During this period (8th century - 480 BC, the Greeks developed alphabetical writing, natural sciences emerged, in particular astronomy and geometry, and the first philosophical systems appeared. Under the influence of oriental architecture and sculpture, Greek art was formed. The culture of the archaic period continued until the 5th century BC - the time of its greatest prosperity. ancient culture. At this time: a unified consciousness of the Greeks was formed and the concept of “Hellenes” appeared; a holistic one emerged from disparate local religions ancient mythology. Hellenic myths entered the culture of all European peoples. Unlike Egypt, in Greece religious rituals were extremely simple and could be performed by anyone. In fact, they came down to sacrifices. The absence of a priestly caste led to the fact that folk storytellers took over the functions of ideologists. They also shaped the Greeks’ idea of the gods. Greek gods devoid of mystery. They feast, quarrel, and marry each other and with people. Their life is reminiscent of life in a communal apartment, but only in a more decent form. In Greece, the cult of Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, was widespread. Everyone was carried away by love - both people and gods. The Greeks perceived marriage from the point of view of practical benefits. The husband saw in his wife, first of all, the mother of his children and the keeper of the hearth, so love was not a priority here. During the archaic period, the cultural institution of sports and musical and poetic games was born, which the Greeks dedicated to their gods. The most significant of them were: the Olympic Games - sports competitions dedicated to Zeus, held every four years in Olympia, starting in 776 BC. e.; Pythian Games - sports and musical competitions in honor of Apollo in Delphi (every four years); Isthmian - in honor of Poseidon, held near Corinth every two years. In the archaic era, the most developed region of Greece was Ionia (the western coast of Asia Minor), where the first philosophical system of antiquity arose - natural philosophy. It is also called Ionian. It is characterized by materialism and the search for objective laws: Thales (624-546 BC) considered water to be the fundamental principle of all things, Anaximenes (c. 585-525 BC) considered air, Anaximander (c. 611 --546 BC) - aneuron (infinite). Pythagoras (c. 540-500 BC) and his followers, considering numbers and numerical relations to be the basis of all things, made a significant contribution to the development of mathematics, astronomy and music theory. One of the greatest Greek philosophers was Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 554-483 BC), who considered fire to be the fundamental principle of matter. In his opinion, both in nature and in society there is eternal movement and struggle. The Eleatic school made a great contribution to the development of philosophy, the most prominent representative of which was Parmenides of Elea (c. 540-480 BC), who formulated the principle of the identity of thinking and being. Almost all ancient Greek philosophers were mathematicians. They were Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle and those who developed philosophy as a doctrine of the quantitative characteristics of the world. In the literature of the archaic era, the leading role belonged to the epic genres. These are Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, created in the 8th century. BC e. The work of Hesiod, who wrote the poems “Theogony” (i.e., the genealogy of the gods) and “Works and Days,” also dates back to this time. Gradually, leadership moves from epic to lyric poetry. Attention to a person, his inner world, to events modern life characteristic of the work of Archilochus (2nd half of the 7th century BC), Sappho (Sappho, c. 610-- c. -580 BC), Alcaeus (turn of the 7th - 6th centuries, before AD), Theognis of Megara (2nd half of the 6th century BC), Anacreon (1st half of the 6th century BC). The fable is established as a special genre; which is traditionally associated with the name of the semi-legendary Aesop (VI century BC). Many of the plots of his fables (for example, “The Wolf and the Lamb,” “The Fox and the Grapes,” “The Crow and the Fox”) were developed in subsequent eras. Two main types of single sculpture appear in art - a naked youth (kouros) and a draped woman (kora) with a characteristic, so-called archaic smile. The image of a person, developed in archaic art, has some features close to the art of the Ancient East: a certain conventionality of the image, static, solemnity. By the 6th century, the architectural order was formed in its Doric and Ionic variants. The harsh, somewhat ponderous Doric style corresponds to a strict, geometrically correct column capital. In the Ionic, more magnificent, style, the column, along with a purely functional function, also carries a decorative function; it is characterized by a capital with volute curls and a more complex base. During the archaic period, a synthesis of architecture and sculpture was established - temples were decorated with reliefs on the outside, and statues of gods were placed inside. Greek pottery from the Archaic era amazes with its richness and variety of forms and the beauty of its pictorial design. Around 700 BC e. potters from Corinth invented the black-figure vessel painting technique, in which unglazed red clay was painted black and painted with mythological or battle scenes. Around 530 BC e. Athenian potters proposed the exact opposite process and created red-figure ceramics, which were more complex in production, the paintings of which were distinguished by more careful drawing and development of details.
