material... this situation has brought and is causing great harm and hinders the development of Russian architecture.

Materialism is scientific and the merit of architects-collectors (meaning, obviously, L.V. Dal, V.V. Suslov, A.M. Pavlinov, D.I. Grim and others) is respectable; but in order to clear the way for the further development of Russian architecture, it is necessary to develop it, to derive laws from it, both ideological and formal; if the requirement to copy not only slows down, but even directly destroys the freedom of inspired creativity, then a clear awareness of the laws of style can serve as a strength to a true artist, like a weapon to a warrior.”

Sherwood believed that his theory would be his weapon, with which he could give impetus to the development of the “Russian” style. In fact, his method is as analytical and mechanistic as the method of his ideological opponents - the “archaeologists”. But his analysis touches on a qualitatively different level - not motives, not forms. We are talking about the principles that together constitute an artistic system, but an “external” system, considered in isolation from the living architectural organism.

The mechanical nature of thinking does not allow Sherwood to notice that architecture Ancient Rus', like any other type of medieval architecture, is based on organic integrity, that its constructive-functional and artistic-substantive elements exist in an inextricable dialectical unity. The possibility of a revival of ancient Russian architecture, like the revival of antiquity in the architecture of modern times, was objectively excluded. An obstacle to this was the rigidity of the artistic system of the Middle Ages - the flip side and consequence of the physical inseparability of its constituent principles. As a result, Sherwood's system fatally falls into the general mainstream of stylization. He establishes objective, but “external” laws, with the help of which it is supposed to compose, again, “external” forms. In practice he could not even do this. Specifically for the architecture of modern times, the nature of the interpretation of the relationship between the useful and the beautiful subordinates the laws derived by Sherwood. Old Russian details are located on the facades in accordance with the general laws of eclecticism. They evenly cover the planes of the walls; a symmetrical axial composition remains the means of harmonizing them. This is the measure of innovation achieved through the Sherwood system. He, like his contemporaries, was faced with the need to design different types of buildings than in Ancient Rus', which dictated the nature of the volume, planning and spatial structure, using traditional forms in accordance with the method adopted in the 19th century, and not in Ancient Rus'. sherwood style architecture frontal

Therefore, the principles of arranging forms and the forms themselves, so alive in the past, in Sherwood’s project are revealed from the context, from the living tissue of the body, and turn into the same copyism and dead scheme as the motives of his opponents. Human XIX century, Sherwood could not yet understand that the integrity of the system of Russian architecture, as one of the varieties of medieval architecture, is based on the inseparability of utilitarian and artistic principles, that the building, torn away from the living organism art form, seemingly random, together with its own kind, forms an independent artistic system typologically related to the order.

The historical museum stands out among the many contemporaneous buildings due to the complexity of its volumetric composition. The symphony of its towers echoes the Kremlin; in its small size, the subordination of this building to the shrine of the Russian land is clearly indicated. The abundance of turrets, porches, their octagonal shapes and tents correspond not only to the Kremlin towers, but to the many domes of St. Basil. The volumes are divided sequentially, each of them has its own ceiling, roofed side by side, just like in the old days. As in the old days, not only the conical shape of the forms is carefully maintained, but also the unifying line of the triangle, pushed beyond the plane of the porch façade, small elements protrude forward to emphasize the size of the building as a whole, the completion forms decrease towards the top. The facades are faced with red brick, like the walls of the Kremlin; they are covered with a luxurious pattern of brick details.

But art does not tolerate mechanical design. Sherwood turned out to be a victim of his own theory because he took it too literally. He longed to recreate not only the principles of Russian architecture before the time of Peter the Great, but to recreate them in the forms of previous architecture.

At the beginning of the 19th century, art was dominated by neoclassicism, which professed the principles of high morality and political purposefulness, which was soon replaced by romanticism. The romanticists believed that driving force progress is individuality. They emphasized the importance of everything emotional, irrational, mystical, intuitive and symbolic in human nature and placed it above the rational and logical. Romanticism initiated the process of freeing the artist from the authority of academies, from a false sense of public duty and the weight of public opinion, from moral conventions. (Representatives: William Blake, Eugene Delacroix, Caspar David Friedrich, Theodore Gericault, K. Aivazovsky.)

Realism also challenged the ideals of academicism and public opinion, expanding the thematic range of art to include imagery everyday life and often images of poverty and labor. (Representatives: Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, Edgar Degas, Edouard Manet, Adolph von Menzel)

Impressionism abandoned the usual depiction of reality in the form of clearly defined forms. Impressionists replaced line and form with bright spots of color and flashes of light, betraying the artist's impression of the subject of the image, rather than the subject itself in its physical form. they preferred to work outdoors, thus rejecting the academic tradition of studio painting from pre-prepared sketches. (Representatives: Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley).

