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Architecture. Types of architecture. Types of architectural compositions

ArchitectureHowart many originated
centuries ago, so the history of its origin and development can be compared with
just the history of humanity itself. Word "architecture" V
translated from Latin means the art of creating simple and most
other buildings, and then build various structures on them. Resulting in
a person creates for himself a materially ordered zone of residence, necessary
him both for a full life and for work.

Architecture is often compared
with frozen music: obeying its laws, it reminds
musical notation, where the main components of any work are the idea and its material embodiment. Upon achieving harmonious fusion
of these elements, whether the activity of the architect or the calculation, the result
their participation in the architectural work will be truly graceful and delightful.

Every human
civilization developed with its characteristic architectural style, which
symbolized a certain historical period, its character, main features and
political ideology. Architectural monuments are capable of conveying centuries-old
information about what people valued at the time of their construction, which at that time was
the standard of beauty in the art of architecture, as far as
enlightened in terms cultural development was their way of life, etc. The largest ancient
civilizations are still very often associated with incomparable architectural
masterpieces that have survived after them to this day. This is fabulous Egypt with
with its marvelous pyramids, and Great Wall in exotic China, and
the majestic Colosseum as a historical architectural trace of the existence of the Roman
empires... There are an endless number of similar examples.

The history of architecture is
independent science of two profiles at the same time: theoretical and
historical. This feature is predetermined by the specifics of the object itself, where
includes the history of the emergence and development of architecture in general, theoretical
knowledge about architecture, architectural composition, architectural language, as well as
observation of the general signs and features of the architecture of a certain time and
place, which makes it possible to recognize its different styles. More details about
This can be seen from the following diagram:

History of architectural art:

The era of turbulent technology
development in the modern world gives architects an endless amount
opportunities to translate the most daring ideas and ideas into reality, thanks to which
Today there are such architectural styles as hi-tech And modern. They, in comparison,
for example, with the controversial Baroque or the ancient Romanesque movement is characteristic
courage and persistence of decisions, brightness of ideas and variety of materials.
However, despite the rapid and assertive movement of new modern
currents, ancient mansions, palaces and cathedrals that play an important role
a unique symbol of the city or state where they are located, never
will not lose their charm and attractiveness. These buildings seem to exist
beyond all time, causing awe and delight among true connoisseurs of the art of architecture.

Architecturelike the art of construction,
which shapes the conditions of a person’s living space through a set of specific
buildings and structures are divided into certain types:

  1. Volumetric architecture
    structures         . This includes residential buildings, public buildings (shops, schools,
    stadiums, theaters, etc.), industrial buildings (power plants, factories, etc.)
    factories, etc.);
  2. Landscape architecture . This type is directly related to the organization of gardening and park areas: streets,
    boulevards, squares and parks with the presence of “small” architecture in the form of gazebos,
    bridges, fountains, stairs;
  3. Urban planning . It covers
    creation of new towns and cities, as well as reconstruction of old urban
    districts.

Each individual building or
their complexes and ensembles, parks, avenues, streets and squares, entire cities and even
small villages can evoke specific feelings and moods in us, make us worry
indescribable emotions. This happens by influencing them
certain ideas and semantic information that the authors put into their
architectural works. Any building is subject to a specific purpose,
what should it correspond to? appearance, which sets people up for the established
okay The basis of an architect’s work is to find the most successful
compositions that will most harmoniously combine various
parts and details of the future building, as well as finishing the surface of the created “masterpiece”
architecture. The main artistic device emotional influence on the contemplative
is the shape of the building and its components, which can be light or heavy,
calm or dynamic, monophonic or colored. However, a prerequisite
here is the coordination of all individual parts with each other and with the entire building
overall, creating an inseparable impression of harmony. Various artistic techniques help the creators of the art of architecture achieve this:

  • symmetrical and
    asymmetrical composition;
  • horizontal and vertical rhythm;
  • lighting and color.

Considerable help for architects
Modern technology certainly does. These are the latest design developments
and materials, powerful construction machines, thanks to which they are born every day
more and more advanced types of buildings, the scope and speed of construction is increasing,
new cities are being conceived.

The modern art of architecture is based on complete freedom of opinion and ideas, priority areas and how
such a style is practically absent, and all the concepts on which it goes
development, have freedom and equality. Creative imagination of today
architects are not limited by anything, but are fully provided with opportunities
make our lives more expressive and brighter are embodied in modern buildings with
elusive speed.

Architectural works are often perceived as works of art, cultural or political symbols. Historical civilizations are characterized by their architectural achievements. Architecture allows the vital functions of society to be performed, while at the same time directing life processes. However, architecture is created in accordance with the capabilities and needs of people.

The subject of work with space is the organization of the populated area as a whole. This has become a separate area - urban planning, which covers a complex of socio-economic, construction and technical, architectural, artistic, sanitary and hygienic problems. For the same reason, it is difficult to give a correct assessment of an architectural structure without knowing urban planning.

One of the highest international awards in the field of architecture is the Pritzker Prize, awarded annually for the most outstanding achievements in the field of architecture.

By decision of the Twentieth General Assembly of the International Union of Architects (UIA), held in Barcelona in 1996, every year first Monday in October The international professional holiday of architects and connoisseurs of architectural masterpieces is celebrated - World Architecture Day.

Etymology of the word "architecture"

The Russian word "architecture" through the Polish. architektura borrowed from lat. architectura. In Latin this word is derived from architectus“architect”, which was borrowed from ancient Greek. ἀρχιτέκτων : αρχι- ( chief, senior) and τέκτων ( carpenter, builder) - “chief builder”.