Ancient Greece, which covers the VIII-VI centuries. BC e., served as the beginning of the most important stage in the history of this state. Over all three centuries - in a short period, in general - Greece has moved far ahead in its development and has overtaken many countries and states of the Ancient East, which developed quite quickly. Ancient Greece of the archaic period was a place of awakening of spiritual forces after four centuries of stagnation in development. This time was the heyday of creative activity.
Revival of former greatness
During the archaic period in Ancient Greece, such types of art as architecture, painting, and monumental sculpture were revived. The most talented sculptors built the first Greek temples from marble and limestone, which have survived to this day. During the Archaic period, sculpture in Ancient Greece experienced an unprecedented rise. It is at this time that they appear timeless works art. Monumental sculptures are created from marble and bronze. It was during the archaic period in Ancient Greece that the famous works Homer and Hesiod, which amaze with their depth. It is also worth noting the striking poems of Archilochus, Alcaeus and Saffo, written at this time. The literature of the archaic period of Ancient Greece is still published and translated in almost all countries. Famous to this day philosophers Thales, Anaximenes and Anaximander wrote their philosophical works that provide answers to questions about the origin of the universe and the world.
Art
The archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece, especially the unprecedented rise of Greek culture in the 8th-6th centuries. BC e., was due to the Great Colonization taking place at that time. She brought Greece out of the state of isolation in which it remained after the Mycenaean culture ceased to exist. Another feature of the archaic period in the history of Ancient Greece is the interchange of cultures between Hellas and the Ancient East. The Phoenicians introduced writing and the alphabet into ancient Greek culture, which in Greece was made even more convenient by introducing vowels. It was from this moment that the culture of writing and speech began to develop, alphabets began to appear, including Russian. The Syrians told and showed the Greeks a lot of new things, for example, a method of processing sand into glass, and also showed how to make paint from shells. The Greeks adopted the basics of astronomy and geometry from the Egyptians. During the archaic period of Ancient Greece, the sculpture of the Egyptians had a strong influence on the Greek art that was just beginning to emerge. The Lydians also had a huge influence on Greece - it was thanks to them that the Greeks learned to mint coins.
Despite the fact that many elements of Greek culture were borrowed from other cultures, Greece still remained a distinctive country.
Colonization
Colonization made the Greek people, numerous at that time, more mobile and ready for change. Now every person could self-realize, regardless of gender, accordingly, society became more developed and progressive, and many new phenomena appeared. In short, art during the archaic period of Ancient Greece is not the only thing that received an incredible degree of development. Now navigation and maritime trade are coming to the fore and moving the country forward. Initially, most of the colonies that were on the periphery became largely dependent on their metropolises. But over time, this situation changed.
Export
Residents of many colonies experienced acute shortages of even the most necessary things. For example, wine and olive oil, which the Greeks loved so much, did not reach the colonies at all. Huge ships delivered tons of wine and oil to many countries. The metropolises exported not only food to the colonies - they supplied pottery and other household utensils, various fabrics, weapons, jewelry, and so on. Of course, I really like these items local residents, and they exchange them for grain, livestock, slaves and non-ferrous metals. Simple crafts from Greece, of course, did not immediately compete with Phoenician souvenirs, which were hunted by merchants around the world. Despite this, there was a huge demand for them where Phoenician ships did not reach - the Black Sea region, Thrace, and the Adriatic.
Progress
However, despite the fact that the crafts and art objects of the archaic period of Ancient Greece are significantly inferior in quality to goods of eastern origin, the Greeks managed to establish mass production and sell their goods even in the “promised land” for all traders - Sicily.
Colonies gradually become the most important centers of industry and trade between many developed countries antiquities. And in Greece itself, the centers of economic and trade development are the so-called policies, with the help of which the management of the colonization movement becomes more convenient. The largest and most developed of them are Corinth and Megara in the Northern Peloponnese, Aegina, Samos and Rhodes in the Aegean archipelago, Miletus and Ephesus on the western coast of Asia Minor.
