This is folk art, covering all cultural levels of society. People's lives, their views, ideals, moral principles - all this is reflected both in artistic folklore (dance, music, literature) and material (clothing, kitchen utensils, housing).
Back in 1935, the great Russian writer Maxim Gorky, speaking at the First Congress of Writers of the USSR, accurately described folklore and its significance in public life: "...the most profound heroes exist in folklore, the oral literature of the people. Svyatogor and Mikula Selyaninovich, Vasilisa the Wise, the ironic Ivanushka the Fool, who never loses heart, Petrushka, who always conquers everyone. These images were created by folklore and they are an inseparable part life and culture of our society."
Folklore (“folk knowledge”) is a separate scientific discipline on which research is carried out, abstracts are created, and dissertations are written. In Russian literature of the 19th century, the terms “folk poetry” and “folk literature” were widely used.
Oral folk art, folklore genres
Songs, fairy tales, legends, epics - this is not a complete list. Oral folk art is a vast layer of Russian culture that has been formed over the centuries. Genres folklore is divided into two main directions - non-ritual and ritual.
- Calendar - Maslenitsa songs, Christmas carols, vesnyanka and other examples of folk song creativity.
- Family folklore - wedding songs, lamentations, lullabies, family stories.
- Occasional - spells, counting rhymes, incantations, chants.
Non-ritual folklore includes four groups:
1. Folk drama - religious, nativity scene, Parsley theater.
2. Folk poetry - ballads, epics, spiritual poems, lyrical songs, ditties, children's songs and poems.
3. Folklore prose is divided into fairy-tale and non-fairytale. The first includes fairy tales about animals, everyday life, fairy tales, and chain fairy tales (for example, the story of Kolobok). Non-fairy tale prose is stories from life telling about human encounters with images of Russian demonology - mermaids and merman, sorcerers and witches, ghouls and ghouls. This subcategory also includes stories about shrines and miracles of the Christian faith, about higher powers. Forms of non-fairy tale prose:
- legends;
- mythological stories;
- epics;
- dream books;
- legends;
4. Oral folklore: tongue twisters, well wishes, nicknames, proverbs, curses, riddles, teasers, sayings.
The genres listed here are considered the main ones.
in literature
These are poetic works and prose - epics, fairy tales, legends. Many literary forms are also classified as folklore, which reflects three main directions: dramatic, lyrical and epic. Of course, the genres of folklore in literature are not limited to this, there are many more of them, but the categories listed are a kind of empirics that have been developed over the years.
Dramatic images
Dramatic folk art includes folk dramas in the form of fairy tales with unfavorable developments and a happy ending. Any legend in which there is a struggle between good and evil can be dramatic. The characters defeat each other with varying degrees of success, but in the end good triumphs.
Genres of folklore in literature. Epic component
Russian folklore (epic) is based on historical songs with extensive themes, when guslars can spend hours telling stories about life in Rus' under quiet strings. This is a genuine folk art passed down from generation to generation. In addition to literary folklore from musical accompaniment There is oral folk art, legends and epics, traditions and tales.
Epic art is usually closely intertwined with the dramatic genre, since all the adventures of the epic heroes of the Russian land are in one way or another connected with battles and exploits for the glory of justice. The main representatives of epic folklore are Russian heroes, among whom Ilya Muromets and Dobrynya Nikitich, as well as the imperturbable Alyosha Popovich, stand out.
Genres of folklore, examples of which can be given endlessly, are built on heroes fighting monsters. Sometimes a hero is helped by an inanimate object that has fabulous powers. This could be a treasure sword that cuts off dragon heads in one fell swoop.
Epic tales tell about colorful characters - Baba Yaga, who lives in a hut on chicken legs, Vasilisa the Beautiful, Ivan Tsarevich, who is nowhere without the Gray Wolf, and even about Ivan the Fool - happy with an open Russian soul.
Lyrical form
This folklore genre includes works of folk art that are mostly ritual: love songs, lullabies, funny ditties and lamentations. Much depends on intonation. Even sentences, spells, bells and whistles with the aim of bewitching a loved one, and those can sometimes be classified as folklore lyrics.
Folklore and authorship
Works of the fairy-tale literary genre (author's) often cannot be formally classified as folklore, such as, for example, Ershov's "The Tale of the Little Humpbacked Horse" or Bazhov's tale "The Mistress of the Copper Mountain" due to their being written by a specific writer. However, these stories have their own folklore source, were told somewhere and by someone in one form or another, and then transferred by the writer into book form.
Genres of folklore, examples of which are well-known, popular and recognizable, do not need clarification. The reader can easily figure out which of the authors came up with their own plot and who borrowed it from the past. It’s another matter when genres of folklore, examples of which are familiar to most readers, are challenged by someone. In this case, specialists must understand and draw competent conclusions.
Controversial art forms
There are examples when fairy tales by modern authors, in their structure, literally ask to be included in folklore, but it is known that the plot does not have sources from the depths of folk art, but was invented by the author himself from beginning to end. For example, the work “Three in Prostokvashino”. There is a folklore outline - the postman Pechkin alone is worth something. And the story itself is fabulous in essence. However, if authorship is determined, then folklore affiliation can only be conditional. Although many authors believe that differences are not necessary, art is art, regardless of form. Which genres of folklore coincide with literary canons can be determined by a number of characteristics.
The difference between folklore works and literary works
Literary works, such as a novel, short story, story, essay, are distinguished by their measured, unhurried narration. The reader gets the opportunity to analyze what he read on the go, while delving into the idea of the plot. Folklore works are more impulsive, moreover, they contain only their inherent elements, such as a talker or a chorus. Often the narrator slows down the action for greater effect, using duality or trinity of the narrative. In folklore, open tautology is widely used, sometimes even accentuated. Parallelisms and exaggerations are common. All these techniques are organic for folklore works, although they are completely unacceptable in ordinary literature.
Different peoples, incompatible in their mentality, are often united by factors of a folklore nature. Folk art contains universal motifs, such as the common desire for everyone to reap a good harvest. Both the Chinese and the Portuguese think about this, although they live on different ends of the continent. The population of many countries is united by the desire for a peaceful existence. Since people everywhere are the same by nature, their folklore is not much different, if you do not keep in mind the external signs.
The geographical proximity of different nationalities contributes to rapprochement, and this process also begins with folklore. First of all, cultural ties are established, and only after the spiritual unification of the two peoples do politicians come to the fore.
Small genres of Russian folklore
Small folklore works are usually intended for children. The child does not perceive a long story or fairy tale, but listens with pleasure to the story about the Little Gray Top, who can grab a barrel. In the process of raising children, small genres of Russian folklore appeared. Each work of this form contains a special grain of meaning, which, as the narrative progresses, turns into either a moral or a small moral lesson.
However, most small forms of the folklore genre are chants, songs, and jokes that are useful for the development of a child. There are 5 genres of folklore that are successfully used in raising children:
- A lullaby is the oldest way to lull a child to sleep. Usually the melodic melody is accompanied by rocking of the cradle or crib, so it is important to find a rhythm when singing.
- Pestushki - simple rhymes, melodious wishes, affectionate parting words, soothing lamentations for a newly awakened child.
- Nursery rhymes are recitative songs that accompany playing with the baby’s arms and legs. They promote the development of the child, encourage him to act in an unobtrusive playful way.
- Jokes are short stories, often in verse, funny and sonorous, which mothers tell their children every day. Growing children need to be told jokes in accordance with their age so that children understand every word.
- Counting books are small rhymes that are good for developing a child’s arithmetic abilities. They are an obligatory part of collective children's games when lots need to be drawn.
Material overview
Introduction
Every person's life begins with folklore. Folklore is the world into which a person is immersed from the first days of his life. The people created a huge oral literature: wise proverbs and cunning riddles, funny and sad songs, solemn epics about the glorious deeds of heroes, which were spoken in a chant, to the sound of strings, as well as heroic, magical, everyday and funny stories. It is vain to think that this literature was only the fruit of popular leisure. She was the dignity and intelligence of the people. She formed and strengthened his moral character, was his historical memory, the festive clothes of his soul and filled with deep content his entire measured life, flowing according to the customs and rituals associated with his work, nature and the veneration of his fathers and grandfathers. Along with folklore forms, we early years We get acquainted with such a genre as fairy tales.
Both children and adults love to read and listen to fairy tales. Many fairy tales are good because they are very small in size, read quickly, and therefore are perceived better. You will not have time to lose the thread, but you will perceive the meaning on the fly; often the moral and all the conclusions are immediately clear.
Starting to study English and German in elementary school, children are immersed in the fascinating and unfamiliar world of folklore of different nations, getting acquainted with unusual characters in poems, songs, stories and fairy tales. And when studying literature, you learn a lot of interesting things: for example, that works have their own structure, which obeys certain laws, the presence of common plot lines, similar images of heroes, etc. in fairy tales of different peoples make their perception even more fascinating.
Working in a literature lesson with a wandering story about dead princess, I became interested in whether there are common themes in the fairy tales of Russian and other non-Slavic peoples. So, the idea arose to analyze Icelandic folklore, since it is little studied and interesting.
Target: comparison of Russian and Icelandic fairy tales.
Tasks:
1. Study the available literature on this topic.
2. Conduct a comparative analysis of fairy tales, present the results in the form of a table.
3. Determine the similarities and differences between Russian and Icelandic folklore.
4. Summarize the material studied and draw conclusions.
In modern society, the interest of schoolchildren in history and culture has increased greatly. different countries. The original Russian traditions are so closely intertwined with the customs of other peoples that it is sometimes difficult to separate one from the other. Gradually, the borders of states remain only on the map. It is quite natural that the younger generation strives to learn as much as possible about the lives of their foreign peers, about their interests and the culture of their people, including literature. This is the relevance of my topic.
Hypothesis: Despite belonging to different historical and linguistic groups, Russian and Icelandic folklore (folk tales) are similar.
Object of study: folk Russian and Icelandic fairy tales
Research methods:
Literature study,
Analysis,
Comparison,
Generalization.
So, before starting a comparative analysis, it is necessary to get acquainted with the basics of Icelandic culture.
Main part
VARIETIES OF FAIRY TALES
No other literary genre has such deep roots in Iceland as the folk tale. But like everything in Iceland, Icelandic folk tales are very unique. First of all, if a fairy tale is a story about events that does not claim to be true, then most Icelandic folk tales are not fairy tales, since they claim to be true, they are told as if the teller believes them to be true, and Before, everyone really believed in it. The fact is that most Icelandic folk tales are so-called fairy tales, or fairy tales.