Post-Impressionists Paul Cezanne, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Gauguin adhered to the principle of an individual vision of art. They believed that they had a special vision of the world that they should follow, even if it meant deprivation of financial wealth and social status. Characteristic of this broad anti-bourgeois movement was increased attention to structure and design, a rejection of imitation of nature, and moralizing through plot.

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Concept "culture" comes from the Latin word cultura, meaning "cultivation", "processing". In a broad sense, culture means what is created by the physical and mental labor of people. In a narrower sense, culture is the sum of the achievements of society, its material, ideological and moral conditions of life, manifested in everyday life, ideology, education, upbringing, in the phenomena of science, art, and literature. But often the concept of “culture” is used to refer primarily to artistic creativity.

Russia, located at the junction of East and West, in contact with different peoples, beliefs, traditions, has always been under the influence of various, often very dissimilar cultural influences. Some things took root on Russian soil, but many things were rejected. The same, it remained in Russia (Christianity, writing, some forms of government, methods of organizing scientific activity, etc.), adapted to domestic conditions and ultimately acquired truly national features.

By the beginning of the 19th century. Russia was a country with a special cultural life. The upper strata of society (nobility, bureaucrats, rich merchants) built their lives in accordance with the norms common in the West. Having an excellent command of foreign languages (mainly French and German), representatives of these social groups had the opportunity to become acquainted with the latest European achievements.

A huge number of different books and magazines from France, Germany and Great Britain were imported into Russia, which gave an idea of the political and social life of these countries, of the latest scientific discoveries and the most important technical inventions. In the middle of the 19th century. Subjects of the Russian Tsar could often be found in the largest cities of Europe. Sometimes the state of affairs in France, England and Germany was much better known to them than the state of affairs in their homeland, which they saw less often than Europe. Part of the aristocracy became so Europeanized that for them French, at that time the language of international communication, became their native language. A considerable number of nobles used the Russian word and writing with great difficulty.

The bulk of the population of Russia - the Russian peasantry - in the first half of the 19th century. did not experience any influence of European morals, fashions and habits. For him, there was a traditional Russian world that lived according to its own laws. Most of the population of the Russian Empire at that time could neither read nor write. But this did not mean that ordinary Russian people were outside the culture. They had their own specific culture, a primordial system of ideas and spiritual values developed over centuries.

Russian Orthodox Church, its rituals, symbols of faith and sacraments raised people above everyday worldly concerns and taught them to look at the world as the creation of God. Unlike the nobility, many of whose representatives actually broke with the Church, ordinary people retained both their adherence to faith in the teachings of Jesus Christ and faith in the king, God’s anointed. None of the doubts and discontent inherent in the nobility on this score penetrated their souls.

The people created their own wonderful fairy tales, epics, songs, and made a wide variety of products from leather, wood, flax, stone, and metals. And he put his soul into these creations. This was the culture of life of the Russian people, their spiritual world. And when, during the reign of Nicholas I, the Slavophile nobles began to study and promote this colorful, unknown world to many, a considerable number of people were surprised to learn that, it turns out, there were completely original, unique examples of cultural wealth next to them. Golden age of Russian culture. In the first half of the 19th century. the so-called educated society began to realize the importance of Russia's cultural identity. This period was marked by the emergence of creators who bridged the old cultural gap between the top and bottom of society. Their work has become a truly national phenomenon. This time will later be called golden age of Russian culture. The names of A: S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, M. Yu. Lermontov forever became a symbol of the stork achievements of Russian culture.

Literary critic and poet A. Grigoriev wrote: Pushkin-G- our everything. And there was no exaggeration in this statement. Pushkin is the pinnacle of human talent. He is a poet, a writer, a thinker, and a historian. He actually became the founder of the modern Russian literary language. Everything he touched, everything he wrote and thought about, turned under his pen into a true masterpiece. Pushkin was a Russian genius who raised Russian culture to universal heights and forever established it as one of the most important components of the world cultural heritage humanity.

Academician D.S. Likhachev wrote: Pushkin is a genius who managed to create the ideal of a nation. Don't just "display"a national peculiarity of the Russian character, but to break the ideal of Russian nationality, the ideal of culture. A. S. Pushkin (1799-1837) born in Moscow. The Pushkin family of nobles was old and eminent.

The poet's mother was the granddaughter of Ibrahim Hannibal, a native of Northern Abyssinia, who was one of the closest associates of Peter I. Pushkin immortalized him in the story Moor of Peter the Great. Alexander's childhood was spent partly in Moscow, partly on the Pushkin estates near Moscow. He was raised, like many other noble children, under the guidance of foreign tutors. IN early years he knew French incomparably better than Russian. His nanny, peasant woman Arina Rodionovna, who doted on her pupil, had a great influence on the development of his love for everything Russian and understanding of folk life and culture. She told him folk tales, legends, and sang Russian songs. Much of what the poet heard from nanny Arina later sounded in his wonderful works. Written in verse The Tale of the Priest and his Worker Balda, The Tale of Tsar Saltan, The Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish, The Tale of dead princess and about the seven heroes, The Tale of the Golden Cockerel have become favorites for many generations of Russian people.