Architect

The profession of an architect (in a broad sense) includes:

  • An architect (in the narrow sense) who:
    • develops the architectural section of the construction design documentation, as well as the corresponding working drawings,
    • carries out architectural supervision over the implementation of the architectural project;
  • The chief architect of the project, organizing and coordinating the development of all sections of project documentation and sets of working drawings;
  • Architect-urban planner, developing master plans for settlements and other urban planning documentation;
  • The chief architect of a city or district is a municipal employee who ensures the development and control over the implementation of regulatory legal acts of local governments in the field of urban planning;
  • Historian and architectural theorist, carrying out scientific and teaching activities in the field of architecture;
  • Architect-restorer, restoring architectural monuments;
  • Architect-expert who examines design documentation.

Architecture as an art form

The historical development of society determines the functions, compositional types and genres of architectural creativity (buildings with organized internal space, structures that form open spaces, ensembles), technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures.

Based on the way images are deployed, architecture is traditionally classified as spatial (plastic) types of art, the works of which:

However, this formal morphology is disputed by scientists. Buildings change over the centuries, they are rebuilt and supplemented with new details. Interiors are especially susceptible to change. They “live” with people and depend on changes of owners, their tastes, fashion and changes in functions, symbolism and prestige of buildings. In addition, the perception of architecture occurs in time. It has the duration and compositional direction of the viewer’s movement in the architectural space of the exterior and interior. The semantics and symbolism of buildings has changed significantly over the centuries. Therefore, the architectural theorist A. I. Nekrasov wrote that architecture is “the container of life,” therefore architectural space is “perceived specifically,” and the material of the art of architecture is “not stone or wood, but space and time.”

Thus, architecture as artistic and figurative “thinking in stone” (G. K. Wagner’s definition) refers to spatiotemporal forms of art. In addition, it is characterized by its own specific imagery. Integration transmorphological processes in the art of the XX-XXI centuries lead to a convergence of genres, forms and methods of architectural, visual and design creativity.

The expressive means of architectural art are composition, tectonics, scale, proportions, rhythm, plasticity of volumes, texture and color of the materials used. The aesthetic impact of works of architecture is greatly influenced by the design solution. The building must not only be durable, but also give the impression of being durable. This is the meaning of the concept of “tectonicity”. If there is an impression of insufficient material, then the building looks unstable and unreliable, but the observed excess of material gives the impression of excessive heaviness. All this causes negative emotions. Architecture as art is often called “frozen music.”

Main areas of architecture

Theory of architecture

History of architecture

Architectural style

Architectural style can be defined as a set of main features and characteristics of architecture of a certain time and place, manifested in the features of its functional, constructive and artistic aspects (the purpose of buildings, building materials and designs, techniques of architectural composition). The concept of architectural style is included in the general concept of style as an artistic worldview, covering all aspects of art and culture of society in certain conditions of its social and economic development, as a set of the main ideological and artistic features of the master’s work.

Architectural style, like style in art in general, is a relative concept. It is convenient for understanding the history of European architecture. However, style as a descriptive tool is not suitable for comparing the architectural history of several regions.

There are styles (for example, modern) that are called differently in different countries.

  • Architecture of the Ancient World: from primitive society to the 10th century (dates vary in different regions).
  • Romanesque style. X-XII centuries.
  • Gothic. XII-XV centuries.
  • Revival. Beginning of the 15th - beginning of the 17th century.
  • Baroque. The end of the 16th - the end of the 18th century.
  • Rococo. Beginning of the 18th - end of the 18th century.
  • Classicism. Mid-18th - 19th centuries.
  • Eclecticism. 1830s - 1890s.
  • Modern. 1890s - 1910s.
  • Modernism. Early 1900s - 1980s.
  • Constructivism. 1920s - early 1930s.
  • Postmodernism. Since the middle of the 20th century.
  • High-tech. Since the late 1970s.
  • Deconstructivism. Since the late 1980s.

Psychological impact

Psychologist Colleen Ellard notes architecture's ability to have psychological effects [ ] :

[...] buildings make us feel [the emotions embedded in architectural design], just as we become happier when we smile in response to the joyful smile of a baby. These connections are built into our bodies in the form of neural circuits designed to enable us to share experiences with each other and respond appropriately to the risks and opportunities lurking in our environment.

See also

Notes

  1. Architecture // New illustrated encyclopedia. Book 2. R-B. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2002. - 256 p.: ill. - pp. 21-22. - ISBN 5-85270-192-0 (book 2), ISBN 5-85270-218-8.
  2. Architecture //Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
  3. Architecture //Encyclopedia Around the World
  4. A. V. Ikonnikov. Architecture // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970. - T. 2. Angola - Barzas. - pp. 296-302.
  5. A. Gutnov, V. Glazychev. World of architecture. - Moscow: Young Guard, 1990. - 351 p. - 200,000 copies. - ISBN 5-235-00487-6.
  6. World Day of Architecture - Message from the UIA President Archived January 3, 2014 on the Wayback Machine

Architecture... This word contains a lot. For centuries, architects have worked, leaving behind traces of their beautiful works. Many of their creations, unfortunately, have been lost in the flow of time. But a lot has survived to this day and pleases connoisseurs various types architecture.

Definition of the concept

There is quite a lot involved in the concept of architecture. This is, first of all, construction. But an architect doesn’t just build or construct something. He puts skill into his creation, trying to create something new and unique. One ancient architect identified three principles on which architecture is built: strength, utility and beauty. Another added a fourth principle - expediency. Of course, these qualities are manifested in every building, park or fountain that their creators worked on.