By tales we mean stories in which the characters are goblins, mermen, mermaids, etc., i.e. demonic creatures that manifest their supernatural powers on humans - good or evil; stories about encounters with such creatures constitute the content of stories (for example, a goblin takes an old woman to live with him and keeps her as a nanny). The subject of these stories can be the person himself, but not a living, not a natural person, but a dead person, a ghost, a ghoul, a werewolf, etc. It can be nature, but not the nature with which a person deals in everyday life and over which he dominates, but a nature controlled by unknown forces, before which he is powerless, but which he tries to master with special witchcraft means.
In fairy tales, unlike, for example, fairy tales, the stencil is not the plot, not the sequence of motives, but only the properties of the fairy-tale character being told about.
Since fairy tales claim to be authentic, Icelandic fairy tales of this kind do not tell about creatures that are clearly fantastic - talking animals, dwarfs, dragons, brownies, goblins. Even in Icelandic fairy tales, all these creatures are usually absent.
CHAPTER 1. ICELANDIC TALES
The first permanent settlements in Iceland were founded at the end of the 9th century by the Scandinavians, who, together withtonguebrought with them a rich mythology, their national ideas and folklore. .
The inhabitants of Iceland have preserved a rich Scandinavian mythology, and even after the oldest parliament in the world, the Althing, adopted Christianity as the state religion in 1000, pagan myths were not forgotten, as some of them were transformed into fairy tales and sagas. But on the other hand, new heroes appeared in Icelandic folklore - angels, apostles, the Virgin Mary - who partly replaced the old ones.
In the early Middle Ages, fairy tales became the main genre of oral folklore.
1.1. Features of Icelandic fairy tales
Most folklorists are inclined to believe that Icelandic fairy tales, as a genre of oral folk art, have existed since the end of the 9th century, that is, long before Iceland adopted Christianity. But since before the Christianization of Iceland, in addition to fairy tales, there were also myths, the problem arises of identifying the differences between fairy tales and myths. The main difference is that while myths are tales about gods and heroes, about the origin of the world and natural phenomena, in fairy tales the central hero is either a person or an animal or inanimate object with human qualities, and mythological characters who are found in In some fairy tales, they are auxiliary heroes of fairy tales.
Due to the isolation of Iceland from mainland Europe, Icelandic folklore developed without much influence on it from the Scandinavian and other peoples inhabiting Europe, which explains the originality and uniqueness of Icelandic fairy tales.
One of the main features of Icelandic fairy tales is unpredictability from beginning to end. Very often, even the main character changes several times throughout the fairy tale and unexpected events occur, which, however, often go beyond the scope of the storyline and are unnecessary.
Icelandic fairy tales, unlike the fairy tales of other peoples, do not always tell about the struggle between good and evil, and even if they do, evil often wins, and in a large number of Icelandic fairy tales main character and completely dies in the end. Most Icelandic fairy tales have no deep meaning. Icelandic fairy tales are more about stories about interesting events that happened in the past and were passed down as oral tales from generation to generation.
Although there is a system of classification of folklore, however, folklorists, philologists and literary scholars who study Icelandic folk tales face difficulties associated with the classification of Icelandic tales, which is primarily a consequence of the fact that some types of tales are absent from Icelandic folklore, and some tales cannot be classified to none of the types from the catalog in which they are classified and systematized folk tales. The famous German historian Konrad von Maurer (1823-1902), who was interested in the culture and history of Iceland, proposed the following classification of Icelandic folk tales:
Group I - mythological tales
Group II - tales of ghosts and ghosts
Group III - tales of witchcraft
Group IV - tales about natural phenomena
Group V - tales related to religion
VI group - historical tales
VII group - fairy tales
VIII group - humorous tales.
One of the most reference ones is the classification of Icelandic fairy tales by Carl von Sydow. He proposed the following classification:
Upphovss'agner (aetiological stories), which tell how something happened, or the name of something (for example: how this or that mountain appeared due to the fact that a tretl was caught by the first rays of the sun; or how lichen appeared on stones , after the peasants fell from the stairs along which they climbed to the Virgin Mary);
Minness'gner - stories about what a particular person has seen or experienced in life;
Vittness'gner - fairy tales, the plot of which is based on a fictional story (fantasy).
1.2. Icelandic fairy tale characters
· Tretli and skess
Tretli and skess are one of the few characters in Icelandic fairy tales, inherited from Old Icelandic pagan myths.
Throttles are huge, humanoid creatures with a large nose. In most fairy tales they are portrayed as ferocious, evil and treacherous. Despite the fact that trottles are greedy, evil and vengeful creatures, some tales describe how they become a loyal friend if some kind of favor is done to them. Tretls usually live alone in caves or cliffs, and some of them are rocks or hills themselves, as tretls turn to stone when daylight falls.
· Skessy(thirds female)
· Huldufoulk ("hidden inhabitants")
"Hidden Residents" (ex. huldufólk, huldufoulk) are one of the most important characters in Icelandic folk tales. The "hidden inhabitants" were formerly called "aulvs", which is etymologically the same as "elves"
“Hidden residents” often ask people for help, and if people help them, then they do something good for them or give them something, and if they don’t help them, then they take revenge on them.
Utilegumadurs (“outlawed people”)
There are a large number of Icelandic tales about people who supposedly live in uninhabited lands. The sagas and tales of the utilegumadur tell of people who hid from the pursuit of their enemies in the uninhabited areas of Iceland, having been declared outlaws. Basically, utilegumadurs are thieves and other lawbreakers
· Peasants
In many fairy tales, peasants are the main characters, and although their way of life in fairy tales is not described in detail, from fairy tales you can find out, for example, what kind of houses the Icelanders lived in, what customs they had, when and where they grazed their cattle, what they fed the animals in winter, how they spent their time, how they celebrated holidays, etc.
Most fairy tales that feature peasants tell of encounters with huldufoulk or trötl, and how the peasants are rewarded for their bravery, cunning or kindness, but some Icelandic tales end with the death of the peasants. In fairy tales, peasants die as a result of collisions with tretls or skess, because of love for huldufoulk, or as a result of ridiculous accidents.
Sorcerers
Before Iceland adopted Christianity, witchcraft played a minor role in Icelandic folklore. In pre-Christian legends, gods, aulvas, and jotuns had magical properties, and ordinary people - the heroes of the sagas - very rarely used magic. After the Reformation, along with Christianity, a large number of legends and fairy tales came to Iceland, in which the main characters were sorcerers and magicians. According to church leaders, sorcerers and magicians became people who entered into a contract with the Devil. Despite the active propaganda of the church, in Icelandic fairy tales one can feel sympathy for sorcerers, who always turn out to be more agile and luckier than the devil and always defeat him
1.3. Publications of Icelandic fairy tales
For many centuries, Icelandic tales were a genre of oral folklore, and the first attempts to collect and record them were made in the 16th century. One of the first works to collect Icelandic folk tales is considered to be "Qualiscunque descriptio islandiae", written in 1588, probably by the Bishop of Skálholt, Oddur Einarsson. And at work "Rerum Danicarum Fragmenta", written in 1596 by Arngrimur Jonsson (1568-1648)
Here we will study the genre of fairy tales that begins with the infliction of some kind of damage or harm (kidnapping, exile, etc.) or with the desire to have something (the king sends his son for the firebird) and develops through the hero’s departure from home, meeting with a donor who gives him a magical remedy or an assistant with the help of which the object of the search is found. In the future, the fairy tale gives a duel with the enemy (its most important form is snake fighting), return and pursuit. Often this composition gives a complication. The hero is already returning home, his brothers throw him into the abyss. Subsequently, he arrives again, is tested through difficult tasks and becomes king and marries either in his kingdom or in the kingdom of his father-in-law. This is a brief schematic presentation of the compositional core that underlies so many and varied subjects. Fairy tales that reflect this scheme will be called fairy tales here, and they form the subject of our study.
CHAPTER 2. RUSSIAN FOLK TALE
Currently, there is a division of fairy tales into three genre varieties - fairy tales about animals, everyday short story tales and fairy tales. Each of these varieties has its own plots, characters, poetics, and style. Researchers of folk tales (V.P. Anikin, V.A. Bakhtina, R.M. Volkov, V.Ya. Propp, etc.) call its magical-fantastic beginning as a distinctive feature of a fairy tale. Fiction requires an implausible reproduction of life phenomena and is semantically related to folk ideals
In folklore, there are three thematic groups of fairy tales:
1. Magical-heroic, snake-fighting type (“Battle on the Kalinov Bridge”, “Three Kingdoms”).
2. Magically heroic, where heroes perform difficult tasks (“Sivka-burka”, “Rejuvenating apples”).
Z. Fairy tales with family and everyday conflict (“Geese-swans”, “Sister Alyonushka and brother Ivanushka”).
The problem with the idea of a fairy tale is related to its moral ideal, a system of moral values embodied in the images of heroes. Positive hero fairy tale, regardless of social affiliation and type of activity (man, soldier, prince, etc.) is a bearer of ideal human properties, a role model.
A fairy tale has special techniques for highlighting an extraordinary hero: miraculous birth, stepwise narrowing, etc. The image of the hero of a fairy tale is a “ready-made character” and does not change throughout the work, but only receives a more detailed description and is depicted in its internal qualities. The image of the main character is the center of the work; the rest of the characters are grouped around him. The relationships of the characters are expressed in various compositional forms (connection, pairing, comparison, contrast). The magical character of the fairy tale characters is created thanks to special techniques: hyperbole (excessive exaggeration of the properties of the depicted object), agglutination (combination of different external features in one character), personification of natural phenomena and elements (likening to animate objects), miraculous change in volume. The picture of the real world, where the main character lives, is contrasted with a fantasy world, the inhabitants of which are his opponents (Baba Yaga, Koschey the Immortal, Serpent-Gorynych, Dashing One-Eyed, etc.). In addition to fantastic creatures, people (older brothers or sisters) can act as antagonists. The introduction of these characters emphasizes the high moral qualities of the main character.
As noted by V.Ya. Propp, fairy-tale characters with their attributes can be represented by seven characters: antagonist, donor, assistant, princess or her father, sender, hero and false hero, each of which has its own range of actions, that is, one or more functions. This set of roles, according to the author, is unchanged for all fairy tales.
V.Ya. Propp establishes seven main characters in a fairy tale: a pest (harms the hero, his family, fights with him, pursues him), a donor (gives the hero a magical remedy), an assistant (moves the hero, helps him in the fight against the pest) , queen (the desired character), sender (sends the hero), hero, false hero.