The works of A. S. Pushkin reflect all the most significant events of Russian life. Pushkin's philosophy of history, his thoughts about its progressive development, about the life of Russian society and many pressing issues of our time found their most vivid embodiment in the tragedy Boris Godunov, in poems Bronze Horseman And Poltava, novel in verse Evgeny Onegin, in the novel Arab of Peter the Great, stories Dubrovsky, The Captain's Daughter and others. The poet also proved himself as a historian-researcher. His Pugachev's story And History of Peter I- serious scientific work.

The works of A. S. Pushkin are imbued with deep love for the Motherland. The poet responded vividly to the most important social and state problems of contemporary life, and showed himself to be a resolute opponent of serfdom:

Will I see an unoppressed people And slavery, fallen to the king’s mania...

He was a great Russian patriotic poet who knew the culture of his people well and valued the honor and glory of his Motherland. In the fall of 1836, in a letter to P. Ya. Chaadaev, A. S. Pushkin wrote: Although personally I am heartily attached to the sovereign, I am far from admiring everything that I see around me; As a writer - I am irritated, as a person with prejudices - I am offended - but I swear on my honor that for nothing in the world I would not want to change the Fatherland or have a history other than the history of our ancestors, the way God gave it to us.

N.V. Gogol (1809-1852) born in the town of Sorochintsy in the Poltava province into a poor noble family. The childhood years spent in Ukraine, the life of the people, the culture of the Ukrainian people were forever imprinted in Gogol’s memory and were later reflected in vivid literary works- collections of stories Evenings on a farm near Dikanka And Mirgorod.

The first part of the book “Evenings on a farm near Dikanka” immediately attracted the attention of the capital’s writers. Having moved to St. Petersburg in 1828, Gogol met V. A. Zhukovsky, A. S. Pushkin and other writers. Gogol's undoubted talent received universal recognition. After the second part of “Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka” was published in 1632, Gogol’s name gained wide popularity. In St. Petersburg, Gogol developed as a great master and became a real Russian writer.

In the 1830s. Gogol came up with the idea of two of their works. They will later become a comedy Auditor and poem Dead souls the plots of which were suggested to Gogol by L. S. Pushkin.

The writer finished working on the comedy “The Inspector General” in 1836. The author dreamed of staging it on stage for the general public. But the influential metropolitan bureaucratic world saw in Gogol’s play attacks on government the author was accused of slander against Russia. If the emperor had not intervened, the play would not have reached the audience. Having familiarized himself with The Inspector General, Nicholas I authorized the theatrical production. The tsar saw and knew that there were many shortcomings in the government of the country, and considered it necessary to fight this evil, including publicly ridiculing it.

The play “The Inspector General” made a strong impression on his contemporaries. The theater stage has never seen anything like it. Russian reality was portrayed in it with such talented strength and brightness that although, as Gogol himself said, it was only about six provincial officials who turned out to be rogues, many were indignant. The comedy met with a lively and sympathetic response among those who advocated a change in general political conditions and for publicly exposing the shortcomings of public administration.

In 1836, N.V. Gogol went abroad, where he stayed with short breaks almost until his death. He lived mainly in Italy, where he worked on his largest work - the poem “Dead Souls”, in which he put his most cherished thoughts about the historical destinies of Russia. In 1841 he completed the first volume, which was published under the title The Adventures of Chichikov, or Dead Souls.

In the 1840s. serious changes occurred in the writer’s worldview. Gogol found himself in the grip of a mental crisis, a serious reassessment of values, and deep reflections on his experiences. The book is full of these moods of spiritual unsettlement, humility in the face of life’s adversities, dissatisfaction with what he created in literature. 4 Selected passages from correspondence with friends.

As soon as this essay appeared, there was a sharp reaction from those who imagined themselves as “a fighter for progress, for bright ideals.” This indignation was reflected in an aggressive letter from V.G. Belinsky, who mercilessly branded Gogol as an apostate. The writer’s thoughts are that everything that happens in life should be accepted. Lermontov with humility, Belinsky perceived as reactionary, believing that great writer“got lost”, “changed”.

These attacks had a depressing effect on Gogol. Signs of a new exacerbation of his mental illness appeared; Gogol was tormented by premonitions of imminent death.

N.V. died Gogol in Moscow and was buried in the cemetery of the Danilov Monastery. The words of the prophet Jeremiah were placed on the tombstone: They will laugh at my bitter words. In 1931, Gogol's remains were transferred to the Novodevichy cemetery.