But architecture is not only about simple construction. It is also the art of creating, designing something for practical application people, for beauty, durability and convenience. It surrounds us everywhere. Throughout the history of mankind, there have always been architects who loved this art and passed on their masterpieces to subsequent generations.

A brief examination of the types and styles of architecture helps us see the world around us not just as a mass or group of figures and buildings, but as individual masterpieces. Let's take a closer look at this wonderful art and find out its features.

Main types of architecture

Architecture, as a part of art, has its own areas or directions. Urban planning, landscape and park architecture and the architecture of volumetric, that is, large structures are the main types of architecture. Separately, we can also mention interior design, architecture of small forms and others. But most often the rest are included in one of the three main ones.

Urban planning

This view in modern architecture appeared relatively recently - in the middle of the last century. It includes the design and construction of new settlements: megacities, cities, towns. This is a vast industry that covers different spheres of human life in a complex, that is, not only housing, but also everything necessary for life in society: schools, hospitals, shops, etc. This type considers not only construction, but also the territory for the location of the future settlement. It is worth noting that urban planning also deals with the reconstruction and preservation of old buildings that have great value for cities.

Architecture of buildings

This type plays a big role in architecture. This includes fortifications, religious buildings, residential buildings different types and sizes, public buildings such as schools, museums, shops, theaters, stadiums, as well as industrial buildings, various factories, plants, stations. Architects consider, design and construct various buildings, necessary for society, as separate units.

Landscape architecture

Among modern architecture, there is another, no less significant, type. It includes everything related to the improvement of the settlement, its comfort, and aesthetics. Parks, boulevards, streets, squares, squares with their lanterns, monuments, fountains, benches, trees, bushes, fences, billboards are included in the concept of landscape architecture. Specialists in this field are engaged in landscaping areas, areas located next to houses and other buildings, as well as designing gardens and parks, which are a wonderful decoration and relaxing place for their visitors.

Main styles of architecture

As noted, there are different types architecture. But we must not forget about the styles that have left their mark on everything that surrounds us for centuries. Visiting museums and art galleries, going on a tour of ancient cities different countries, we are faced with different eras manifested in architecture. Each style is characterized by its own characteristics. Styles are usually classified according to historical periods. Here are the main ones: antiquity, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance or Renaissance, Baroque and Rococo, classicism, modernism, modernism and postmodernism. Let's pay attention to some of them.

Architecture in antiquity

First, let's say a few words about the pre-antique, that is, archaic style. It was typical for such ancient states as Assyria, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. All buildings created before the fifth century BC are usually attributed to this style. What was characteristic of them? Simplicity, fairly large stone buildings, compliance geometric shapes and proportions. However, there are also differences in the execution of the pre-antique style. In Egypt, for example, there was a certain symmetry, and in Mesopotamia there was asymmetry.

Antiquity, as one of the types of architecture, or styles, primarily refers to Ancient Greece. This style was manifested in the construction of residential buildings and temples. If we talk about religious buildings, their features were thick walls, the absence of windows and the presence of a hole in the ceiling to allow light to enter the building. They are characterized by symmetry and rhythm. During this period, a certain system was founded, called the order system. It had three directions. The first, which appeared in the fifth century BC, is the Corinthian order. It was characterized by the presence of colonnades. The Doric order, which appeared a century earlier, was distinguished by its features of massiveness and severity. And the last one, Ionic, appeared relatively later than the others. Popular in Asia Minor, the Ionic order had a lighter, more elegant character of buildings.

The Romans made the order system richer and more luxurious by adding decoration and incorporating it into the construction of their temples and palaces.

Architectural Middle Ages

Appears around the tenth century new style, called Romanesque in the 19th century. It existed for two or three centuries. This period of history is characterized by the construction of temples and monasteries. They were based on designs that had the shape of simple geometric figures: cube, cylinder, parallelepiped. Gradually these designs were improved, adding various towers and galleries. The beginning of this period is characterized by its wall paintings, and the end by stone reliefs on the facades. Monuments of this most unique of types of architecture have survived in Europe to this day.

In the second half of the 12th century, a new style began to emerge - Gothic. It is characterized by designs with various arches and vaults. It predominantly predominated in the construction of churches and cathedrals, which first began to appear in the northern part of medieval France. For example, a church in this style was built near Paris in the 12th century. Over the decades, Gothic style spread to other countries: Switzerland, Belgium, Germany, Spain, England. Thanks to the Crusades, this style appeared in the buildings of Syria and Cyprus. In the 14th century they began to build town halls using gothic style for their decorations, and instead of fortresses - palaces.

The Gothic style is replaced by the Renaissance. In the 15th century, this style began to gain popularity. The Renaissance brings back the ancient style, adding to it its own notes national traditions and views, as well as materials that were available during this time period. To construct buildings, architects use the order system, as well as its characteristic symmetry, simplicity, proportionality, and horizontality.

With the increasing complexity of designs and structures comes the next type of architecture - baroque, which appeared at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries. Italy becomes the birthplace of the style. Baroque is manifested in the construction of palaces, cathedrals, and public buildings. The main distinctive features of the style are contrast, dynamism, majesty, a combination of illusion and reality, much attention is paid to decor and stucco elements.

Along with Baroque, the Rococo style appeared, which existed throughout the 18th century. Lightness and friendliness appear in the forms, strict symmetry disappears, straight lines and flat surfaces practically disappear. Extant up to today monuments of the Rococo style attract us with their playfulness and easily transport us to that era. The types of architecture of buildings acquire peculiar features.