The sequence of functions of the characters leads to a monotonous construction of fairy tales, and the stability of functions leads to the uniformity of fairy-tale images.
The unity of a work is primarily related to its composition. A fairy tale is a narrative in which the sequence of the story is based on the conveyance of developing events and the actions of the characters. The order of development of events is carried out unilinearly in accordance with their “unfoldment in time and movement in space.” In a fairy tale, one can distinguish narration (a story about events) and dialogues - scenes. Their alternation determines the composition of the oral “text”.
G.I. Vlasova identifies three structural parts of a fairy tale: test - reaction - rewarding / punishing heroes, which corresponds to the nature of the moral development of children. This supporting-semantic core of the fairy-tale narrative determines the originality of the plot- compositional structure: simplicity, brevity, stability, repetition of components, predominance of dialogues.
One of the means that gives the work integrity and unity, along with the image of the hero and composition, is the plot. The main elements of a plot are the beginning, the development of action with a climax, and the denouement.
The plot of the tale is quite monotonous and traditional. According to R.M. Volkov, the entire fairy tale plot can be reduced to a small number of options corresponding to the approximate number of fairy tale plots.
The development of an action is a single line of events interconnected and sequentially developing over time in a cause-and-effect relationship. As noted by N.I. Kravtsov, the development of the plot in a fairy tale respects not only the temporal sequence of actions, but also their unity, which leads to a strong connection between the episodes of the fairy tale.
The end of the tale resolves the conflict and resolves the contradictions. The denouement can be represented by the following options: a description of the well-being of the heroes, punishment (possibly cruel) of negative characters, a description of the hero’s generosity (forgiveness). The tale covers a lot of events; These events dynamically replace each other, there is a rapid transition from despair to hope, from sadness to joy, feelings of fear and triumph replace each other. Often, to extend the fairy tale narrative, the technique of repeating the same motif three times with different variations is used. In a fairy tale, the beginning and end of the story are always very clearly marked. The idea of a fairy tale is always clear, the events are extraordinary, the victory of the good over the evil is final.
The world of wonderful objects in a fairy tale is diverse, and ordinary peasant objects can become magical: a towel, a ball of thread, a comb, a carpet, boots, a tablecloth, a saucer, etc. magical objects are genetically connected with primitive magic and at the same time reflect in the fairy tale the dream of improving the tools of production and the technical capabilities of man.
The next, obligatory element of a fairy tale is the beginning. It indicates the place where the action will take place, the time when it will take place, and determines the main characters of the fairy tale. The peculiarity of the beginning is that the tale never points to a specific place. While naming the main characters, the fairy tale never describes them (the heroes are typical for various fairy tales).
Over the many years of the existence of fairy tales, a rich set of traditional formulas and stable phrases has been developed, and storytellers use them in similar situations of various plots. “Soon the tale is told, but the deed is not done soon,” say storytellers, to emphasize the duration of events; when approaching a forest hut, the fairy-tale hero in any fairy tale utters a magical spell formula: “Turn, hut, face me in front, and back to the forest!” Formulas decorate the fairy tale, give it a special dimension, and distinguish it from everyday speech.
The dynamics of a fairy tale require intellectual tension, comparison of facts and events while mastering the semantic line of the plot, i.e. stimulates cognitive activity. The stock of observations of nature and life that the people put into the content of the fairy tale enriches the experience of children. A fairy tale is an excellent means of developing speech. The laconicism and expressiveness of the language of the fairy tale allow us to talk about it as a source of enrichment of children's speech. The multi-event nature of a fairy tale plot with a rigid formal organization of the narrative facilitates children's verbal creativity.
Practical part
Comparative and comparative analysis of Russian and Icelandic folklore
When comparing the classification of Icelandic and Russian folk tales, differences in thematic groups. Thus, Icelandic tales are divided into mythological, tales of ghosts and ghosts, tales of witchcraft; and Russians – magical tales, tales about animals, everyday ones. But, despite these differences, the works have common features: in plot lines, in character types, and in structure.
It was said that Icelandic folklore has absorbed the features of Scandinavian culture and there are fairy tales related to European ones in Icelandic folklore, but, firstly, their number is small, and secondly, they are clearly borrowed. (So, in most fairy tales, among the characters there is a king and queen, despite the fact that there was no royal power in Iceland; landscapes that obviously do not exist in Iceland are described: dense forests, gardens and large cities; species of animals and birds that are exotic for the polar latitudes appear. ) Even the word for fairy tales in Icelandic is the Low German borrowing “ævintýri”, while texts about “native” elves, trolls and ghosts are denoted by the word “saga”, which in modern Icelandic means in general any work of the narrative genre.
All Icelandic fairy tales are one of the most important sources of information about the life of Icelanders. It describes their culture, traditions and life in ancient times. In everyday Russian fairy tales, and also in magical ones, we can also get acquainted with the life, culture, and customs of our people.
The heroes of the works are similar. In our and Icelandic fairy tales, peasants are the main characters, and although their way of life is not described in detail in fairy tales, from fairy tales you can find out, for example, what kind of houses the Icelanders lived in, what customs they had, when and where they grazed livestock, what they fed the animals in winter, how they spent their time, how they celebrated holidays, etc.
In fairy tales, women are more likely to possess witchcraft/magic. (For example, in our country it is Vasilisa the Wise, Elena the Beautiful, Baba Yaga, etc., and in Icelandic fairy tales, peasant daughters, Thora’s relative (old witch), etc.
Goblin and tretl (troll) are also similar.
Goblin- guardian spirit of the forest. The goblin is able to change his appearance at will, so it is difficult to say what his true appearance is, but most often he is credited with the image of an old man with a long beard. He has gray-green hair, always tangled, with leaves and branches sticking out. In this form, the goblin looks like a human, but it is distinguished from the latter by grayish skin, the absence of eyebrows and eyelashes, as well as large green eyes that glow. The goblin is also capable of changing its height: in the forest, its head can reach the tops of the tallest trees, and a moment later, stepping into the meadow, it can become lower than the grass.
Leshi are immortal creatures, they do not age or die, but sometimes some individuals decide to “leave”, then they kidnap a human child and prepare a replacement for themselves, and they themselves turn into a tree and remain standing in this image, detached from the rest of the world.
The goblin is capable of turning into various forest animals, turning into plants and completely becoming invisible. Leshak also obeys all forest animals and plants; he knows how to talk to them and heal wounds. Another ability of the spirit is “forest control”; it can accelerate and reverse the growth of trees.
Tretli (trolls)live inside the mountains or nearby, where they store their treasures. They are ugly, have great strength, but are stupid. As a rule, they harm people, steal their livestock, and turn out to be cannibals. In sunlight they die, turning to stone.Trollsby nature they were so evil that they could kill a person simply out of whim, out of habit.
During the day, night trolls hid in caves. But as soon as the last ray of light faded, they crawled out to scour the dark pine forests and fjords in search of human victims. Long-armed and strong, they were dusted with earth and covered with moss.
Eyes bulging, wide mouths agape, swollen bomb noses constantly moving, sniffing in search of human scent. Trolls are cold creatures, and only the warmth of human blood could warm them.
Trolls possessed strength that was many times greater than that of mere mortals.
But there was justice for the trolls. Young children know this rule especially well: if you ask a troll a riddle, he will be obliged to solve it; he will not be able to resist the riddle. If the troll cannot solve the riddle, then he will die, but if he solves it, then in response he will ask his own, and if this time you yourself cannot solve the riddle, then the troll will tear you apart. If you managed to solve the riddle, then you should try to keep the troll occupied with these questions until dawn, because with the first rays of the sun the troll will immediately turn into stone and this will be the salvation of the person.
Belief in mythological creatures manifests itself even more later works. For example, let's remember the Mistress of the Copper Mountain in Bazhov's tales, which is quite consistent with the elven princess from the Mountain. To this day, miners remember the Mistress with respect. And Ognevushka-Jumping (again from the Ural tales as presented by Bazhov) - who is she if not one of the representatives of the Fire Nation. Finally, the water ones - the spirits of wells, rivers, lakes - aren't these the People of the Waters? Are the goblin not the People of the Forests? Well, and finally, the mermaids that sit on the branches (and often with feathers, and not with fish tails).
There is one more main feature in Russian and Icelandic fairy tales - in them, as in all fairy tales, the bad qualities of a person are despised and ridiculed: greed, avarice, anger, laziness and others. And they approve of kindness, care, generosity, generosity, hard work, and so on.
This work will show the similarities between Icelandic and Russian folklore based on a comparative analysis of three groups of fairy tales: Group 1 – “The Tale of Grishildur the Magnanimous” and “The Shepherd’s Daughter”; Group 2 – “The Tale of Prince Khlinik and Thor the Peasant Daughter” and “Finist’s Feather is Clear to the Falcon”; Group 3 – “Brothers and Leaf” and “Hunter and Wife”. The groups are allocated in this way according to some similar storylines, types of heroes, etc.
"The Tale of Grishildur the Magnanimous" and "The Shepherd's Daughter"
These fairy tales have a common plot: the hero marries a beautiful, kind, smart girl, but when children appear, the hero orders to get rid of them, and then kicks out his wife. After some time, he thinks about a second wedding, where he invites his first wife as an assistant: she must clean the rooms, prepare the wedding feast and evaluate the new wife. Next, the main character admits that it was all a test: their daughter pretended to be the bride, and their son was invited. The heroine forgives her husband, and they live happily ever after.
Not only the plot is similar, but also other elements. So, the main character in both cases is the king/king, as a rule, capricious, harsh, inventing a cruel punishment for his wife.
The main character (like the main character, has no name) is a girl from a peasant family, she has high moral qualities: she is kind, friendly, generous, respectful and caring towards her parents, modest and obedient to her husband. She gets married against her will: the king chose her during a walk and set the condition for the girl’s parents that it would be very bad for them if they did not give up their daughter for him. In the Russian fairy tale, the tsar sets the condition that the wife must not contradict him in anything. The girl agrees unquestioningly, although her father warns that she will be kicked out of the castle in disgrace.
A similar element of the composition is separation, which is characteristic of folk tales: when children appear, the king orders to get rid of them, but does not explain anything to his wife. But the mother does not ask about the children, does not strive to find them, but takes it for granted. Then the king kicks her out too, orders her not to show herself to him, and the wife returns to her former peasant life.
As a difference, you can indicate a smaller number of visual means. In general, the use of tropes is not typical for Icelandic fairy tales, since the narrative must be realistic (despite the presence of fairy-tale characters). results comparative analysis are presented below in Table 1.