Changes in society and craft
Gradually, markets began to appear in the colonies, which served as a powerful impetus for the development and improvement of crafts, agriculture, art and architecture in Ancient Greece of the Archaic period, briefly described above. Craftsmen from Greece are making significant progress and equipping their workshops with last word technology of that time. Analyzing the characteristics of the archaic period of Ancient Greece, we can say that it was the most fruitful period for the country in every sense. Consider such innovations as the invention of new methods of soldering iron or the improvement of bronze casting! Greek ceramics of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. amazes the imagination with its luxury and abundance of forms, diversity decoration. Particularly noteworthy are the most beautiful vessels made by the hands of talented Corinthian craftsmen, on which there is painting in the oriental style. It can be distinguished by the colorfulness and incredible whimsicality of its ornate patterns, which are reminiscent of designs on oriental carpets. Also worth noting are vases in the black-figure style, which were produced mainly in the Athenian and Peloponnesian city-states. The clay products of Greek potters and bronze casters indicate not only that division of labor was practiced in Greece at that time, but also that responsibilities were shared even within a particular industry. The culture of the archaic period of Ancient Greece experienced incredible growth.
Separation of crafts from agriculture
Most of the ceramics exported by Greece abroad were made in special workshops by experienced craftsmen and vase painters. Numerous artisans are no longer alone without rights and freedoms. The time has already passed when they did not even have a permanent place of residence. Now they are a very significant and influential class of the population. The quality of the products they made became increasingly higher, as did the prices for the work of the craftsmen. Entire neighborhoods appeared where artisans of a certain profession lived. In one of the large cities called Corinth from the 7th century. BC e. there was a so-called quarter of pottery masters - Keramik. In the capital of Greece, Athens, a similar area, located in an impressive part of the city, appeared in the 6th century. BC e. These historical facts indicate that during the archaic period in Greece a fundamentally new period of development of the state began: craft became a separate species activity and completely separated from agriculture as a separate, completely abstract part of production and activity. Fundamental changes were not spared in agriculture, which now had to take into account not only the needs of the community, but also market demand. Now the market dictates the rules for all branches of production. The first beginnings of entrepreneurship also appeared among farmers - those who had boats brought their goods to the markets of nearby cities. They did not move along the road because there were many more robbers and robbers with the development of trade. Since grain crops were poorly received in Greece, they mainly cultivated grapes and olives, because delicious Greek wine and high-quality olive oil were in incredible demand in the East. Eventually, the Greeks realized that it was much cheaper to import grain from abroad than to grow it at home.
Government structure and political system of the archaic period of Ancient Greece
Most, excluding numerous colonies, emerged from centralized settlements of the Homeric era - poleis. However, the archaistic and Homeric policies are completely different concepts. They differed quite significantly: the polis of the Homeric era was simultaneously a city and a village, since there were no other settlements that could compete with it. The archaic polis, on the contrary, was a kind of capital of a small state, which, in addition to itself, included small villages (Greek comas), located on the outskirts of the territory of the polis and dependent on it both politically and economically.
Architecture
Please note that the archaic policies became much larger than the policies built in the era of Homer. There were two reasons for this: natural population growth and the unification of several villages into one big city. This phenomenon is called synoikism; the unification took place in order to repel neighboring hostile villages and towns. Despite unprecedented progress, there were no truly large cities in Greece yet. The largest policies were settlements with a population of several thousand people. On average, the population did not exceed a thousand people. A clear example of a typical Greek archaic polis is ancient Smyrna, recently discovered by archaeologists. A significant part of it was located on a peninsula that blocked the entrance to a deep bay where numerous ships were moored. The central part of Smyrna was surrounded by a protective fence made of bricks on a stone plinth. There are numerous gates and viewing platforms in the wall. All residential buildings were parallel to each other. Of course, several temples were built in the city. The residential buildings were very spacious and comfortable; the houses of wealthy citizens even had terracotta baths.