Classicism, which appeared in the middle of the 18th century and existed throughout the 19th century, again returns to ancient features: harmony, simplicity and monumentality.

Modern styles

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a new style appeared - Art Nouveau. It significantly expands possibilities in construction with the creation of new materials and technologies. There is a rejection of angles and familiar lines, everything is directed towards naturalness.

The next style is modernism, which existed in the 20th century. It includes various subtypes of architecture. He is characterized by the creation of everything new and practical, keeping up with the times.

So, as can be seen from the description of types of architecture, this art has played and continues to play a huge role in human life. Its practicality and aesthetics help us enjoy works of architecture and understand how over the centuries humanity has developed and improved, expressing this in various details, features and figures.

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Introduction

Architecture

Types of architecture

Styles in architecture

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Construction is one of the most ancient types of human activity, which means that many millennia ago the foundations for all further development of architecture were laid. Arriving in any city, we see palaces, town halls, private cottages built in a wide variety of architectural styles. And it is by these styles that we determine the era of their construction, the socio-economic level of the country, the morals, traditions and customs of a particular people, its culture, history, national and spiritual heredity, even the temperaments and characters of the people of this country.

Architecture is an art inseparable from everyday human life. It serves our everyday needs and various social needs. And at the same time it gives us joy, creates a mood, affects people’s feelings.

Choosing a topic Architecture. The types of architecture were determined by my personal interest in it, as well as by the fact that architecture is an art that keeps up with the times and is always relevant. Architecture surrounds a person everywhere and throughout his life: it is a home, a place of work and rest. This is the environment in which a person exists, but the environment is artificially created, which is opposed to nature, but at the same time is always connected with the surrounding space. Architecture must satisfy the practical needs of man, but it can also evoke aesthetic excitement, fascinate and surprise. This is what makes architecture interesting. The purpose of my work is to reveal the features of architecture as an art form through artistic styles.

architecture gothic space baroque

Architecture

Architecture, or architecture, forms the spatial environment for people's life and activities. The art of architecture is truly a public art. Even today, it interacts with history in complex ways and is directly integrated into the culture of its time. Individual buildings and their ensembles, squares and avenues, parks and stadiums, towns and entire cities - their beauty can evoke certain feelings and moods in viewers. This is what makes architecture an art - the art of creating buildings and structures according to the laws of beauty. And, like any type of art, architecture is closely related to the life of society, its history, views and ideology. The best architectural buildings and ensembles are remembered as symbols of countries and cities. The art of architecture is truly a public art. Even today, it interacts with history in complex ways and is directly integrated into the culture of its time.

In a society of mass consumption, private orders, and commercially oriented construction activities, the architect is often very limited in his actions, but he always retains the right to choose the language of architecture, and at all times it has been a difficult search for the path to architecture as a great art and an exact science. It is no coincidence that great civilizations are remembered not only by wars or trade, but, above all, by the architectural monuments they left behind.

Types of architecture

Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of volumetric structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops and others) industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of garden and park space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with small architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

Urban planning/

Urban planning activity is an activity in urban planning of the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban planning use of territories, integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including the creative process of forming urban planning space, creating

Styles in architecture

Architecture has always been closely connected with the history of the development of society, its worldview and ideas, with the level of development of construction technology, with man’s idea of ​​usefulness and beauty. All this influenced architectural style, that is, a historically established set artistic means and techniques. Architectural style is manifested in the ways of organizing space, the choice of architectural forms characteristic of a given era, their proportions and decorative ornaments. Learning about different architectural styles can tell you a lot about a person's past. Unlike the Greeks, who knew only a column covered by a beam and rooms with flat ceilings, the Romans developed an arched ceiling and a vault system. Roman vaults amaze with their imaginativeness, scale, and abundance of variety. Perhaps the highest achievement of Roman design thought was a closed enchanting vault, usually called a dome. One of the most perfect examples of Roman architecture is the Pantheon,

What types and styles of architecture are there?

Architecture or architecture (Latin architectura from ancient Greek αρχι - senior, chief and other Greek τέκτων - builder, carpenter) is the art of designing and constructing buildings and structures (as well as their complexes). Architecture certainly creates a materially organized environment that people need for their lives and activities, in accordance with modern technical capabilities and aesthetic views of society.

Architectural works are often perceived as cultural or political symbols, like works of art. Historical civilizations are characterized by their architectural achievements. Architecture allows the vital functions of society to be performed, while at the same time directing life processes. However, architecture is created in accordance with the capabilities and needs of people.

As an art form, architecture enters the sphere of spiritual culture, aesthetically shapes the human environment, and expresses social ideas in artistic images.

The historical development of society determines the functions and types of structures (buildings with organized internal space, structures that form open spaces, ensembles), technical structural systems, and the artistic structure of architectural structures.

According to the method of forming images, architecture is classified as a non-figurative (tectonic) art form that uses signs that do not allow recognition in the images of any real objects, phenomena, actions and are addressed directly to the associative mechanisms of perception.

According to the method of deploying images, architecture is classified as a spatial (plastic) form of art, the works of which:

They exist in space, without changing or developing in time;

Have a substantive character;

Performed by processing material material;

Perceived by the audience directly and visually.

Space-planning design (architecture in the narrow sense, architecture) is the main section of architecture associated with the design and construction of buildings and structures.