Among the remarkable talents of the golden age of Russian culture is the name M.Yu.Lermontov (2814-1841). He lived a short life, but immortalized himself with poetic and prose works that became true classics of Russian literature.

Nature endowed M. Yu. Lermontov with various talents. He possessed rare musicality - he played the violin and piano masterfully, sang arias from Italian operas, composed music. He drew and painted in oils, and if he had devoted himself to painting, he could have become a famous artist. Easily solved complex problems math problems and was known as a strong chess player. He was well educated and knew several foreign languages. Everything came quite easily to him, but poetry and literature became the need of his soul.

Throughout reading Russia, M. Yu. Lermontov became known for his works Death of a Poet And Borodino Voldanny in 1837

The poem “The Death of a Poet,” written immediately after the death of A. S. Pushkin, has gone viral. This is a lyrical monologue young Lermontov about the tragic fate of Pushkin the Poet.

The poem "Borodino" was published. An old soldier, an honored warrior, a participant in the Battle of Borodino, on whose behalf the story is told, recalls one of the most heroic pages in the history of the Motherland.

The work of M. Yu. Lermontov determined the post-Pushkin stage in the development of Russian poetry.

The fate of the Motherland and the poet’s thoughts about them are reflected in many of the poet’s works (Again folk twists... Farewell, unwashed Russia... Motherland o Leaf etc.).

Lermontov's poems and poems are filled with his spiritual quests, dreams, impulses, moods and at the same time sober, fearless introspection, self-knowledge. These are reflections on the eternal questions of human existence. These are the poems Mtsyri And Demon, poems Parus, I go out alone on the road..., “And it’s boring and sad..., Stanzas, Duma, Prophet etc.

The most significant work of M.Yu. Lermontov - novel Hero of our time the plot of which was the life vicissitudes of a young nobleman, officer Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin, a gifted, thoughtful man with a strong will. The writer is interested in this rich, deep human personality who cannot find application for her powerful powers, her violent passions.

Maintained its position in architecture and sculpture classicism with him close attention to the ancient heritage as the norm and ideal model. In architecture, its pinnacle was the style empire style which was expressed in massive forms with the presence of sculptures that complemented architectural design buildings. Urban planning fantasy in architecture has acquired unprecedented scope. First third of the 19th century. became the highest phase in the almost century-long development of Russian classicism architecture. The biggest achievements are related to creativity O. Montferrand, A. N. Voronikhin, A.D. Zakharova And K. Rossi.

Through their efforts, the center of St. Petersburg acquired its unique appearance, formed not as a sum of individual buildings, but as a cycle of spaces. Communicating with each other Palace, Admiralteyskaya, Senate squares along with the area Exchanges, of which he was the architect J. Thomon (1760-1813), formed a unique, grandiose system of architectural and spatial complexes.

Among the most outstanding architectural monuments of the first half of the 19th century. relates huge Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg, built from 1818 to 1858 according to the design of a French architect O. Montferrand (1786-1858), The cathedral personified the power and greatness of Orthodoxy, the strength of Russia, which, according to the ideas of the Russian Church, became, after the fall of Byzantium, the bearer of the true (Orthodox) faith of Christ.

In 1834, an unusual monument was opened in the center of St. Petersburg - Alexander Column, created according to the project of O. Montferrand. The monument is dedicated to the victories of Russian weapons in the war with Napoleon. The colossal granite monolith was 25.6 m in height and weighed over 600 tons with a total height of the structure of 47.5 m. The figure of an angel crowning the column was made by a sculptor B.I. Orlovsky (1796-1837).

Even earlier, in 1811, on the main thoroughfare of St. Petersburg, Nevsky Prospekt, the architect A. N. Voronikhin (1759-1814) completed construction Kazan Cathedral. On the square in front of the Kazan Cathedral there are

made by a sculptor B. I. Orlovsky statues of M. I. Kutuzov and M. B. Barclay de Tolly, which organically combined psychologism, concrete images with the rigor and majesty inherent in classicism. In 1813, the commander-in-chief of the Russian troops was buried in the cathedral. Patriotic War 1812 Field Marshal M.I. Kutuzov. B. I. Orlovsky also owned the building design Mountain Cadet Corps(Mining Institute), marked by monumental and strict solemnity.

Among the most significant architectural monuments Petersburg of that time there is also a building Imperial Hermitage(architect L. von Klenze, 1784-1864), which became the main Russian museum, concentrating the richest art collections. But by the will of Emperor Nicholas I in 1852 the meeting works of art was open for free viewing by everyone. The Hermitage became the first publicly accessible museum in Russia.

The scale of the concept amazes the creations K. I. Ross (1775-1849). His first major work in St. Petersburg was the construction of the Grand Duke Mikhailovsky Palace, now the building State Russian Museum. Rossi's ideas were also embodied in the construction of the ensemble Alexandrinsky Theater And Palace Square with buildings and arch of the General Staff building, the colossal arc of which borders Palace Square. The triumphal arch became the culmination of the entire architectural composition, conceived as a monument to the heroic glory of the Russian people, victorious in the War of 1812.