Agora
The heart of the archaic city was the so-called agora, where citizens gathered and lively trade was conducted. Basically, the city residents spent everything free time Here. You could sell your goods and purchase the necessary products, learn important city news, take part in affairs of national importance and simply communicate with the townspeople. Initially, the agora was an ordinary open square without any buildings. Later, wooden steps appeared there, on which people sat during events. As the Archaic period came to an end, fabric canopies began to be hung over the steps, designed to protect people from the heat and sun. On weekends, idle people and traders of various small goods liked to settle down on them. State institutions were built on the agora or not far from it: bouleuterium - the city council (bule), prytaneum - the place where members of the ruling board of prytanes sat, dicastery - the courthouse. It was on the agora that city residents could familiarize themselves with new laws and decrees, which were put on public display.
Sports competitions
Athletic competitions have been a significant part of Greek life since ancient times. From time immemorial, in ancient Greek cities, areas for strength exercises were built. They were called palestras and gymnasiums. Every self-respecting young man spent most of his time training. Sports disciplines include running, freestyle wrestling, fist fighting, jumping, javelin and discus throwing. Every major holiday in the polis was accompanied by a sports competition called agon, in which all free-born citizens of the polis, as well as guests from other countries who received an invitation to the holiday, could take part.
Some agons earned particular popularity among the people and gradually became intercity pan-Greek festivals. It was from there that the tradition of organizing the Olympic Games began, in which people came from even the most distant colonies to participate. Prepared to participate in Olympic Games ah just as seriously as military action. Each policy considered it a matter of honor to win the event. Joyful fellow citizens bestowed truly royal privileges on the winner of the Olympic Games. In some cases, it was necessary to dismantle a huge city wall in order to triumphal column the winner solemnly entered the city: the townspeople believed that a person of such rank could not pass through the ordinary gates.
It was these moments that formed the life of an ordinary resident of the ancient Greek polis of the archaic era: trade and shopping in the agora, resolution of issues of national importance at a national assembly, participation in religious ceremonies of various kinds, exercises and training in gymnasiums and palaestras and, of course, participation in the Olympic Games. games.
With the history of Greece archaic period (VIII–VI centuries BC) There are several major problems: the first is colonization Mediterranean and Black Seas, the second - "elder" tyranny(“the senior” tyranny of the archaic period is called in contrast to the “younger” that arose in the era of the late classics (IV century BC)), the third - formation of the Greek polis, fourth - emergence of the first legislations.
Poetry. Poetry is an important part of the culture of the archaic era, since almost all of the above events are reflected in it. In poetry, the Greeks rethought the reality around them.
The era of heroes passed away with Homer, but the memory of it remained, and many poets have a desire to imitate the bygone past - this is how cyclical poems . Their authors brought practically nothing new to poetry, so the Greeks created “cyclical poets” late era they called mediocre writers. On the other hand, thanks to them the myth of the Trojan War was completely described.
In such a mediocre poetic environment, a remarkable personality stands out - Hesiod (end VIII– beginning VII centuries BC). He wrote works fundamental to certain genres of Greek literature. His "Theogony"- a poem about the origin of the gods - lays the foundation for the works cosmogonic, describing the origin, family ties, life and fate of the gods. Second poem "Works and Days" wore didactic character, becoming the first in a series of books of edifying content. In it, Hesiod talked about the everyday life of simple Greek farmers, which he had a real idea of, since he himself lived in Boeotia and worked on the land all his life.
The archaic era is the time of formation lyric poetry . Greek poets did not read poetry, but sang it, so music left a special imprint on their work. The famous poet was Anacreon , lived on the island of Teos, near Asia Minor (middle VI V. BC). In imitation of him in Roman times arose Anacreontic poetry, celebrating the joy of life associated with refined pleasures.
Poets Alkay AndSappho – lived on the island of Lesbos (end VII–VI V. BC). Alcaeus created bravura military marches ( embatheria) and drinking songs ( Scolia). Sappho relied heavily on folklore; she has a lot of love lyrics. According to legendary legend, Alcaeus was in love with Sappho, but did not achieve reciprocity. The poetess herself committed suicide because of her unhappy love for another man.
In Sparta, there lived a poet Tyrtaeus . The Spartans did not pay enough attention to the fine arts, so Tyrtaeus is not a typical example for Spartan culture - he was almost the only one among his fellow tribesmen who wrote talented poems on the military theme beloved by the Lacedaemonians.