Empire (from the French empire - empire) is a style in architecture and art (mainly decorative) of the first three decades of the 19th century, completing the evolution of classicism. Focusing, like classicism, on examples of ancient art, the Empire style included in their circle artistic heritage archaic Greece and imperial Rome, drawing from it motives for the embodiment of majestic power and military strength: monumental forms of massive porticos (mainly Doric and Tuscan orders), military emblems in architectural details and decor (lictorial bundles, military armor, laurel wreaths, eagles, etc. .). The Empire style also included individual ancient Egyptian architectural and plastic motifs (large undivided planes of walls and pylons, massive geometric volumes, Egyptian ornament, stylized sphinxes, etc.).

In the Russian Empire, this style appeared under Alexander I. Inviting foreign architects to Russia was a frequent occurrence, since it was fashionable among titled persons, and at the beginning of the 19th century there was a passion for French culture in Russia. For the construction of St. Isaac's Cathedral, Alexander I invited the aspiring French architect Henri Louis Auguste Ricard de Montferrand, who later became one of the founders of the “Russian Empire style”.

The Russian Empire style was divided into Moscow and St. Petersburg, and such a division was determined not so much by territorial characteristics as by the degree of separation from classicism - the Moscow one was closer to it. The most famous representative of the St. Petersburg style of the Empire style was the architect Karl Rossi; among other representatives of this style, it is customary to name the architects Andreyan Zakharov, Andrey Voronikhin, Osip Bove, Domenico Gilardi, Vasily Stasov, and the sculptors Ivan Martos, Feodosius Shchedrin. In Russia, the Empire style dominated architecture until 1830-1840.

The revival of the Empire style in degenerated forms occurred in Russia in Soviet era, during the period from the mid-1930s to the mid-1950s. This style of the Empire style is also known as the “Stalin Empire style”.

Arch of Carrousel

Renaissance architecture

Renaissance architecture is the period of development of architecture in European countries from the beginning of the 15th to the beginning of the 17th century, in the general course of the Renaissance and the development of the foundations of spiritual and material culture Ancient Greece and Rome. This period is a turning point in the History of Architecture, especially in relation to the previous architectural style, Gothic. Gothic, unlike Renaissance architecture, sought inspiration in its own interpretation of Classical art.

Particular importance in this direction is attached to the forms of ancient architecture: symmetry, proportion, geometry and the order of its component parts, as clearly evidenced by surviving examples of Roman architecture. The complex proportions of medieval buildings are replaced by an orderly arrangement of columns, pilasters and lintels; asymmetrical outlines are replaced by a semicircle of an arch, a hemisphere of a dome, niches, and aedicules. Architecture is becoming order-based again.

The development of Renaissance Architecture led to innovations in the use of building techniques and materials, and to the development of architectural vocabulary. It is important to note that the revival movement was characterized by a move away from the anonymity of artisans and the emergence of a personal style among architects. There are few known craftsmen who built works in the Romanesque style, as well as architects who built magnificent Gothic cathedrals. While the works of the Renaissance, even small buildings or just projects were carefully documented from their very appearance.

The first representative of this trend can be called Filippo Brunelleschi, who worked in Florence, a city, along with Venice, considered a monument of the Renaissance. Then it spread to other Italian cities, France, Germany, England, Russia and other countries.

Characteristics of Renaissance architecture[edit | edit source text]

Sant'Agostino, Rome, Giacomo Pietrasanta, 1483

Architects of the Renaissance borrowed the characteristic features of Roman classical architecture. However, the shape of buildings and their purpose, as well as the basic principles of urban planning, have changed since ancient times. The Romans never built buildings like churches early period development of the revived classic style or the mansions of successful merchants of the 15th century. In turn, at the time described, there was no need to build huge structures for sports competitions or public baths, which were built by the Romans. Classical norms were studied and recreated to serve modern purposes.

The plan of Renaissance buildings is determined by rectangular shapes, symmetry and proportion based on the module. In churches, the module is often the width of the nave span. The problem of the integral unity of structure and facade was first recognized by Brunelleschi, although he did not solve the problem in any of his works. This principle first appears in Alberti's building, the Basilica di Sant'Andrea in Mantua. The improvement of the design of a secular building in the Renaissance style began in the 16th century and highest point achieved in the work of Palladio.

The façade is symmetrical about the vertical axis. Church facades, as a rule, are measured with pilasters, arches and an entablature, topped with a pediment. The arrangement of columns and windows conveys a desire for the center. The first facade in the Renaissance style can be called the facade of the Cathedral of Pienza (1459-1462), attributed to the Florentine architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino), it is possible that Alberti was also involved in the creation of the temple.

Residential buildings often have a cornice, the arrangement of windows and related details is repeated on each floor, the main door is marked with some feature - a balcony or surrounded by rustication. One of the prototypes of such a facade organization was the Rucellai Palace in Florence (1446-1451) with three floor-by-floor rows of pilasters.

St. Peter's Basilica in Rome

Baroque (Italian barocco - “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excess”, port. perola barroca - “pearl of irregular shape” (literally “pearl with a defect”); there are other assumptions about the origin of this word) - characteristics European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the 16th-17th centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphant march of “Western civilization.” Baroque opposed classicism and rationalism.

In the 17th century Italy, the first link in the art of the Renaissance, lost its economic and political power. Foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to rule the territory of Italy, they dictate the terms of politics, etc. Exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its cultural position - it remains cultural center Europe. The center of the Catholic world is Rome, it is rich in spiritual forces.