The building was a masterpiece of Russian architecture Admiralty. During its construction, the solution to a complex set of urban planning problems, proposed by the architect A. D. Zakharov (1761 -1811), turned out to be amazingly accurate.

In the capital of Russia, Moscow, remarkable buildings are also appearing.

Designed by an outstanding architect O. I. Bove (1784-1834) in 1814 it was reconstructed Red Square. The old shopping arcade building opposite the Kremlin wall has acquired a new architectural appearance. It turned into horizontally elongated buildings, creating an expressive contrast with the skyward Kremlin towers.

In 1816, Beauvais created a plan for a classical ensemble Theater Square. Here in 1825 it opened its doors to the public Bolshoi Theater, built according to the design of O. I. Bove and became one of the largest theater buildings in the world.

A space of squares was organized, which included Kraspaja, Teatralnaya, and Manezhnaya squares. All this indicated that the architects of the first half of the 19th century. I thought big - they saw a single building or a group of buildings! in the spatial scope of the street, square, and city as a whole. This predetermined the length of the facades characteristic of Empire architecture. | In 1817, the opening of a huge building took place Manege, intended for military reviews, parades and exercises. It could easily accommodate an infantry regiment (2 thousand people). The project was carried out under the guidance of an engineer A. A. Betancourt, and the decoration of the facade belonged to O. I. Bove. According to the project O. I. Bove was broken Alexander Garden at the Kremlin wall, he created a plan 1st City Hospital. Beauvais was the author of those erected in 1834. Triumphal Gate in honor of the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812. The gate was located at the Tverskaya Zastava at the entrance to Moscow from St. Petersburg, where the main highway of the city began.

The first Moscow monument was erected on Red Square in 1818 Kuzma Minina And Dmitry Pozharsky, made by a sculptor I.P.Map then catfish (1754-1835). Minin's gesture pointed to the Kremlin - altar of Russia, according to M. Yu. Lermontov.

On Sukharevskaya Square at the beginning of the 19th century. The construction of a large hospital and shelter, called A welcoming home. This complex of buildings was created at the expense of Count N.P. Sheremetev by architects E.S. Nazarov (1747-1822) And G. Quarenghi (1744-1817).

The largest master of the Moscow Empire style was D.I. Gilardi (1788-1845). His best creations are the building reconstructed after a fire Moscow University, built in the 18th century. M. F. Kazakov, and building Board of Trustees on Solyanka (now the Academy of Medical Sciences of Russia).

A bizarre combination of classicism with decorative motifs ancient Russian architecture marked the creativity of the architect K. A. Tona (1794-1881), creator The Grand Kremlin Palace, the building of the Armory Chamber. Moscow Kremlin, and also Cathedral of Christ the Savior.

Strictness, severity, asceticism are inherent in the architect’s creation V. II. Stasova (1769-1848)- building Provision warehouses with their effect of the unshakable power of the walls.

In other cities of the Russian Empire, a lot was also built during this period, but the buildings there were not distinguished by the grandeur of the capital.

Theater and dramaturgy

In the first half of the 19th century. The formation of the national theater is taking place. Previously, theater groups existed either in the estates of wealthy nobles, or at the royal court. Urban, or, as they said then, public there were few theaters. They were located, as a rule, in poorly adapted, dark rooms, and auditoriums were not designed for large number public.

The theater was looked at as entertainment; it was believed that the viewer at performances should only have fun and have fun. Therefore, the theatrical repertoire consisted mainly of cheerful vaudevilles, lightweight plays, and always music and dance.

There were French and German theaters in St. Petersburg, and Italian theaters constantly performed. opera artists. On the stages of two largest Russian theaters - Bolshoi in Moscow and Maria has no one In St. Petersburg, mainly Italian or French opera and ballet performances were performed.

In the 19th century the situation is changing. The theater becomes social phenomenon modern theaters appear. They stage domestic plays that touch on major social problems (for example, N.V. Gogol’s play “The Inspector General”),

In the first half of the 19th century. on stage Alexandria Theater a wonderful actress shone V.N. Asenkova (181 7-1841). She was equally successful in both funny roles in vaudeville, as well as significant roles in such performances as “The Inspector General” (Marya Antonovna) and “Woe from Wit” (Sofya).

Hugely popular in the 1830s and 1840s. enjoyed V. A. Karatygin (1802-1853), who became the generally recognized first tragedian of the Russian dramatic theater. He worked a lot at the Alexandria Theater. His acting skills revealed to the domestic audience the depth and greatness of William Shakespeare's plays. His performances of the roles of Hamlet, King Lear and Othello were recognized by the public and theater critics as the pinnacle of acting.