Appears in the archaic era choral lyrics . She was based on three elements: poetry, music and dance. Choral lyric poetry becomes the prototype of Greek theater, since this genre develops the structure on which the works of tragedians will be built.
Philosophy. Early Greek philosophy arose in the eastern region, in the Ionian cities and was greatly influenced by the East - this is the so-called “philosophy of nature”, natural philosophy , in which the awakening of ancient Greek thought takes place, experiencing the essence of the emergence of the world. Three major philosophers of this time lived in Miletus. Thales believed that the world and all living things come from water. According to teaching Anaximene , the universe consists of air: when it condenses, water appears, and when it discharges, fire arises. Third thinker Anaximander, isolated some boundless primordial substance ( apeiron), from which everything came.
Fine arts. The line between the Homeric and archaic eras in art is characterized by geometric style , a prime example of which is Dipylon amphora , found in Athens. Similar vases were tombstones and their sizes reached human height. The surface of the vase is divided into a number of ribbons isolated from each other; in the center of the composition a funeral procession is depicted, in which human figures are extremely schematized. The geometric style could not lead to the flowering of vase painting, arose in VI–V centuries BC, and should have ended in a dead end of decorativism. There is a sharp leap between the geometric style and the vase painting of subsequent times, impossible without external influence, most likely from the East, which gave impetus to the development of Greek art. The East, despite its strong influence in the field of philosophy and culture of Greece, did not become the basis of Greek art, which was formed in its own way as original and independent.
New style vase painting originates in VI V. BC, this black-figure painting applied to the vessel with black paint. Initially, the subjects of the paintings are associated with mythology. Then there is red-figure vase painting, when images on a vessel are formed by coloring the background, and the figures retain the original color of the walls of the vessel. This painting, which is more complex in technique, makes it possible to depict small details. In later times, black-figure and red-figure pottery coexisted.
IN sculpture appear "archaic Apollos" , or kouros – naked young people depicted with their legs extended forward, their arms at their sides, their fists sometimes clenched. The figures have a frontal pose, the anatomical structure of the body is clearly visible. Kuros are a general type of person without individual traits. Received the greatest fame statue of Hera from Fr. Samos(VII–VI centuries BC). The famous mysterious “archaic smile” was depicted on the faces of all the sculptures, emphasizing not the specific features of the statues, but the idealized image of a person embodied in them, which becomes the measure of basic values for the classical era.
High Classical period ( V V. BC)
Theater. Theatrical performances go back to cult performances in honor of Dionysus, at which the initiators of dithyrambs (songs in honor of God) performed. From 534 BC, the display of tragedies (playful performances of the “song of the goats”) was officially included in the Dionysian festivals. When the plots of productions go beyond the scope of Dionysian festivals and playwrights turn to heroic tales, tragedies lose their cheerful character and become part of public life.
The rise of Greek theater falls on the period of high classics and is associated with the names of three great playwrights: Aeschylus , Sophocles And Euripides .
In the 5th century BC, after tragedies, a new dramatic genre appears - comedy (from the Greek “to take a procession”), which also goes back to the Dionysian festivals, at which humorous and sometimes obscene songs were performed. The greatest comedian of the era of high classics was Aristophanes.
Sculpture. The art of high classics is quite fully characterized by the words of Solon: “Nothing superfluous.” These were the basic principles underlying Greek art.
The statues did not belong to museums and were installed in temples, in open-air squares, in crowded places, and passers-by perceived them as part of everyday life. The sculptures were usually painted with bright colors, and were perceived accordingly. In the classical era, portrait art did not develop: in sculptures, attention was paid primarily to the plasticity of the body, and not to facial expression.
One of the first major sculptors of the classical era was Polykleitos, wrote a special essay - "Canon", in which he tried to identify the basic elements that make up the human body and subordinate them to a certain numerical ratio. Polykleitos formalized art as much as possible, looking for universally valid laws of proportions, and the statue Doryphora (spearman) created as an illustration of his work, which has living plasticity due to a technique called chiasmus, thanks to which it is not completely clear whether Doryphoros is moving or not.
Another famous sculptor of the 5th century. was Miron , the artist, in contrast to Polycletus, tried to convey intense movement (statue "Disc thrower" ).