Power in culture was manifested by adaptation to new conditions - the nobility and the church needed everyone to see their strength and wealth, but since there was no money to build a palazzo, the nobility turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. A style that can elevate becomes popular, and this is how Baroque emerged in Italy in the 16th century.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamic images, affectation, the desire for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, religious music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of individual genres (concerto grosso, sonata, suite in instrumental music). The ideological foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock that the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The idea of ​​the world, established in antiquity, as a rational and constant unity, as well as the Renaissance idea of ​​man as the most intelligent being, changed. As Pascal put it, man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing,” “one who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

Baroque architecture (L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) is characterized by spatial scope, unity, and fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Often there are large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculpture on the facades and in the interiors, volutes, large number braces, arched facades with bracing in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters. Domes take on complex shapes, often multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Characteristic Baroque details - telamon (Atlas), caryatid, mascaron.

IN Italian architecture the most prominent representative of baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with mannerism and created his own own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of Baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces executed in the new style date back to approximately 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He is responsible for the design of the square of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longhena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new late Baroque style appeared - Sicilian Baroque. Light acts as a fundamentally important element of Baroque space, entering churches through the naves.

The quintessence of Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture, is considered the Coranaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (1645-1652).

The Baroque style became widespread in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or locally Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), which also spread to Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered churches in Spain by believers. In Latin America, Baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is its most elaborate version, and it is called ultra-baroque.

In France, the Baroque style is expressed more modestly than in other countries. Previously, it was believed that the style did not develop here at all, and Baroque monuments were considered monuments of classicism. The term “Baroque classicism” is sometimes used in relation to the French and English versions of the Baroque. Nowadays the Palace of Versailles along with the regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris and other works are considered to be French Baroque. They do have some classicist features. A characteristic feature of the Baroque style is the regular style in landscape gardening, an example of which is the Park of Versailles.

Later, at the beginning of the 18th century, the French developed their own style, a variety of Baroque - Rococo. It did not manifest itself in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and paintings. The style was widespread throughout Europe and Russia.

In Belgium, the Grand Place ensemble in Brussels is an outstanding Baroque monument. Rubens' house in Antwerp, built according to the artist's own design, has Baroque features.

In Russia, baroque appeared back in the 17th century (“Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). In the 18th century, during the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine baroque” (more restrained) began to develop in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the work of D. Trezzini, and reached its peak during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the work of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

In Germany, the outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sans Souci (authors: I. G. Bühring (German) Russian, H. L. Manter) and the Summer Palace there (G. W. von Knobelsdorff).

The largest and most famous Baroque ensembles in the world: Versailles (France), Peterhof (Russia), Aranjuez (Spain), Zwinger (Germany), Schönbrunn (Austria).

In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Sarmatian Baroque and Vilna Baroque styles became widespread, the largest representative being Jan Christoph Glaubitz. Among him famous projects- rebuilt Church of the Ascension (Vilnius), St. Sophia Cathedral (Polotsk), etc.

Carlo Maderna Church of Saint Susanna, Rome

Classicism

Classicism (French classicisme, from Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and aesthetic direction in European art of the 17th-19th centuries.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with the same ideas in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, the unchangeable - in each phenomenon it strives to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual characteristics. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. In many ways, classicism is based on ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined characteristics, the mixing of which is not allowed.

How a certain direction was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence, freeing him from religious and church influence.

clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular city planning system.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi. The Venetians absolutized the principles of ancient temple architecture to such an extent that they even applied them in the construction of such private mansions as Villa Capra. Inigo Jones brought Palladianism north to England, where local Palladian architects followed Palladian principles with varying degrees of fidelity until the mid-18th century.

By that time, satiety with the “whipped cream” of the late Baroque and Rococo began to accumulate among the intellectuals of continental Europe. Born of the Roman architects Bernini and Borromini, Baroque thinned out into Rococo, a predominantly chamber style with an emphasis on interior decoration and decorative arts. This aesthetics was of little use for solving large urban planning problems. Already under Louis XV (1715-74), urban ensembles were built in Paris in the “ancient Roman” style, such as the Place de la Concorde (architect Jacques-Ange Gabriel) and the Church of Saint-Sulpice, and under Louis XVI (1774-92) a similar “noble Laconism" is already becoming the main architectural direction.

The most significant interiors in the classicist style were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In Adam’s interpretation, classicism was a style hardly inferior to rococo in the sophistication of its interiors, which gained it popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of constructive function.

The Frenchman Jacques-Germain Soufflot, during the construction of the Church of Sainte-Geneviève in Paris, demonstrated the ability of classicism to organize vast urban spaces. The massive grandeur of his designs foreshadowed the megalomania of the Napoleonic Empire style and late classicism. In Russia, Bazhenov moved in the same direction as Soufflot. The French Claude-Nicolas Ledoux and Etienne-Louis Boullé went even further towards developing a radical visionary style with an emphasis on abstract geometrization of forms. In revolutionary France, the ascetic civic pathos of their projects was of little demand; Ledoux's innovation was fully appreciated only by the modernists of the 20th century.

Architects Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left behind by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carrousel and Vendôme Column. In relation to monuments of military greatness from the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term “imperial style” is used - Empire style. In Russia, Carl Rossi, Andrei Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov proved themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the empire style corresponds to the so-called. “Regency style” (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban planning projects and led to the streamlining of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many district cities were replanned in accordance with the principles of classicist rationalism. To authentic museums of classicism under open air cities such as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have become. A single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated throughout the entire space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia. Ordinary development was carried out in accordance with albums of standard projects.

In the period following the Napoleonic Wars, classicism had to coexist with romantically tinged eclecticism, in particular with the return of interest in the Middle Ages and the fashion for architectural neo-Gothic. In connection with Champollion's discoveries, Egyptian motifs are gaining popularity. Interest in ancient Roman architecture is replaced by reverence for everything ancient Greek (“neo-Greek”), which was especially pronounced in Germany and the USA. German architects Leo von Klenze and Karl Friedrich Schinkel built up, respectively, Munich and Berlin with grandiose museum and other public buildings in the spirit of the Parthenon. In France, the purity of classicism is diluted with free borrowings from the architectural repertoire of the Renaissance and Baroque

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Bolshoi Theater in Warsaw.