Table 1
|
"The Tale of Grishildur the Magnanimous" |
"The Shepherd's Daughter" |
|
|
Heroes |
The king is wayward, harsh, cruel; Grishildur, the daughter of a peasant - beautiful, kind, friendly, diligent, patient, respectful and caring towards her parents |
The king is wayward; shepherd's daughter (no name) - beautiful, kind, obedient, meek |
|
Composition elements: Inception |
Once upon a time there lived a king |
In a certain kingdom, in a certain state, there lived a king |
|
The beginning |
Separation from children |
Separation from children |
|
Denouement |
The king's confession that this was a test of patience and kindness |
The king’s confession that the imaginary bride is their daughter, and that his son is among the guests |
The difference between folklore and literature
Purpose of the PP: - consolidation of theoretical knowledge in the course of comparative analysis of folklore and literary texts.
Lesson equipment: texts:
Main lesson content:
“Characteristic features of folklore and literature”
Practical lesson No. 2.
Analysis of folklore works. Definition of genus, genre, genre variety
Purpose of the PP : - formation of skills in determining the type, genre, genre variety of folklore works, their division according to historical periodization.
Lesson equipment : texts:
1.Russian oral folk art: Reader: textbook. allowance for universities/comp. V. P. Anikin. – M., 2006.
2.Russian oral folk art: Reader - workshop: textbook. allowance for universities. /ed. S. A. Dzhanumova. – M.: Academy, 2007.
diagram (appendix No. 1)
Main content of the lesson :
Task No. 1. Define historical period the origin of a work in the sphere of existence, its type, genre, genre variety of a folklore work proposed by the teacher, using the scheme “Genre diversity of oral folk art” (Appendix No. 1). Fill out the table “Analysis of folklore texts.”
"Analysis of folklore texts"
| Text no. | According to historical periodization | By sphere of life | genus | genre | Genre variety |
Practical lesson No. 3.
Analysis of folk tales
Purpose of the PP : - developing skills in analyzing folklore texts of fairy tales.
Lesson equipment : texts:
1.Russian oral folk art: Reader: textbook. allowance for universities/comp. V. P. Anikin. – M., 2006.
2.Russian oral folk art: Reader - workshop: textbook. allowance for universities. /ed. S. A. Dzhanumova. – M.: Academy, 2007.
Main lesson content:
Task No. 1. Read the text proposed by the teacher, fill out the table “Genre variety of Russian folk tales.” Determine the genre type of fairy tale based on the prevailing features. In the “Availability” column, if the feature is absent, put (-), if present (+).
“Genre variety of Russian folk tales”
| Text no. | Signs | Availability |
| The beginning of a fairy tale | ||
| The main characters are animals | ||
| The main characters are ordinary people | ||
| The plot is based on a wonderful fiction | ||
| Availability of magical items | ||
| The main characters are fantastic characters | ||
| The presence of magical assistants | ||
| Stringing motives into the plot | ||
| The narrative includes poetic and song genres | ||
| The plot is based on reality | ||
| Genre variety: | ||
| Social and everyday fairy tale | ||
| Tale of Animals | ||
| Fairy tale |
Task No. 2. Compose a fairy tale, adhering to the traditional form, the characteristics of genre varieties of fairy tales, using the motive and characters of one of the tasks proposed below.
№1 MOTIVE: violation of the ban, sleep test, imprisonment in a dungeon, ascension of the hero to the throne, meeting.
CHARACTERS: Death's Head, Adoptive Son, Stepdaughter, Ivan Tsarevich.
№2 MOTIVE: kidnapped children, crossing a bridge, finding magical objects.
CHARACTERS: Alyonushka, Ivanushka, Sea King, Baba Yaga.
№3 MOTIVE: the hero is absorbed by a monster, finds magical helpers, is cut down and revived.
CHARACTERS: Serpent Gorynych, Gray Wolf, Elena the Beautiful.
№4 MOTIVE: sewing into a skin, going to another kingdom, kidnapping, 3 tests.
CHARACTERS: Sea King, Alyonushka, Marya Morevna.
№5 MOTIVE: kidnapped children, test by riddles, magical gift, in the service of Yaga.
CHARACTERS: Tsarevich and Princess, Kashchei, Seven Semyons, Vertogor.
№6 MOTIVE: exactions of the Snake, imprisonment, battle Kalinov Bridge, 3 tasks, receiving an inheritance.
CHARACTERS: Fire Serpent, Swan Princess, Baba Yaga.
Task No. 3. Draw up the fairy tale on A4 sheets in a printed version, read it in class for analysis.
Practical lesson No. 4.
All of the above determines only one side of the matter: this determines the social nature of folklore, but this still does not say anything about all its other features.
The above features are clearly not enough to distinguish folklore in special kind creativity, and folklore - into a special science. But they define a number of other features, already specifically folklore in essence.
First of all, let us establish that folklore is a product of a special type of poetic creativity. But literature is also poetic creativity. Indeed, there is a very close connection between folklore and literature, between folklore studies and literary studies.
Literature and folklore, first of all, partially coincide in their poetic types and genres. There are, however, genres that are specific only to literature and impossible in folklore (for example, a novel) and, conversely, there are genres that are specific to folklore and impossible in literature (for example, a conspiracy).
Nevertheless, the very fact of the existence of genres, the possibility of classification here and there according to genres, is a fact that belongs to the field of poetics. Hence the commonality of some tasks and methods of studying literary studies and folkloristics.
One of the tasks of folkloristics is the task of isolating and studying the category of genre and each genre separately, and this task is a literary one.
One of the most important and difficult tasks of folkloristics is the study of the internal structure of works, in short, the study of composition and structure. Fairy tales, epics, riddles, songs, spells - all of this has little studied laws of addition and structure. In the field of epic genres, this includes the study of the plot, the course of action, the denouement, or, in other words, the laws of plot structure. The study shows that folklore and literary works are structured differently, that folklore has its own specific structural laws.
Literary criticism is unable to explain this specific pattern, but it can only be established using methods of literary analysis. This area also includes the study of poetic language and style. The study of the means of poetic language is a purely literary task.
Here again it turns out that folklore has means specific to it (parallelisms, repetitions, etc.) or that the usual means of poetic language (comparisons, metaphors, epithets) are filled with a completely different content than in literature. This can only be established through literary analysis.
In short, folklore has a completely special, specific poetics, different from the poetics of literary works. The study of this poetics will reveal extraordinary artistic beauty, embedded in folklore.
Thus, we see that not only is there a close connection between folklore and literature, but that folklore as such is a phenomenon of a literary order. It is one of the types of poetic creativity.
Folklore studies in the study of this side of folklore, in its descriptive elements, is a literary science. The connection between these sciences is so close that we often equate folklore and literature with the corresponding sciences; the method of studying literature is transferred entirely to the study of folklore, and that is all there is to it.
However, literary analysis can, as we see, only establish the phenomenon and pattern of folk poetics, but it is unable to explain them. To protect ourselves from such a mistake, we must establish not only the similarities between literature and folklore, their kinship and to some extent consubstantial, but also establish the specific difference between them, determine their differences.
Indeed, folklore has a number of specific features that distinguish it so much from literature that literary research methods are not enough to resolve all problems related to folklore.
One of the most important differences is that literary works always and certainly have an author. Folklore works may not have an author, and this is one of the specific features of folklore.
The question must be posed with all possible clarity and precision. Or do we recognize the presence of folk art as such, as a social and cultural phenomenon? historical life nations, or we do not recognize it, we claim that it is a poetic or scientific fiction and that there is only the creativity of individuals or groups.
We stand on the point of view that folk art is not a fiction, but exists precisely as such, and that studying it is the main task of folkloristics as a science. In this regard, we identify ourselves with our old scientists, like F. Buslaev or O. Miller. What the old science felt instinctively, expressed naively, ineptly, and not so much scientifically as emotionally, must now be cleared of romantic errors and raised to the proper height of modern science with its thoughtful methods and precise techniques.
Brought up in the school of literary traditions, we often still cannot imagine that a poetic work could arise differently from the way a literary work arises during individual creativity. We all think that someone must have composed it or put it together first.
Meanwhile, completely different ways of the emergence of poetic works are possible, and the study of them is one of the main and very complex problems of folkloristics. It is not possible here to enter into the full breadth of this problem. It is enough to point out here that folklore should be genetically related not to literature, but to a language that was also not invented by anyone and has neither an author nor authors.
It arises and changes completely naturally and independently of the will of people, wherever appropriate conditions have been created for this in the historical development of peoples. The phenomenon of worldwide similarity does not pose a problem for us. The absence of such similarities would be inexplicable to us.
Similarity indicates a pattern, and the similarity of folklore works is only a special case of a historical pattern leading from the same forms of production material culture to identical or similar social institutions, to similar instruments of production, and in the field of ideology - to the similarity of forms and categories of thinking, religious ideas, ritual life, languages and folklore. All this lives, is interdependent, changes, grows and dies.
Returning to the question of how to empirically imagine the emergence of folklore works, here it will be enough to at least point out that folklore can initially constitute an integrating part of the ritual.
With the degeneration or fall of the ritual, folklore becomes detached from it and begins to live independent life. This is just an illustration general situation. Proof can only be given through specific research. But the ritual origin of folklore was clear, for example, already to A. N. Veselovsky in the last years of his life.
The difference presented here is so fundamental that it alone forces us to distinguish folklore as a special type of creativity, and folklore studies as a special science. A literary historian, wanting to study the origins of a work, looks for its author.
V.Ya. Propp. Poetics of folklore - M., 1998
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1. Folklore - oral folk TVorcism. Features of folklore
Folklore- an international term of English origin, first introduced into science in 1846 by the scientist William Toms. Literally translated it means " folk wisdom", "folk knowledge" and denotes various manifestations of folk spiritual culture.
Other terms have also become established in Russian science: folk poetry, folk poetry, folk literature. The name “oral creativity of the people” emphasizes the oral nature of folklore in its difference from written literature. The name “folk poetic creativity” indicates artistry as a sign by which a folklore work is distinguished from beliefs, customs and rituals. This designation puts folklore on a par with other types of folklore. artistic creativity and fiction.
Folklore- complex, synthetic art. Often his works combine elements of various types of arts - verbal, musical, theatrical. It is studied by various sciences - history, psychology, sociology, ethnology (ethnography)2. It is closely connected with folk life and rituals. It is no coincidence that the first Russian scientists approached folklore broadly, recording not only works of verbal art, but also recording various ethnographic details and the realities of peasant life. Thus, the study of folklore was for them a unique area of national studies.