Architecture. In the classical era, the principle of orders was developed. Order in architecture - a certain combination of load-bearing and supported parts of a post-and-beam structure, their structure and artistic treatment. During the Classic period, three main orders appeared: Doric, Ionic And Corinthian, which formed the basis of European architecture of the 16th–19th centuries. The difference between them is best illustrated by the example of the columns of these orders.
Doric column simple and austere, covered with longitudinal grooves - flutes, its capital (crowning part) is made in the form of a stone pillow without decoration. This is a harsh style, in architecture it is identified with a masculine character and in Doric temples columns could be replaced by statues Atlanteans. Refers to Doric Temple of Poseidon in Paestum(c. 460 BC).
IN ionic order, which probably arose under Eastern influence, the columns are straight, with virtually no entasis(slight thickening in the middle, required for Doric columns); the proportions of the buildings are lightened, they are characterized by both lightness and graceful sophistication. The capitals are made in the form of two tight curls, volute. The Ionic order, in contrast to the Doric, was correlated with the feminine principle - the columns were sometimes replaced by statues of girls, caryatids. One of the porticos was decorated in this spirit Erechtheion, a temple erected on the site of the legendary dispute between Athena and Poseidon on the Athenian Acropolis.
IN Corinthian order the columns were crowned with stylized acanthus leaves.
The pinnacle of architecture classical period became architectural complexAthens Acropolis , which was at the same time a sanctuary, a fortification, a public center, a storage place for the state treasury, an art gallery and a library. The architecture of the Acropolis combines two orders: Ionic and Doric.
Late Classic period ( IV V. BC)
History of Greece in the 4th century. BC is the story of the crisis of the ancient polis, which ended with the loss of political independence. Many Greek policies emerged from the Peloponnesian War bloodless, with agriculture and crafts devastated, and trade relations disrupted.
The political crisis deepened with the liquidation of the unions of the Greek states and Sparta's attempts to destroy the democratic system. Continuous wars between policies ruined the country and increased the number of slaves. Representatives of the most reactionary sections of the Greek slave owners were ready to sacrifice democracy and political freedom in the name of protecting their interests. After the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. Greece submitted to the Macedonian king Philip II.
The crisis of the polis, internecine wars, the decline of democracy and, finally, the loss of political independence could not but affect the development of Greek culture, which during this period showed the first signs of decline. But in Greek society there were still powerful forces that could give rise to philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, the sculptural creativity of Lysippos, and the military genius of Alexander the Great.
Along with the continuation and development of traditional classical art forms of the 4th century. BC, in particular architecture, We had to solve completely new problems. Art for the first time began to serve the aesthetic needs and interests of the individual, and not the polis as a whole; works also appeared that affirmed monarchical principles. Throughout the 4th century. BC constantly intensified the process of departure of a number of representatives of Greek art from the ideals of nationality and heroism of the 5th century. BC..
The period that ended in the 4th century had a great influence on the development of culture. BC crisis of the naive-fantastic system of mythological ideas, distant harbingers of which can already be seen in the 5th century. BC But in the 5th century BC folk artistic fantasy still drew material for her sublime ethical and aesthetic ideas from ancient mythological tales and beliefs that were familiar and close to the people (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Phidias, etc.). In the 4th century. In the same century, the artist became increasingly interested in such aspects of human existence that did not fit into the mythological images and ideas of the past. Artists sought to express in their works both internal contradictory experiences, impulses of passion, and the sophistication and penetration of human spiritual life.
During this period, oratory, philosophy, and historical writings took over leading place in literature, clearly displacing other genres - drama and lyrics. Although theaters continued to flourish, new ones were even built, and audiences eagerly attended them, tastes had changed significantly. The moral foundations of existence, acute political and social conflicts, problems of good and evil in the private and public spheres attracted less and less attention. People's interests have narrowed significantly and focused on private life.
In general, the culture of this period, which was significantly influenced by the changes that occurred in society, is regarded by researchers as a time of fundamental shifts, intensive searches, and the emergence of trends that culminated in the Hellenistic era.