In Moscow, the largest drama theater was founded back in the 18th century. Maly Theater(so it was called in contrast to the nearby Bolshoi Theater). The talent of outstanding Russian actors was revealed in the plays of Russian and European authors on the stage of the Maly Theater. Among them was a remarkable reformer of the Russian theater, in particular, who developed the principles of the art of acting impersonation, M. S. Shchepkin (1788-1863). The roles of Famusov in “Woe from Wit” (first production in 1831) and the mayor in “The Inspector General” (first production in 1836) made the name of this former serf (he received his freedom in 1822) known throughout Russia. Shchepkin affirmed the educational significance of the theater; he largely determined the ideological and artistic positions of the Maly Theater.

Actor P. M. Sadovsky (1818-1872) also became famous on the stage of the Maly Theater. His work contributed to the establishment of plays by the Russian writer-playwright in the theater’s repertoire A. I. Ostrovsky (1823-1886). P. M. Sadovsky participated in the productions of all Ostrovsky's plays. The first time Ostrovsky’s comedy “Don’t Get in Your Own Sleigh” was performed here in 1852. Soon the Maly Theater began to be called Ostrovsky's house, because his plays began to dominate the theater's repertoire.

fine arts

Gradually in Russian painting of the first half of the 19th century. the universal style of classicism gives way to a romantic attitude. Paintings are created that become phenomena of the spiritual life of society.

The democratic tendencies of the new era are clearly expressed in creativity V.L. Tropinin (1776-1857).

V. A. Tropinin. Lacemakers":

A talented serf artist of Count I. I. Morkov, for some time he had the opportunity to attend classes at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, where he carefully copied the works of Western European masters. In 1823, Tropinin received his freedom and in the same year was awarded the title of academician. By that time, he had created several first-class paintings. Tropinin, the portrait painter, is characterized by romantic elation, his pictorial language is free and bold. The masterpieces of his work are Portrait of A. S. Pushkin, Lacemaker, “Old Beggar” And "Spinner".

K. P. Brullon. Self-portrait:

Brilliant draftsman, watercolorist, portrait painter, history painter K. P. Bryullov (1799-1852) While still a student at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, he gained universal fame. He graduated from the Academy with a gold medal. Then, at the expense of the state, he was sent to improve his skills in Italy. Here he spent several years and painted a series of paintings from Roman life. The central work of K. P. Bryullov was a painting created in Italy "The Last Day of Pompeii" with its extraordinary picturesque effect of cold lightning lighting against the backdrop of fiery lava erupting from the depths of Vesuvius.

Another line of Bryullov’s creativity is the so-called Italian genre, the most striking examples of which are the paintings Italian morning And Italian afternoon.

The world of ceremonial portraits of the artist (Portrait of Yu. P. Samoilova with Amatsilia Paccini, Portrait of N. V. Kukolnik, Self-portrait etc.) with its decorativeness and bright picturesqueness recreates the appearance of a person in moments of dreamy solitude.

The ancestor of Russian everyday painting is A.G. Venetsianov (1780-1847). The viewer was exposed to a peasant world somewhat idealized by the artist. This painting is recognized as a masterpiece of the master Portrait of A.S. Pushkin. Kiprensky also owns a series of images of military personnel who took part in the Patriotic War of 1812.

S. F. Shchedrina (1791 - 1830) can be considered the founder of Russian landscape painting. His canvases are characterized by romanticism, an attempt to convey the state of joy and happiness in the human soul. This is a series of works by the artist Harbors in Sorrento with harbors, grottoes, terraces and verandas entwined with grapes.

A. A. Ivanov (1806-1858) gave Russian historical painting a hitherto unprecedented psychological precision.

The artist's father, A. M. Ivanov, was a professor of painting, and the boy became addicted to drawing from an early age. At the age of 11 he entered the Academy of Arts, from which he graduated with a gold medal. Then he went to improve his painting technique in Italy. The artist took the plot of his canvas from the Gospel of John - Jesus first appears before the people receiving baptism from John the Baptist. For several years Ivanov prepared for this work, made dozens of sketches, wrote a series of preparatory canvases, including - Appearance of Christ to Mary Magdalene, for which he was awarded the title of academician.

For more than 20 years, the artist worked on this largest canvas of his life. And in 1858 he presented it to critics and the public. Huge painting The Appearance of Christ to the People made a strong impression on her contemporaries. Alexander II acquired it and a few years later donated it to the newly emerged Moscow Public Museum and Rumyantsev Museum. The name of the artist and his grandiose work was on everyone’s lips. But the author himself did not have time to enjoy the fame: in the summer of 1858 he died suddenly of cholera.

A whole series of canvases depicting various genre scenes reflecting the life and customs of Russia at that time was created by Ya. A. Fedotov (1815-1852).