The science that studies folklore is called folkloristics. If literature is understood not only as written artistic creativity, but as verbal art in general, then folklore is a special branch of literature, and folkloristics is thus part of literary criticism.
Folklore- This is verbal oral creativity. It has the properties of the art of words. In this way he is close to literature. At the same time, it has its own specific features: syncretism, traditionality, anonymity, variability and improvisation.
The prerequisites for the emergence of folklore appeared in the primitive communal system with the beginning of the formation of art. Ancient art The word was characterized by utilitarianism - the desire to practically influence nature and human affairs.
The most ancient folklore was in a syncretistic state (from the Greek word synkretismos - connection). A syncretic state is a state of unity, indivisibility. Art was not yet separated from other types of spiritual activity; it existed in conjunction with other types of spiritual consciousness. Later, the state of syncretism was followed by the separation of artistic creativity, along with other types of social consciousness, into an independent field of spiritual activity.
Folklore works are anonymous. Their author is the people. Any of them is created on the basis of tradition. At one time V.G. Belinsky wrote about the specifics of a folklore work: there are no “famous names, because the author of literature is always a people. No one knows who composed his simple and naive songs, in which the internal and external life of a young people or tribe was so artlessly and vividly reflected. And he moves on the song from generation to generation, from generation to generation; and it changes over time: sometimes they shorten it, sometimes they lengthen it, sometimes they remake it, sometimes they combine it with another song, sometimes they compose another song in addition to it - and then poems come out of the songs, of which only the people can call themselves the author."
Academician D.S. is certainly right. Likhachev, who noted that there is no author in a folklore work not only because information about him, if he existed, has been lost, but also because he falls out of the very poetics of folklore; it is not needed from the point of view of the structure of the work. In folklore works there may be a performer, a storyteller, a storyteller, but there is no author or writer as an element of the artistic structure itself.
Traditional continuity covers large historical intervals - entire centuries. According to academician A.A. Potebny, folklore arises “from memorable sources, that is, it is passed down from memory from mouth to mouth as far as memory lasts, but it has certainly passed through a significant layer of popular understanding”5. Each bearer of folklore creates within the boundaries of generally accepted tradition, relying on predecessors, repeating, changing, and supplementing the text of the work. In literature there is a writer and a reader, and in folklore there is a performer and a listener. "Works of folklore always bear the stamp of time and the environment in which they long time lived, or “existed”. For these reasons, folklore is called mass folk art. It does not have individual authors, although there are many talented performers and creators who are fluent in generally accepted traditional techniques of storytelling and singing. Folklore is directly folk in content - that is, in the thoughts and feelings expressed in it. Folklore is also popular in style - that is, in the form of conveying the content. Folklore is folk in origin, in all the signs and properties of traditional figurative content and traditional stylistic forms."6 This is the collective nature of folklore. Traditionality is the most important and basic specific property of folklore.
Any folklore work comes in a large number of variants. Variant (lat. variantis - changing) - each new performance of a folklore work. Oral works had a mobile, variable nature.
2. Characteristic features of folklore
A characteristic feature of a folklore work is improvisation. It is directly related to the variability of the text. Improvisation (Italian improvvisazione - unforeseen, suddenly) - the creation of a folklore work or its parts directly in the process of performance. This feature is more characteristic of lamentations and crying. However, improvisation did not contradict tradition and was within certain artistic boundaries.
Taking into account all these signs of a folklore work, we present an extremely brief definition of folklore given by V.P. Anikin: “folklore is the traditional artistic creativity of the people. It equally applies to oral, verbal, and other visual arts, both to ancient creativity and to new ones created in modern times and created in our days.”
Folklore, like literature, is the art of words. This gives reason to use literary terms: epic, lyric, drama. They are usually called childbirth. Each genus covers a group of works of a certain type. Genre is a type of artistic form (fairy tale, song, proverb, etc.). This is a narrower group of works than the genus. Thus, by genus we mean a way of depicting reality, by genre - a type of artistic form. The history of folklore is the history of changes in its genres. They are more stable in folklore compared to literary ones; genre boundaries in literature are wider. New genre forms in folklore do not arise as a result creative activity individuals, as in literature, but must be supported by the entire mass of participants in the collective creative process. Therefore, their change does not occur without the necessary historical grounds. At the same time, genres in folklore are not unchanged. They arise, develop and die, and are replaced by others. So, for example, epics arise in Ancient Rus', develop in the Middle Ages, and in the 19th century they are gradually forgotten and die out. As living conditions change, genres are destroyed and consigned to oblivion. But this does not indicate the decline of folk art. Changes in the genre composition of folklore are a natural consequence of the process of development of artistic collective creativity.
3. Genres of folklore
Folklore in its nature, content and purpose is deeply democratic, truly folk art. He is distinguished not only by his ideological depth, but also by his high artistic qualities. Folk poetry is distinguished by a unique artistic system of visual means and genres.
What are the genres of Russian folklore?
One of the types of ancient creativity was labor songs with their simplest commands, shouts, signals given as they work.
Calendar folklore originally came from the urgent practical goals of people. It was associated with ideas about the annual agricultural cycle and variable natural conditions. People sought to know the future, so they resorted to fortune telling and talked about the future based on signs.
This also explained wedding folklore. It is permeated with the thought of the safety of the family and clan, and is designed for the goodwill of the highest patrons.
Individual elements have also been preserved from antiquity children's folklore, which changed later under the influence of aesthetic and pedagogical functions.
Among the most ancient genres are funeral lamentations. With the advent of universal conscription, mourning arose for those being drafted into service—recruitment laments.
The genres of non-ritual folklore also developed under the influence of syncretism. It includes small folklore genres (proverbs): proverbs, fables, signs and sayings. They contained human judgments about the way of life, about work, about higher natural forces, and statements about human affairs. “This is a vast area of moral assessments and judgments, how to live, how to raise children, how to honor ancestors, thoughts about the need to follow precepts and examples, these are everyday rules of behavior. In a word, the functionality of proverbs covers almost all ideological areas.”
Genres of oral prose include legends, stories, stories, legends. These are stories and incidents from life that tell about a person’s meeting with characters of Russian demonology - sorcerers, witches, mermaids, etc. This also includes stories about saints, shrines and miracles - about the communication of a person who has accepted the Christian faith with forces of a higher order .
Genres of song epic : epics, historical songs, military songs, spiritual songs and poems.
Gradually, folklore moves away from everyday functions and acquires elements of artistry. The role of the artistic principle in it increases. As a result of historical evolution, folklore became poetic in its main and fundamental qualities, having reworked the traditions of all previous states of folklore.
Artistic creativity is embodied in all types of fairy tales: tales of animals, magical, everyday.
This type of creativity is also represented in riddles.
Ballads are also among the earliest types of artistic creativity.
Lyrical songs also carry artistic function. They are performed outside of rituals. The content and form of lyrical songs are associated with the expression of the experiences and feelings of the performers.
Towards the artistic song folklore the newest formation, modern researchers include romances and ditties.
Children's folklore has its own system of genres, correlated with age characteristics children. It has artistic and pedagogical functions. It is dominated by gaming principles.
The artistic entertainment theatrical basis contains the folklore of spectacles and folk theater. It is presented in all the variety of genres and types (games, dressing up, nativity scene, paradise, puppet shows etc.).
A separate type of artistic performance is formed by the so-called fair folklore. It arose from fair performances, shouts of traders, farce barkers, joke speech, jokes and folk sayings.
At the intersection of long-standing traditions of folklore and trends new culture the genre has developed joke.
Detailed story about individual folklore genres will be undertaken in subsequent sections of the manual.
4. From the history of Russian folklore
Scientific publications of Russian folklore began to appear in the 30-40s of the 19th century. First of all, these are collections by Moscow University professor I.M. Snegirev "Russian common holidays and superstitious rituals" in four parts (1837-1839), "Russian folk proverbs and parables" (1848).
Valuable materials are contained in the collections of the folklorist scientist I.P. Sakharov “Tales of the Russian people about the family life of their ancestors” (in two volumes, 1836 and 1839), “Russian folk tales” (1841).
Gradually, wide public circles became involved in the work of collecting folklore. This was facilitated by the Imperial Russian Geographical Society created in 1845 in St. Petersburg. It had an ethnography department that was actively involved in collecting folklore in all the provinces of Russia. From nameless correspondents (rural and urban teachers, doctors, students, clergy and even peasants) the Society received numerous recordings of oral works, which formed an extensive archive. Later, much of this archive was published in “Notes of the Russian Geographical Society for the Department of Ethnography.” And in Moscow in the 60-70s, the “Society of Lovers of Russian Literature” was engaged in publishing folklore. Folklore materials were published in the central magazines "Ethnographic Review" and "Living Antiquity" and in local periodicals.
In the 30-40s P.V. Kireevsky and his friend the poet N.M. Languages widely expanded and led the collection of Russian folk epic and lyrical songs (epics, historical songs, ritual and non-ritual songs, spiritual poems). Kireevsky was preparing materials for publication, but his untimely death did not allow him to fully implement his plans. During his lifetime, the only collection was published: spiritual poems. “Songs collected by P.V. Kireevsky” were first published only in the 60-70s of the 19th century (epics and historical songs, the so-called “old series”) and in the 20th century (ritual and non-ritual songs, “new series” ).
In the same 30-40s, V.I.’s collecting activities took place. Dalia. He recorded works of various genres of Russian folklore, however, as a researcher of the “living Great Russian language,” Dal focused on preparing a collection of small genres that were closest to colloquial speech: proverbs, sayings, proverbs, etc. In the early 60s, Dahl’s collection “Proverbs of the Russian People” was published. In it, all the texts were grouped for the first time according to a thematic principle, which made it possible to objectively present the people’s attitude to various phenomena of life. This turned the collection of proverbs into a genuine book of folk wisdom.
Another detailed folklore publication was the collection of A.N. Afanasyev’s “Russian Folk Tales”, to which Dahl also made a great collecting contribution, who gave Afanasyev about a thousand fairy tales he recorded.
Afanasyev's collection was published in 8 issues from 1855 to 1863. There are a little more than a dozen fairy tales recorded by Afanasyev himself; he mainly used the archives of the Russian Geographical Society, the personal archives of V.I. Dalia, P.I. Yakushkin and other collectors, as well as materials from ancient handwritten and some printed collections. Only the best material was published in the first edition. Approximately 600 texts in the collection covered a huge geographical space: the places of residence of Russians, as well as partly Ukrainians and Belarusians.
The publication of Afanasyev's collection caused a wide public response. It was reviewed by prominent scientists A.N. Pypin, F.I. Buslaev, A.A. Kotlyarevsky, I.I. Sreznevsky, O.F. Miller; in the Sovremennik magazine, N.A. gave a positive assessment. Dobrolyubov.