Gothic is a period in the development of medieval art in Western, Central and partly Eastern Europe from the 12th to the 15th-16th centuries. Gothic replaced the Romanesque style, gradually displacing it. The term "Gothic" is most often applied to a well-known style of architecture that can be briefly described as "intimidatingly majestic." But Gothic covers almost all works fine arts of this period: sculpture, painting, book miniatures, stained glass, fresco and many others.

Gothic style originated in the middle of the 12th century in northern France; in the 13th century it spread to the territory of modern Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Spain, and England. Gothic penetrated into Italy later, with great difficulty and strong transformation, which led to the emergence of “Italian Gothic”. At the end of the 14th century, Europe was swept by the so-called International Gothic. Gothic penetrated into the countries of Eastern Europe later and stayed there a little longer - until the 16th century.

The term "neo-Gothic" is applied to buildings and works of art that contain characteristic Gothic elements, but were created during the eclectic period (mid-19th century) and later.

The Gothic style mainly manifested itself in the architecture of temples, cathedrals, churches, and monasteries. It developed on the basis of Romanesque, or more precisely, Burgundian architecture. In contrast to the Romanesque style, with its round arches, massive walls and small windows, the Gothic style is characterized by pointed arches, narrow and tall towers and columns, a richly decorated facade with carved details (vimpergi, tympanums, archivolts) and multi-colored stained glass lancet windows . All style elements emphasize verticality.

The church of the Saint-Denis monastery, designed by Abbot Suger, is considered the first Gothic architectural structure. During its construction, many supports and internal walls were removed, and the church acquired a more graceful appearance compared to the Romanesque “fortresses of God.” In most cases, the Sainte-Chapelle chapel in Paris was taken as a model.

From Ile-de-France (France), the Gothic architectural style spread to Western, Central and Southern Europe - to Germany, England, etc. In Italy, it did not dominate for long and, as a “barbarian style,” quickly gave way to the Renaissance; and since it came here from Germany, it is still called “stile tedesco” - German style.

In Gothic architecture, there are 3 stages of development: early, mature (High Gothic) and late (flaming Gothic, variants of which were also the Manueline (in Portugal) and Isabelline (in Castile) styles.

With the advent of the Renaissance north and west of the Alps at the beginning of the 16th century, the Gothic style lost its importance.

Almost all the architecture of Gothic cathedrals is due to one main invention of that time - a new frame structure, which makes these cathedrals easily recognizable.

Cathedral Notre Dame of Paris

Rococo (French rococo, from French rocaille - crushed stone, decorative shell, shell, rocaille, less often rococo) is a style in art (mainly in interior design) that arose in France in the first half of the 18th century (during the regency of Philippe Orleans) as a development of the Baroque style. The characteristic features of Rococo are sophistication, great decorative loading of interiors and compositions, graceful ornamental rhythm, great attention to mythology, and personal comfort. The style received its highest development in architecture in Bavaria.

The term "rococo" (or "rocaille") came into use in mid-19th V. Initially, “rocaille” is a way of decorating the interiors of grottoes, fountain bowls, etc. with various fossils that imitate natural formations, and a “rocaille maker” is a master who creates such decorations. What we now call “rococo” was once called “pictorial taste”, but in the 1750s. Criticism of everything “twisted” and “forced” intensified, and the term “spoiled taste” began to appear in literature. The Encyclopedists were especially successful in criticism, according to whom the “spoiled taste” lacked a rational principle.

Despite the popularity of the new “antique forms” that came into fashion in the late 1750s. (this direction was called “Greek taste”; objects of this style are often incorrectly mistaken for late Rococo), the so-called Rococo retained its position until the very end of the century.

The architectural (more precisely, decorative) Rococo style appeared in France during the Regency (1715-1723) and reached its apogee under Louis XV, spread to other European countries and dominated it until the 1780s.

Having rejected the cold pomp, the heavy and boring pomposity of the art of the times of Louis XIV and the Italian Baroque, Rococo architecture strives to be light, welcoming, playful at all costs; she does not care about the organic combination and distribution of parts of the structure, nor about the expediency of their forms, but disposes of them with complete arbitrariness, reaching the point of caprice, avoids strict symmetry, endlessly varies the divisions and ornamental details and does not skimp on squandering the latter. In the creations of this architecture, straight lines and flat surfaces almost disappear, or at least are disguised by figured decoration; not carried out in pure form none of the established orders; the columns are sometimes lengthened, sometimes shortened and twisted in a helical manner; their capitals are distorted by flirtatious changes and additions, cornices are placed above the cornices; high pilasters and huge caryatids support insignificant projections with a strongly protruding cornice; the roofs are surrounded along the edge by balustrades with bottle-shaped balusters and with pedestals placed at some distance from each other, on which vases or statues are placed; the pediments, representing broken convex and sunken lines, are also crowned with vases, pyramids, sculptural figures, trophies and other similar objects. Everywhere, in the frame of windows, doors, wall spaces inside the building, in lampshades, intricate stucco ornamentation is used, consisting of curls that vaguely resemble plant leaves, convex shields irregularly surrounded by the same curls, masks, flower garlands and festoons, shells, rough stones (rocaille), etc. Despite such a lack of rationality in the use of architectural elements, such capriciousness, sophistication and burdensome forms, the Rococo style left many monuments that to this day fascinate with their originality, luxury and cheerful beauty, vividly conveying us in the era of blush and whitewash, flies and powdered wigs (hence the German names of the style: Perückenstil, Zopfstil).