Fedotov's pictorial works are distinguished by the expressiveness of the characters' poses, gestures and facial expressions, humor, and careful writing. His works were intended for a wide democratic audience, such as Fresh Cavalier, Discreet Bride, Major's Matchmaking, Aristocrat's Breakfast, Widow etc.

Music

In the area musical culture at the beginning of the 19th century in Russia the works of foreign authors reigned supreme. But already from the 1830s. the situation begins to change, and major musical works appear in which domestic composers widely use national motifs.

The representative of romanticism in Russian music was A. N. Verstovsky (1799-1862). The composer is considered one of the founders of Russian opera-vaudeville. His opera Askold's grave built on the basis of Russian folklore and folk tunes. It was the first such work in Russian music.

M. I. Glinka (1804-1857) - generally recognized as the founder of Russian classical music. His two operas (“Life for the Tsar* And "Ruslan and Lyudmila*) laid the foundation for two directions in the development of Russian opera - folk musical drama and fairy tale opera, epic opera. Musical fantasy Kamarinskaya consists of orchestral arrangements of Russian folk songs. Russian melodies also permeate Glinka’s operatic works. He is a classic of Russian romance.

Contemporaries of M. I. Glinka were composers A. S. Dargomyzhsky (1813-1869). A. A. Alyabyev (1787-1851).A. E. Varlamov (1801-1848) and A.L. Gurilev (1803-1858).

Opera by Dargomyzhsky Mermaid marked the birth of a new genre of Russian opera - folk psychological drama.

Alyabyev, Gurilev and Varlamov were the founders Russian romance - an original vocal and musical work, sensual and melodic.

To the wonderful poet V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852) and the composer A. F. Lvov (1798-1870) belongs to the honor of creating the National Anthem of the Russian Empire. On December 11, 1833, its first public performance took place at the Bolshoi Theater. The anthem reflected the strength of spirit of the Russian people, their high spiritual values, great devotion to the Motherland, enthusiasm for victory and the Patriotic War of 1812. The second name of the anthem is Prayer of the Russian People.

God save the king! Strong, sovereign, Reign for glory, for our glory! Reign to the fear of your enemies. Orthodox Tsar, God save the Tsar, save the Tsar!

God save the king! Long are the days of the glorious one Give to the earth, give to the earth! Proud to the humbler. Weak guardian. Comforter of all - Send everything down!

Primitive Rus', Orthodox. God save the king, save the king! Her kingdom is harmonious, calm in strength. Anything unworthy, get rid of it!

Oh providence. Blessing

It was sent down to us, it was sent down to us! Striving for good. Happiness, humility, patience in sorrow Give to the earth!

Late XVIII - early XIX centuries. - era classicism in Russian architecture, which left a bright mark on architectural appearance St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities. Buildings in the classicist style are distinguished by balance, clear and calm rhythm, and precise proportions. The main laws of architectural composition were symmetry, emphasizing the center, and overall harmony. The main entrance was usually located in the center and was designed in the form of a portico. The columns had to be different in color from the walls. Most often, the columns were painted white and the walls yellow.
In the middle of the 18th century. St. Petersburg was a city of isolated architectural masterpieces, surrounded by green estates. Then the regular development of the city began along straight avenues radiating from the Admiralty. St. Petersburg classicism- this is the architecture not of individual buildings, but of entire ensembles, striking in their unity and harmony.
In 1806-1823. a new Admiralty building was built according to the project Andreyan Dmitrievich Zakharov(1761-1811). In the huge building, the architect emphasized the central tower. It is distinguished by a dynamic vertical rhythm. The Admiralty is crowned by a rapidly flying gilded needle with a boat. The solemn major rhythm of the Admiralty set the tone for the entire architecture of the city on the Neva, and the boat became its symbol.
The construction at the beginning of the 19th century was important. Exchange building on the spit of Vasilyevsky Island. It was this building that was supposed to unite the ensembles that had developed around the widest section of the Neva riverbed. The design of the Exchange and the design of the arrow were entrusted to a French architect Thomas de Thomon. A.D. Zakharov participated in finalizing the project. Their creative collaboration led to a brilliant solution to the problem. The Mirror of the Neva united the system: Peter and Paul Fortress - Spit of Vasilyevsky Island - Palace Embankment.
Nevsky Prospekt - the main thoroughfare of the capital - acquired the appearance of a single ensemble with construction in 1801-1811. Kazan Cathedral. Author of the project Andrey Nikiforovich Voronikhin(1759-1814), the son of a serf, took St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, the creation of Michelangelo, as a model. Using its motifs, Voronikhin created an original architectural work.
For forty years, from 1818 to 1858, St. Isaac's Cathedral was built in St. Petersburg - the largest building erected in Russia in the first half of the 19th century. Inside the cathedral there can be 13 thousand people. From the gallery on its dome you can see Kronstadt, Peterhof, Pulkovo, Tsarskoe Selo, Gatchina and the sea in the distance. The design of St. Isaac's Cathedral was developed by a French architect Auguste Montferrand(1786-1858). According to Montferrand's design, a 47-meter column of granite monolith was erected on Palace Square (1829-1834) - a monument to Alexander I and at the same time - a monument in honor of the victory of Russian weapons in 1812.
Karl Ivanovich Rossi(1775-1849) was a leading St. Petersburg architect who “thought in ensembles.” The palace and theater were transformed into an urban planning hub of squares and new streets. So, creating the Mikhailovsky Palace (now the Russian Museum), he organized a square in front of the palace and laid a street on Nevsky Prospekt. The main entrance of the building, located in the depths of the front courtyard behind a cast-iron grille, looks solemn and monumental, which is facilitated by the Corinthian portico. Rossi designed the General Staff Building, which surrounded Palace Square on the south side. One of the most remarkable ensembles in Russia included the building of the Alexandrinsky Theater, the adjacent Alexandrinskaya Square, Teatralnaya Street behind the facade of the theater, which today received the name Rossi, and the pentagonal Chernyshev Square at the Fontanka embankment that ends it. Rossi's latest creation in St. Petersburg is the building of the Senate and Synod on the famous Senate Square.
The “most strict” of all the architects of late classicism was Vasily Petrovich Stasov(1769-1848). He built the Pavlovsk Barracks on the Field of Mars in St. Petersburg, the Cathedral of the Izmailovsky Regiment, triumphal arches (Narva and Moscow Gates), etc. Everywhere he emphasized mass, its plastic heaviness.