The Rhaic period is not separated from the Homeric period by a sharp chronological boundary: its beginning is determined approximately by the 8th century, the end by the beginning of the 5th century, sometimes by the end of the 1st quarter of the 5th century. The historical background of the period was the Great Greek Colonization, which expanded the boundaries of the world known to the Greeks. In the archaic era, lyric poetry arose and flourished (Sappho 29, Alcaeus, Alcman, Ibycus, Anacreon and many others), epic poetry continued to develop, a special genre of historiography was born (logographer Hecataeus of Miletus), the first playwrights appeared (Thespis, etc.), the formation of the system of dramatic theatrical performance itself.
A characteristic feature of Greek archaic culture and all Greek civilization overall it becomes agonistic 30. Competitiveness permeates all areas of Greek activity: from sports, music, theater, poetry competitions to competition in the field of art, which has an undoubted impact on the ever-accelerating development and change in all branches of knowledge and experience among the Greeks 31 . In the archaic period, philosophy was born - Pythagoras was the first to call himself a philosopher 32. The greatest philosophers, and most likely even in in the ancient sense sages were representatives of the Milesian (Ionian) school, Thales, Heraclitus, etc. At the same time, the concept of a philosophical school arose, transmitting and developing the tradition from its founder: the very development of philosophical schools gradually became one of the cores connecting Greek thought until the end of the ancient civilization.
For Greek art, this is an era of discovery: innovations in architecture, sculpture and painting determined the appearance of Greek culture as a whole. Never again has Greece known so many art schools, paths, richness, diversity and originality of searches. In the 7th-6th centuries. a type of Greek temple is emerging with a cella surrounded on all sides by a colonnade, with a pediment with a sculptural group dominating the front portico, two main orders are formed greek architecture: strict Doric and graceful Ionic. The oldest of the Greek temples, known to us largely from remains, are the temples of Hera in Argos and Olympia and the temple of Apollo in Therma (Aetolia).
In Greek ceramics, stylistically very diverse, in the 8th century. The so-called Orientalizing (Eastern) manner, which is influenced by a strong Middle Eastern influence, is widespread. In the 7th century. Athenian black-figure vase painting acquires a dominant position, and when the Athenian ceramists (Andocides) move into the middle. 6th century BC e. to the red-figure technique, this step is decisive for all Greek territories.
IN
Greek classics
The highest point in the development of Greek culture and art of antiquity was the classical (from Latin classicus - exemplary) period ,
the beginning of which is usually attributed to the time after Greco-Persian wars(480–470 BC), the end - at the time of the beginning of the aggressive campaigns of Alexander the Great at the end of the 4th century. BC e. The political background of the flourishing of culture and art in the classical era, a kind of analogue of it, was the flourishing of the democratic city-states of Greece (for example, Athens during the reign of Pericles 33). In the 5th century Greece survived the worst wars in its history and came under the rule of a stronger and politically unified Macedonia.
F
Sculpture
A
Architecture
L
Literature
In the field of philosophy 5–4 centuries. BC e. - the time of its true and great flourishing, the expansion of the activities of philosophical schools (Socrates 34, Plato 35 - founder of the Academy, Aristotle 36 - founder of the Lyceum 37 and the Peripatetic school, etc.).
In the archaic period (VIII - VI centuries BC), changes in economic life led to the creation of a new economic system. Greece has surpassed all neighboring countries in its development. Agriculture intensified: peasants switched to growing more profitable crops - grapes and olives. The main units of agricultural production were small peasant farms and larger estates of the family nobility, cultivated by impoverished relatives. The lands were rented out, and the aristocrats took 1/2 of the harvest as payment.
The craft was concentrated in the cities, and its branches were clearly defined: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. Pottery production was of a mass serial nature. Trade became the leading industry; its scale is evidenced by the finds of Greek ceramics all the way to Central and Western Europe. Money appeared (legend attributes its invention to the Lydians). Purchase and sale transactions extended to all types of material assets. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery. Slaves also came from the colonies. Nevertheless, the economic role of slaves was small; the bulk of artisans were free people.
In the VIII - VI centuries. The Great Greek Colonization took place. Its reasons were, firstly, the lack of land due to an increase in population and the concentration of land in the hands of the nobility; secondly, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for agricultural and handicraft products, the need for metal that was absent in Greece itself, the desire of the Greeks to control trade routes; thirdly, political struggle, forcing the defeated to seek success in the colonies.