Later, struggling with Russian censorship, Afanasyev managed to publish the collection “Russian Folk Legends” (1859) in London and the collection “Russian Treasured Tales” anonymously in Geneva in 1872.
Afanasyev's collection was partially translated into various foreign languages, and completely translated into German. In Russia it went through 7 complete editions.
From 1860 to 1862, simultaneously with the first edition of Afanasyev’s collection, a collection by I.A. Khudyakov "Great Russian Tales". New trends were expressed in the collection by D.N. Sadovnikov "Tales and legends of the Samara region" (1884). Sadovnikov is the first who paid close attention to an individual talented storyteller and recorded his repertoire. Of the 183 tales in the collection, 72 were recorded from Abram Novopoltsev.
IN mid-19th century in the history of collecting Russian folklore, a significant event took place: an actively existing living epic tradition was discovered in the Olonets region. Its discoverer was P.N., who was exiled to Petrozavodsk in 1859 for political activities. Rybnikov. While working as an official in the governor's office, Rybnikov began to use official travel to collect epics. Over the course of several years, he traveled around a vast territory and recorded a large number of epics and other works of oral folk poetry. The collector worked with outstanding storytellers T.G. Ryabinin, A.P. Sorokin, V.P. Shchegolenko and others, from whom other folklorists subsequently recorded.
In 1861-1867, a four-volume edition of “Songs collected by P.N. Rybnikov” was published, prepared for publication by P.A. Bessonov (1 and 2 volumes), Rybnikov himself (3 volumes) and O. Miller (4 volumes). It included 224 recordings of epics, historical songs, and ballads. The material was arranged according to the plot principle. In the 3rd volume (1864), Rybnikov published “A Collector’s Note,” in which he outlined the state of the epic tradition in the Onega region, gave a number of characteristics to the performers, and raised the question of the creative reproduction of epics and the personal contribution of the storyteller to the epic heritage.
Following in the footsteps of Rybnikov, the Slavic scholar A.F. went to the Olonets province in April 1871. Hilferding. In two months, he listened to 70 singers and recorded 318 epics (the manuscript was more than 2000 pages). In the summer of 1872, Hilferding again went to the Olonets region. On the way, he became seriously ill and died.
A year after the collector’s death, “Onega epics, recorded by Alexander Fedorovich Hilferding in the summer of 1871. With two portraits of Onega rhapsodes and melodies of epics” (1873) were published. Hilferding was the first to apply the method of studying the repertoire of individual storytellers. He arranged the epics in the collection according to storytellers, with premise biographical information. Hilferding’s latest journal publication, “Olonets Province and Its Folk Rhapsodes,” was included as a general introductory article.
The 60-70s of the 19th century were a real heyday of collecting activity for Russian folkloristics. During these years, the most valuable publications of various genres were published: fairy tales, epics, proverbs, riddles, spiritual poems, spells, lamentations, ritual and extra-ritual songs.
At the beginning of the 20th century, work continued on collecting and publishing folklore. In 1908, a collection by N.E. was published. Onchukov "Northern Tales" - 303 tales from Olonets and Arkhangelsk provinces. Onchukov arranged the material not according to plots, but according to storytellers, citing their biographies and characteristics. Later, other publishers began to adhere to this principle.
In 1914, a collection by D.K. was published in Petrograd. Zelenin "Great Russian fairy tales of the Perm province." It included 110 fairy tales. The collection is prefaced by Zelenin's article "Something about storytellers and fairy tales of the Yekaterinburg district of the Perm province." It describes the types of storytellers. The material in the collection is arranged by artist.
A valuable contribution to science was the collection of the brothers B.M. and Yu.M. Sokolov "Fairy tales and songs of the Belozersky region" (1915). It includes 163 fairy tale texts. The accuracy of the recording can serve as a model for modern collectors. The collection is compiled based on materials from the expeditions of 1908 and 1909 to the Belozersky and Kirillovsky districts of the Novgorod province. It is equipped with a rich scientific apparatus. Subsequently, both brothers became famous folklorists.
Thus, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, a huge amount of material was collected and the main classical publications of Russian oral folk art appeared. This was of enormous importance both for science and for the entire Russian culture. In 1875, writer P.I. Melnikov-Pechersky in a letter to P.V. Sheinu described the significance of the work of folklorists-gatherers as follows:
“For a quarter of a century I traveled a lot around Russia, wrote down a lot of songs, legends, beliefs, etc., etc., but I could not have set foot if there had not been the works of the late Dahl and Kireevsky, there had not been your published works from Bodyansky, the works of L. Maykov, Maksimov and - may the Lord calm his drunken soul in the depths of Abraham - I find your comparison of your work with the work of an ant not entirely fair.<...>You are bees, not ants - your job is to collect honey, our job is to cook honey (hudromel). If it weren’t for you, we would be brewing some kind of dank kvass, not honey.<...>Not even half a century will pass before the people's ancient traditions and customs dry up, old Russian songs will fall silent or become distorted under the influence of tavern and tavern civilization, but your works until distant times, until our later descendants, will preserve the features of our ancient way of life. You are more durable than us."
In the first decades of the 20th century, Russian folkloristics finally defined itself as a scientific discipline, separating itself from other sciences (ethnology, linguistics, literary criticism).
In 1926-1928, the brothers B.M. went on an expedition “in the footsteps of P.N. Rybnikov and A.F. Hilferding.” and Yu.M. Sokolovs. The materials of the expedition were published in 1948. Records of epics of 1926-1933 from the collections of the Manuscript Repository of the Folklore Commission at the Institute of Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences were included in the two-volume publication by A.M. Astakhova "Epics of the North". The collection of epics continued throughout the war and post-war years. The materials of three expeditions to Pechora (1942, 1955 and 1956) made up the volume “Epics of Pechora and the Winter Coast”.
Many new recordings of fairy tales, songs, ditties, works of non-fairy tale prose, proverbs, riddles, etc. were made. In the publication of new materials, firstly, the genre, and secondly, the regional principle prevailed. Collections reflecting the repertoire of a particular region, as a rule, consisted of one or a few related genres.
Collectors began to purposefully identify workers' folklore, folklore of hard labor and exile. The Civil and Great Patriotic Wars also left their mark on folk poetry, which did not escape the attention of collectors.
Classic collections of Russian folklore were republished: collections of fairy tales by A.N. Afanasyeva, I.A. Khudyakova, D.K. Zelenin, collection of proverbs by V.I. Dahl, a collection of riddles by D.N. Sadovnikova and others. Many materials from old folklore archives were published for the first time. Multi-volume series are published. Among them are “Monuments of Russian Folklore” (Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg) and “Monuments of Folklore of the Peoples of Siberia and the Far East” (Russian Academy of Sciences; Institute of Philology of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk).
There are centers for the philological study of Russian folklore, with their own archives and periodicals. These are the State Republican Center of Russian Folklore in Moscow (publishing the magazine "Living Antiquity"), the sector of Russian folk art of the Institute of Russian Literature (Pushkin House) of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg (yearbook "Russian Folklore: Materials and Research"), the Department of Folklore of the Moscow State University named after. M.V. Lomonosov (collections "Folklore as the Art of Words"), as well as regional and regional folklore centers with their archives and publications ("Siberian Folklore", "Folklore of the Urals", "Folklore of the Peoples of Russia", etc.). In the study of folklore, one of the leading places is occupied by the Saratov School of Folklore Studies, the history of which is connected with the names of Moscow University professor S.P. Shevyrev, songwriter N.G. Tsyganov, local historian A.F. Leopoldov, member of the Saratov Scientific Archival Commission A.N. Mincha; subsequently - professors at Saratov State University - B.M. Sokolova, V.V. Bush, A.P. Skaftymova. Professor T.M. made a great contribution to the study of folklore. Akimov and V.K. Arkhangelskaya.
5. Folklore dictionary
Allegory is a means of enhancing poetic expressiveness.
Animism is the endowment of souls to objects and natural phenomena.
An anecdote is a very short story with funny, funny content and an unexpected witty ending; a kind of humorous parable.
The anonymity of folklore works indicates that they do not have an author; their creator is a collective.
Antithesis is an opposition, a contradiction, a stylistic figure based on the comparison or opposition of contrasting concepts and images.
Anthropomorphism - assimilation to a person, endowing objects and phenomena of inanimate nature with human properties, celestial bodies, animals, mythical creatures.
Apotheosis is a solemn glorification, exaltation of a phenomenon.
Archetype is a symbolic formula, prototype, prototype.
An aphorism is a generalizing thought expressed in a laconic, artistically refined form.
A tale is a short tale, a moralizing poem, a fictional story.
A fable is a short allegorical, moralizing poem, a comic story in prose or verse, a fictitious incident, a parable, an instructive narrative in an allegorical sense.
Bahar is an ancient Russian storyteller (talker, storyteller).
Stray stories - moving from one country to another, from one people to another.
Bylinas are heroic songs that arose as an expression of the historical consciousness of the Russian people in the era of Kievan Rus.
Epic verse is a folk versification of Russian oral folk poetry.
Bylichki - oral stories about encounters with fantastic creatures: brownies, goblins, water creatures, etc.
Option - each new performance of a folklore work.
Variability is a change on the traditional basis of plot themes, motives, situations, images.
Great songs are a genre of ritual folklore. They glorified both individuals and the collective.
Version is a group of options that give a qualitatively new interpretation of a folk work.
A nativity scene is a type of folk puppet theater designed to present the gospel story of the birth of Jesus Christ in a cave.
Vesnyanka are Russian ritual songs associated with the magical rite of conjuring spring.
Screamer (mourner) - performer of lamentations.
Genesis - origin, emergence; the process of formation and formation of a developing phenomenon.
Hyperbole is an excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.
Grotesque is an extreme exaggeration that gives the image a fantastic character.
Demonology is a complex of mythological ideas and beliefs about demons of pagan and Christian origin (demons, devils, evil spirits, mermaids, merman, goblin, brownies, kikimoras, etc.), as well as a set of works reflecting these ideas.
Children's folklore is a system of folklore genres created by adults for children, or by the children themselves, or borrowed by children from adult folklore.
Dialogue is mutual communication between two or more persons in the form of oral speech.
Drama is a type of literary work that belongs to both theater and literature.
Genre - type of work of art; lies in the unity of the properties of the compositional structure, its form and content with characteristic plot and stylistic features.
Harvest songs are calendar songs performed during rituals that accompanied the harvest.
The beginning is the beginning of some action or event.