No less remarkable architects worked in Moscow at that time. After the expulsion of the French from Moscow in 1812, intensive restoration and construction of new buildings began. It reflected all the innovations of the era, but the tradition remained alive. This was the uniqueness of the Moscow construction school. Osip Ivanovich Bove(1784-1834) rebuilt, and essentially re-erected the Trading Rows, the dome over the central part of which was located opposite the dome of the Cossack Senate in the Kremlin. On this axis, a little later, Martos erected a monument to Minin and Pozharsky.
Bove was also involved in the reconstruction of the entire territory adjacent to the Kremlin, including a large garden near its walls with a gate from Mokhovaya Street; created the Theater Square ensemble; built the building of the First City Hospital; Triumphal Gate at the entrance to Moscow from St. Petersburg (now on Kutuzov Avenue), etc.
We almost always worked fruitfully together DementyIvanovich Gelardi(1788-1845) and Afanasy Grigorievich Grigoriev(1782-1868). Dominico Gilardi rebuilt the Cossack Moscow University, which burned down during the war. Architects worked extensively and fruitfully on estate architecture (the Usachev estate on the Yauza, the Golitsyn estate “Kuzminki”).
I would like to note the Moscow residential buildings of the first third of the 19th century, which brought to us the charm Russian Empire style. They peacefully coexist with solemn allegorical figures on the facades - with the motif of balconies and front gardens in the spirit of provincial estates. The end facade of the building is usually displayed on the red line, while the house itself is hidden in the depths of the yard or garden. Compositional picturesqueness and dynamics reign in everything, in contrast to the St. Petersburg balance and orderliness (the Lunins’ house near Nikitsky Gate, built by Gilardi; Khrushchev's house on Prechistenka - now the A. S. Pushkin Museum, built. Grigoriev).
Since the late 30s. XIX century classicism is beginning to become obsolete. Architecture 2nd floor. XIX century usually called retrospective pastiche or eclecticism, for artist-architects began to use the motifs and patterns of architectural styles of past eras - Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, etc. Researchers note that eclecticism, or, as it is sometimes called, “historicism,” was a kind of reaction to the canonicity of the classicist style. The period of eclecticism lasted almost 70 years - from the late 1830s. until the turn of the next century.
In the 1870-80s. Classicist traditions in architecture have practically disappeared. The main thing became technical and functional feasibility - in connection with the emergence of new types of buildings: industrial and administrative, stations, passages, markets, hospitals, banks, bridges, theatrical and entertainment buildings, exhibition halls, etc.
A special page in Russian architecture of the 2nd half of the 19th century. - these are apartment buildings from which the customer sought to extract maximum profit and which quickly paid for themselves. One of the main creative problems of this time was the development of a model of an apartment building. In the decoration of apartment buildings, eclecticism has become a mass phenomenon.
The “Russian style” (or “pseudo-Russian”) is becoming widespread. Thus, tent tops, patterned decor, “marble towels and brick embroidery,” as a contemporary called these motifs, are coming back into fashion. Typical examples of this style: the Church of the Resurrection on Blood by A. A. Parland in St. Petersburg, the Historical Museum (A. A. Semenov, V. O. Sherwood), the building of the Upper Trading Rows (A. N. Pomerantsev) in Moscow. In fact, Russian wooden architecture was taken as a model.