Amalienburg near Munich

Romanesque style

The Romanesque style (from the Latin romanus - Roman) is an artistic style that dominated Western Europe (and also affected some countries of Eastern Europe) in the 11th-12th centuries (in some places - in the 13th century), one of the most important stages in the development of the medieval European art. He expressed himself most fully in architecture.

Main role in the Romanesque style was devoted to harsh fortress architecture: monastery complexes, churches, castles. The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress, located on elevated places, dominating the area.

Romanesque buildings are characterized by a combination of a clear architectural silhouette and laconic exterior decoration - the building always fit harmoniously into the surrounding nature, and therefore looked especially durable and solid. This was facilitated by massive walls with narrow window openings and stepped-recessed portals. Such walls had a defensive purpose.

The main buildings during this period were the temple-fortress and the castle-fortress. The main element of the composition of a monastery or castle is the tower - the donjon. Around it were the rest of the buildings, made up of simple geometric shapes - cubes, prisms, cylinders.

Architecture Features Romanesque cathedral:

The plan is based on an early Christian basilica, that is, a longitudinal organization of space

Enlargement of the choir or eastern altar of the temple

Increasing the height of the temple

Replacement of coffered (cassette) ceilings with stone vaults in the largest cathedrals. The vaults were of several types: box, cross, often cylindrical, flat on beams (typical of Italian Romanesque architecture).

Heavy vaults required powerful walls and columns

The main motif of the interior is semicircular arches

Rational simplicity of the design, made up of individual square cells - grass.

Winchester Cathedral, England

Deconstructivism

Deconstructivism is a trend in modern architecture based on the application of ideas in construction practice French philosopher Jacques Derrida. Another source of inspiration for the deconstructionists is the early Soviet constructivism 1920s Deconstructivist projects are characterized by visual complexity, unexpected broken and deliberately destructive forms, as well as a pointedly aggressive invasion of the urban environment.

Deconstructivism emerged as an independent movement in the late 1980s. (works by Peter Eisenman and Daniel Libeskind). The theoretical background of the movement was Derrida’s reasoning about the possibility of architecture, which comes into conflict, “debunks” and abolishes itself. They were further developed in the periodicals of Rem Koolhaas. The Vitra Fire Station by Zaha Hadid (1993) and the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao by Frank Gehry (1997) are considered manifestos of deconstructivism.

Dancing House, Czech Republic

Hi-tech (English hi-tech, from high technology - high technology) is a style in architecture and design that originated in the depths of late modernism in the 1970s and found widespread use in the 1980s. The main theorists and practitioners of high-tech (for the most part practitioners, unlike the architects of deconstructivism and postmodernism) are mainly English - Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, Nicholas Grimshaw, at some stage of their work James Stirling and the Italian Renzo Piano.

Early hi-tech

The Pompidou Center in Paris (1977), built by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, is considered to be one of the first important high-tech buildings to be completed. At first the project was met with hostility, but by the 1990s the controversy had subsided, and the Center became one of the recognized landmarks of Paris (like the Eiffel Tower once was).

In England, real high-tech buildings appeared later. The first London high-tech buildings were built only in the 1980s and 1990s (Lloyds building, 1986). Somewhat slow implementation modern projects in the spirit of high-tech in England was associated with the policy of Prince Charles, who then launched active activities within the framework of the architectural competition for the reconstruction of Paternoster Square (1988). Taking part in architectural debates, the prince spoke out in support of the new classicists and against high-tech architects, calling their buildings disfiguring the face of London. Charles Jencks calls on “kings to leave architecture to architects”, even the opinion is expressed that new wave monarchism with the dictatorship of the prince in architecture.

Modern high-tech

High-tech since the 1980s. expressed prestige (all high-tech buildings are very expensive), Charles Jencks calls them “banking cathedrals”, one can even say that modern high-tech forms the image of the largest commercial firms. In London, the architectural debate around high-tech has subsided, and its most prominent representatives are recognized and respected (Norman Foster was awarded the title of knight).

Since the 1990s. bio-tech and eco-tech are developing - styles, as opposed to high-tech, trying to connect with nature, not to argue with it, but to enter into dialogue (this is especially noticeable in the works of the architects of the homeland of high-tech - England and the Italian R. Piano) .

Main features

The use of high technologies in the design, construction and engineering of buildings and structures.

Use of straight lines and shapes.

Wide application of glass, plastic, metal.

The use of functional elements: elevators, stairs, ventilation systems and others, taken outside the building.

Decentred lighting, creating the effect of a spacious, well-lit room.

Widespread use of silver metallic color.

High pragmatism in space planning.

Frequent reference to elements of constructivism and cubism (as opposed to bio-tech).

As an exception, sacrificing functionality for the sake of design.

Fuji TV Headquarters (architect: Kenzo Tange)

Types of architecture

Architecture of volumetric structures.

The architecture of volumetric structures includes residential buildings, public buildings (schools, theaters, stadiums, shops and others) industrial buildings (factories, factories, power plants, etc.)

2. Landscape and park architecture.

This type of architecture is associated with the organization of garden and park space. These are squares, boulevards and parks with “small” architecture - gazebos, bridges, fountains, stairs.

Urban planning.

Urban planning activity is an activity in urban planning of the organization and development of territories and settlements, determining the types of urban planning use of territories, integrated design of urban and rural settlements, including the creative process of forming urban planning space, creating