Riddles are a genre of folklore; an expression that needs to be solved, an allegorical, poetic reproduction of an object or phenomenon.
Conspiracies are phrases, magic words that have witchcraft or healing powers.
Spell is synonymous with conspiracy; in folk beliefs, magic words, sounds, with which they subjugate, command.
The chorus is the beginning of the song, an introduction that predetermines the poetic development of the plot.
The beginning is a traditional beginning in folk literature, which leads listeners to the perception of the plot narrative.
Zoomorphism is the resemblance to animals in appearance.
Game songs are a genre of ritual folklore based on a combination of not only words and music, but also games; the game action directly affects the lyrics of the song; Without knowledge of the game situation, the lyrics of the song are usually incomprehensible.
An idiom is a figure of speech that cannot be translated into another language without violating the meaning (to say the least, it’s in the bag).
Visual means are ways of recreating reality in a work of art.
Improvisation - creating the text of a folk work or individual parts at the time of execution.
Initiation is a ritual of tribal society that ensures initiation and transition to a new age group.
Allegory is a literary device, an expression that contains a hidden meaning.
Informant, informant - a person giving information; in folklore: the performer of folk works from whom they were recorded.
Exodus is the ending of an epic, not directly related to its content, addressed to the listener, often expressing an assessment of epic events.
Calendar rituals are one of the cycles of folk rituals associated with economic activity peasantry (with agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, hunting, etc.).
Kaliki passers-by are wanderers, pilgrims to holy Christian places and monasteries, singing spiritual poems and legends.
Kolyadka is a folk calendar ritual song with which performers went around village residents on Christmastide; The name of the carol songs is named after the mythological character Kolyada, who personified the beginning of the new year.
Caroling is a Christmas ritual of visiting houses by groups of participants who congratulated the owners by singing carol songs and received a reward for this.
Contamination is the combination of two or more independent parts in one work of art.
Corial songs are a genre of ritual poetry, their purpose is to ridicule a participant or group of ritual participants.
Kupala songs - songs performed during the calendar rituals on Ivan Kupala (June 24, O.S.); in their poetic essence these are mainly ritual, incantatory, majestic or lyrical songs.
Cumulative composition of the plot is a composition based on the principle of accumulation of chains from the same variably repeated motif.
Climax is the highest point of tension in the development of the action of a work of art.
Legends are one of the genres of folklore, which is based on the wonderful and fantastic.
Leitmotif - the prevailing mood, main topic, ideological and emotional tone of the work, creativity, direction.
Lyrics are a type of literature and folklore that expresses a person’s attitude toward what is depicted, feelings, thoughts, and moods.
Lubok - a special style picture with and without text; type of graphics designed for the general reader.
Maslenitsa songs are songs associated with the calendar ritual: farewell to winter, meeting and seeing off Maslenitsa.
Memorat is an oral story that conveys the narrator’s memories of events in which he was a participant or eyewitness.
Myth is an ancient legend, which is an unconsciously artistic narrative about important natural and social phenomena, often mysterious to ancient man, and the origin of the world.
Mythology is a system of archaic ideas of a people about the world, a set of myths.
Motif is the simplest component of the plot, the minimally significant component of the narrative.
Nationality (folklore) is an ideological and aesthetic category that expresses the significant progressive interests of the people in a certain era, consistent service to the people through the means of art.
Non-fairy tale prose is a type of folk prose that combines tales, legends, traditions and fairy tales.
Symbolic images are traditional allegories characteristic of folk poetry that denote characters, their feelings and experiences.
Ritual poetry is poetry associated with folk everyday rituals (carols, wedding songs, lamentations, sentences, riddles).
Ritual songs are songs associated with calendar and wedding rituals.
Rituals are traditional actions that accompany important moments in the life and production activities of an individual and a team; according to their timing, rituals are divided into calendar and family-domestic, according to form and purpose - into magical, legal-everyday and ritual-game. Magic rituals reflected pagan, Christian, and superstitious ideas about nature and society. People thought that with the help of magical rituals they could protect themselves from supernatural forces hostile to them or achieve well-being; legal and everyday documents recorded the conclusion of property, monetary and other agreements between people, families, villages. The meaning of ritual and gaming rituals is to entertain a person and satisfy his aesthetic needs. Magical, legal, everyday, and ritual-game rituals formed complex complexes and rituals (weddings, funerals, etc.) and in the past played a huge role in the life of society. The ancient rituals also reflected prejudices, since practical experience, work, and people’s observations of nature were not based on scientific knowledge.
Commonplaces are identical situations, motives that have similar verbal expressions. Common elements are also the constant elements of the composition of oral works: in epics - a chorus, in fairy tales - a joke, in epics and fairy tales - a beginning and an ending.
A custom is a stereotypical way of behavior that is reproduced in a certain society or social group and is familiar to its members (for example, the custom of taking off a hat when entering a room, saying hello when meeting, etc.).
Personification is a special type of metaphor: transferring the image of human traits to inanimate objects and phenomena.
An oxymoron is an artistic device, a combination of words with opposite meanings, as a result of which a new semantic quality arises (“living corpse”, “optimistic tragedy”).
Psychological parallelism - comparison human image and images from the natural world based on action or state.
Proverbs are the general name for small genres of folklore prose (proverbs, sayings, riddles).
Pathos is emotional animation, passion that permeates the work and gives it a single breath.
Laments are ritual poetic works associated with wedding ceremonies, mourning the deceased and seeing off a recruit.
Landscape is an image of pictures of nature that performs various functions.
Dance songs - songs performed at a fast pace, accompanied by dancing; They are characterized by a recitative patter built on speech intonations; The content of most dance songs is cheerful, playful, depicting comic situations.
A proverb is a widespread expression that figuratively defines some life phenomenon and gives it an emotionally expressive assessment.
Podblyudnye songs - songs performed during New Year's, Christmas fortune telling with a dish (hence the names of the songs); decorations were placed in a dish, often with water, the dish was covered with a scarf, and the decorations were pulled out while singing fortune-telling songs; whoever owned the decoration was destined for the song sung at that moment, which predetermined marriage or wealth, illness or death, etc. in the new year. The performance of under-the-dish songs created an extensive ritual of fortune-telling. Among them were majestic songs (for example, the song “Glory to Bread”), ritual songs, with the help of which participants were invited to fortune-telling and begged for jewelry, and fortune-telling songs themselves, which consisted of two parts - an allegory predicting fate, and a spell.
A proverb is a short, figurative folk saying that has the ability to be used in multiple meanings in speech.
A constant epithet is one of the expressive means in folk poetry: a definitional word that is consistently combined with one word or another and denotes some characteristic feature in the subject (“good fellow”, “clean field”).
The poetry of nurturing (from nurture, pestunit - to nurse, educate, groom) is the poetry of adults, brought to life by the pedagogical needs of the people and intended for children. Includes lullabies, nurseries, nursery rhymes, jokes, and boring tales.
Legends are a genre of non-fairy tale prose; oral stories telling about events, persons or facts of the distant past that are worthy of national attention and memory. Passed on from generation to generation, legends often lost their authenticity; fictitious details, interpretations, and assessments were introduced into them.
Pribautki is a small genre of Russian folklore; short works of a humorous nature.
Sentences are a type of ritual folklore; poetic works performed during calendar and family rituals. Among them are: sentences (sayings with the help of which the necessary ritual requirements were expressed, recommendations of economic and practical importance, etc.), spells, conspiracies and the sentences themselves.
Saying is the popular name for a rhythmically organized joke, which sometimes precedes the beginning in fairy tales, but is not directly related to their content and action; The purpose of the saying is to interest the listener.
A parable is a short oral story that contains a moral or religious lesson in an allegorical form; in its form it is close to a fable. However, in contrast to the polysemy of interpretation of a fable, a parable always contains a certain didactic idea.
Lamentations (lamentations, lamentations, laments, cries) are a verbal, musical and dramatic type of ritual poetry; works, tragic in their content, emotional in tone, performed during wedding, recruitment and funeral ceremonies (hence their names: wedding, recruitment and funeral). Lamentations are largely improvisational (especially funeral ones), although they were created within certain traditional frameworks.
Raek is a folk theater of moving pictures with commentary on them.
Recruit - a conscript into the royal army.
Recruit songs - folk songs about recruits; arose at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the introduction of recruitment; composed in the style of traditional peasant lyrical songs.
Ritual songs - songs that contributed to the formation and implementation of rituals and ritual actions; were performed during calendar and wedding ceremonies, in round dances.
Refrain - a repeated part of a folklore work, usually its last line; consists of exclamations that have lost their dictionary meaning.
Wedding poetry - folk poetic works related to the wedding ceremony. Wedding poetry includes songs, lamentations, and sentences. At weddings, ditties were sung, riddles were asked, even fairy tales were told, but they only have a thematic relation to wedding poetry.
Wedding songs are songs that originated and were performed during wedding ceremonies. In accordance with the ethnographic classification, wedding songs are divided according to their correlation with rituals into matchmaking songs, hand-waving songs, bachelorette party songs, etc., also by performers or wedding rites - songs of the bride, songs of girlfriends, songs for the groom, songs for the thousand, etc. . In accordance with the philological classification, wedding songs include ritual, incantatory, majestic, reproachful and lyrical songs. At the wedding, songs that were not directly related to it could be performed (for example, lyrical non-ritual songs, ballads, etc.).
Family and everyday poetry includes works of folklore that arose and were performed during family and everyday rituals: songs, lamentations, sentences; depending on the timing of the rituals - wedding and recruiting songs, wedding, funeral and recruiting lamentations, groomsmen's sentences, etc.
Family rituals are one of the cycles of folk rituals associated with the family and everyday life of the people; are divided, depending on their relevance to events in family life, into childhood rites, wedding, recruitment and funeral (including memorial) rites.
Semik - folk holiday; celebrated on Thursday of the seventh week after Easter, accompanied by the rituals of “curling” a birch tree, etc., and the singing of Trinity-Semitic songs.
A symbol is a conventional sign, an independent artistic image that has an emotional and allegorical meaning and is based on the similarity of life phenomena.
Syncretism is unity, indivisibility, characterizing the initial undeveloped state of primitive art.
Skaz is a kind of folk poetic legend, fairy tale narration, focused on the forms of oral folk speech.
A fairy tale is one of the main genres of folklore, an epic, predominantly prosaic work of a magical, adventurous or everyday nature with a fictional focus.
A legend is a poetic work that belongs to the group of predominantly prosaic narratives with a historical or legendary past (traditions, legends, incidents).
A storyteller is a performer and creator of epic songs (epics).
A storyteller is a performer of fairy tales.
The buffoon is a wandering actor of the Middle Ages, simultaneously performing in various roles (musician, singer, dancer, comedian). The art of the buffoon combined high performing skills with the topicality of the repertoire.
Tongue twister (pure twister) is a small genre of folklore; a folk-poetic joke consists of a deliberate selection of words that are difficult for correct articulation when repeated quickly and repeatedly; “a type of folded speech, with repetition and rearrangement of the same letters or syllables, confusing or difficult to pronounce” (V.I. Dal); It is also used as a means to correct speech defects. Tongue twisters are characterized by extreme alliteration and sound writing.
Comparison is a comparison of one object or phenomenon with another on some basis.
Antiquity is the popular name for an epic.
Stepwise narrowing of images - compositional technique lyrical song, in which images with a “wider” volume are replaced by images with a “narrower” one.
Counting book is a genre of children's folklore; a rhymed poem, consisting in most cases of invented words with strict adherence to rhythm.
Totem is an animal or plant, an object of religious veneration.
Traditionality is one of the main features of folklore, associated with a historically established tradition passed on from generation to generation, expressed in the stability of features of poetic content.
Trinity (the fiftieth day after Easter, the name of the seventh week after Easter, resurrection) is a folk holiday of welcoming summer, genetically associated with the cult of ancestors; On Trinity Sunday they commemorated the dead, performed rituals with the birch tree, held treats, feasts, and told fortunes; all this was accompanied by the performance of folklore works.
Trinity-Semitic songs - songs that arose and were performed during rituals in Semik, on Trinity; mainly associated with the “curling” and “development” of the birch tree (ritual, majestic and corrugating songs).
Trope - the use of a word or statement in a figurative meaning ("eagle" is a person with qualities traditionally attributed to an eagle: courage, vigilance).
Labor songs are the oldest type of lyrical songs related to labor activities.
Fantasy is a form of depicting the world in which, based on real ideas, supernatural, miraculous, logically incompatible pictures are created.
A folklorist is a scientist who studies oral folk art.
Folkloristics is the science that studies folklore.
Round dance is the oldest form of folk dance art; combines choreography with dramatic action and re-dancing. The round dance was an integral part of calendar rituals and performed in folk life not only a ritual-game, aesthetic, but also a magical, incantatory function.
Round dance songs are songs performed during round dances.
Chatushka is one of the types of oral folk art; a short rhyming song performed at a fast pace, a response to events of a socio-political or everyday nature.
A ditty-player is a connoisseur of ditties (from the people), their performer and creator, who owns the main repertoire of his area.
Epic is an ancient epic form of storytelling (poetry or prose) telling about important event from the life of the people.
Epic is a large monumental form of epic literature.
Epithet is a figurative definition that gives additional artistic description object, phenomenon in the form of hidden comparison.
Ethnicity is a historically established community of people - tribe, nationality, nation.
The effect of surprise is an artistic technique based on a sudden disruption of cause-and-effect relationships in a literary text. The effect of surprise is an important feature of the poetics of epics, fairy tales, etc.
Fair folklore - folklore performed at fairs; it most often includes humorous and satirical works(sentences of “carousel”, “carousel”, “pumping up” grandfathers, cries of traders, etc.), as well as folk drama.
6. National originality of Russian folklore
General folklore phenomena in folk poetry. In the oral poetic creativity of the peoples of different countries there are many common or similar phenomena; genres, plots, types of characters, artistic means. Comparing the creativity of various peoples, folkloristics has discovered interesting coincidences. First of all, it was established that most of the genres exist in the folklore of many, maybe even all nations. There are probably no nations that do not have proverbs, fairy tales, legends, songs about labor, and dance songs. First of all, many genres will be common phenomena in folklore. But within the genres there are many similarities and similarities.
Thus, the Slavic peoples, who have been engaged in agriculture since ancient times, have much in common and similarities in ritual folklore, in particular, dividing it into four cycles corresponding to the four seasons that regulate agricultural work. Rituals and songs are associated with cyclicality. In winter, all Slavs had caroling and fortune telling about the future harvest, fortune telling about happiness. During the transition from winter to spring, Maslenitsa was celebrated, accompanied by games, mummers and songs. The rituals and customs of welcoming spring and the first drive of livestock to pasture are unique. The celebration of Kupala Day is similar. Harvesting customs are very similar; zhinki and dozhinki; the songs accompanying them are also similar.
The seasons and agricultural work also regulated family rituals and their poetry. The wedding routine, the lamentations of the bride, grandeur at the feast, magical means of protecting the young from evil forces - all this is very similar among the Slavic peoples. Unbraiding the braid, saying goodbye to the bride's “beauty,” and putting on a cap are part of the wedding ritual of all Slavic peoples. Even many details are the same. So, in the song of praise it is sung to the groom; among the Russians - “He sits on a horse, under him the horse is invigorated”, among the Serbs - “Konyaashe - and the horse plays along.” Different peoples have many very similar proverbs; “The master’s work is afraid,” “White hands love other people’s work.”
Fairy tales contain many international plots, motifs and types of heroes. These are the stories about Cinderella, about Princess Nesmeyan, about the Firebird, about the sly fox, about the tricks of the sly man deceiving the rich man and the judge. An enchanted forest, the transformation of a girl into a swan and a swan into a girl, the hero’s wonderful assistants - a dog and a cat, multi-headed snakes defeating their opponents and oppressors, a peasant and a soldier - all this is typical for fairy tales of both European and Eastern peoples. The legends about the origin of peoples, about the building of cities, about robbers protecting the poor are similar. The images of heroes in the epic and the feats they perform are similar. In historical ballads - the motives of taking a girl away, in family ones - the destruction of a daughter-in-law by her mother-in-law, in lyrical songs - the meeting of lovers at a well or spring, transportation across the river are characteristic of the folklore of many peoples.
Naturally, the question arises: what explains the commonality or similarity of plots, motifs, types of characters and means of expression, for example, constant epithets: “dark forest”, “green grass”, “blue sea”, “gray wolf”, “sharp saber”? The stability of epithets is relatively easy to explain by the fact that they mark the actual properties of objects and phenomena. But as far as plots, motives and types of heroes are concerned, the reasons for the commonality or similarity are more complex. A comparative historical study of folklore helps to understand them, that is, a comparison of the oral creativity of various peoples, taking into account its historical changes. The comparative historical study of folklore aims not only to clarify common and similar phenomena in folklore, but also to explain the commonality and similarity. It seeks to answer the question: why, even in the folklore of peoples that are in no way connected with each other, and sometimes existed at different times, there are common and similar plots, motives, types of heroes and means of expression?
Folklore studies have developed several ways to study and explain what is common and similar in folk oral creativity. If we present this historically, that is, in the order of the sequential appearance of one or another approach to solving this issue, then we should first talk about the historical-genetic study and explanation of community and similarity, then about the historical-cultural and, finally, about the historical-typological . In the folklore of peoples with a common ethnic origin, formed as a result of the development of tribes into nationalities, there are many similar phenomena, which can only be explained by the presence of a common cultural heritage received by these peoples from common ancestors. In ancient times, the cultural community of the Slavs was quite clear. In the course of further historical development, the common cultural heritage, naturally, underwent changes in connection with changes in the socio-historical conditions of life of peoples, but did not disappear without a trace; in some important elements it was quite stable, thanks to which the commonality in the culture of related peoples is preserved: to this day the commonality of plots, motifs, types of heroes and artistic means in the folklore of the Slavic peoples is obvious. Thus, the Russian scientist A. A. Potebnya and the Slovenian scientist F. Miklosic highlighted the poetic imagery and visual means of the epic and lyrical songs of the Slavic peoples, which, in their opinion, come from ancient times and are the common heritage received by the Slavs from their ancestors.
An important factor common in the folklore of the Slavic peoples is that their languages are related to each other: this determines the similarity of linguistic artistic means of oral poetry, imagery, and phraseology. The commonality of the ancestral homeland of the Slavs and their subsequent geographical proximity were of great importance for preserving the common features of material and spiritual culture, as well as the commonality of forms of labor - agriculture and cattle breeding. All this was reflected in rituals and ritual poetry, in pictures of nature and everyday life, in the image of the earth-nurse.
The similarity of plots, characters, and artistic features of folklore works can also arise on another basis - on the basis of long-term cultural ties between peoples who are not closely related and have different languages. Thus, Russian folklore has a lot in common with the folklore of the Mordovian, Karelian and other peoples, because between them there is a centuries-old neighborhood, extensive relationships, mutual influence and mutual enrichment: they pass from one people to another art forms^ plots, types of works, means of expression. Russian ditties entered the folklore of the Mordovian people in significant numbers, and the word “matanya” and the image associated with it came from the Mordovian language and folklore into Russian ditties. The mutual enrichment of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian folklore is very significant. The transition of plots, motives, types of characters, and means of expression from one people to another, according to Veselovsky, is determined by a “countercurrent,” that is, the emergence of a need for certain cultural phenomena. The forms of transition can be different: both oral and written. Thus, variants of Russian fairy tales were adopted by Polish storytellers, and the Russian folk repertoire included humorous Polish tales (facetsy). Polish storytellers adopted, for example, a Russian fairy tale in which the hero is an animal character (Ivan Bykovich, Ivan the Cow's Son), who kills a snake, fights with him on the Kalinov Bridge, and then fights with his wife (the snake); They also learned the Russian version of the fairy tale about the Firebird. From Poland, not only facets, but also lyrical songs came to Rus' through handwritten collections, especially in the 18th century. Russian soldiers' songs of the 18th century. influenced Estonian soldiers' songs.
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Traditional culture and mythological origins of the Shors in a historical aspect. Folk songs and instrumental creativity. Study of modern Shor folklore in cultural institutions. Development of directions in the ethnocultural center "Aba-tura".
course work, added 01/02/2015
Collectors and researchers of folklore have long paid attention to the “foldability” of Russian proverbs. The study of I. I. Voznesensky is devoted specifically to the consideration of the poetic form of proverbs and genres close to them.
abstract, added 06/05/2005
Oral creativity and its place and role in cultural life Kyrgyz Creativity of akyns-improvisers. Mastery of eloquence and allegory. Development in the history of Kyrgyz folklore of the epic "Manas". The most famous manaschi. The first known Jomokchu.
abstract, added 10/09/2012
The concept and essence, the content of the phenomenon of folklore, its educational significance and main functions. Characteristics of the main genres of folklore, the educational potential of each. Peculiarities practical application main folklore genres in education.
course work, added 03/12/2011