There are three main directions of colonization. The first is Western, the most powerful. Sicily and Italy were so densely populated by colonists that they became known as Magna Graecia. The second - northeastern - on the Black Sea coast. The third is the southern and southeastern, the weakest, since here the Greeks met powerful resistance from Phoenician traders.
Colonization somewhat muted social conflicts and contributed to the development of crafts and trade. She widely spread the centers of Hellenic culture, opened up scope for human abilities, freeing the individual from the control of the clan.
In the VIII - VI centuries. The formation of ancient city-states with their adjacent territory was underway. The polis was based on the ancient form of property, which represented the unity of state and private principles of ownership. The polis, as a collective of citizens, had the right of supreme ownership of land. At the same time, only citizens of the policy could be land owners. The main economic principle of the policy was the idea of autarky (self-sufficiency), which acted as the economic basis of freedom. A polis system of values also developed: the idea of the superiority of agricultural labor over all others, condemnation of the desire for profit, etc.
Two main types of policies can be distinguished: 1) agricultural, with the absolute predominance of agriculture, poor development trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, a large share of the labor of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure (Sparta, the cities of Thessaly, Boeotia); 2) trade and craft, with a large share of crafts and trade, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slave labor into production, a democratic structure (Athens, Corinth, Miletus, Syracuse, etc.). The earliest polis system appeared in the southern part of Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula (Sparta has been studied most of all), and later in Attica (Athens).
Athens was economically more developed, and tribal relations decomposed more quickly here. The Laws of Dracon (621 BC) formalized the right to private property. The most important of the reforms of Solon (594 BC) was the following: all debts made on the mortgage of land were forgiven, peasants restored their status as owners, the enslavement of Athenians for debts was prohibited, and loan interest was limited. The export of olive oil for profit was allowed, but grain was prohibited. Craft activities were encouraged. A land maximum was introduced to limit the concentration of land ownership.
The reforms that undermined the political dominance of the nobility were of great importance: all Athenian citizens were divided into four categories according to the amount of land income. Now the size of private property determined the importance of a person. And the legislation of Cleisthenes (509 BC) completed the liquidation of the clan system - all citizens, regardless of property status, were endowed with equal rights.
Thus, in the VIII - VI centuries. BC the clan system decomposed and new forms of socio-economic organization were established, although this process different parts Hellas proceeded in different ways. Often scientists combine the Homeric and Archaic periods in the development of the economy of Ancient Greece into a single one. If we analyze this period of time, we can say the following. It covers two stages of the history of Ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period because, along with archaeological evidence, the main sources for studying this time are the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer. Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, in comparison with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for further prosperity Greek states. The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: - The Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and Azov Seas; - registration of the policy as a special type of community. There are two main types of policies:
Agrarian - the absolute predominance of agriculture, weak development of crafts, trade, a large proportion of dependent workers, as a rule, with an oligarchic structure; - trade and craft - with a large share of trade and crafts, commodity-money relations, the introduction of slavery into the means of production, and a democratic structure.
In the XI-IX centuries. BC In the Greek economy, the natural type of economy dominated; crafts were not separated from agriculture. There was some improvement in tools, in particular, a plow with a metal coulter appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, livestock was considered one of the main types of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production was focused only on meeting the basic needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The economic situation in Ancient Greece changed significantly. During this period, crafts separated from agriculture, which remained the leading sector of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage and the inability to provide food to the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. The main attention is paid to crops whose cultivation is more suitable natural conditions Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of vegetable and garden crops; As a result, agriculture is becoming increasingly market-oriented.
Handicraft production also acquires a commercial character, and not last role Greek colonization played a role in this, contributing to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city policies became large craft centers. Greek trade during the era of the Great Colonization developed very actively. Constant connections are being established between the metropolises, exporting mainly handicraft products, and the colonies supplying various types raw materials and agricultural products. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade became one of the most important sectors of the economy. The main distinctive feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in government, and this feature largely determined domestic policy policies. In particular, many Greek city-states had laws that restricted the acquisition and sale of land and aimed at protecting the landed property of individual citizens. However, in most parts of Greece, the development of commodity production and land shortages led to the growth of large landholdings, increased social differentiation and an intensification of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many policies of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. Economic development in the XI-VI centuries. BC e. This period of time covers two stages of the history of Ancient Greece: the so-called dark ages (XI-IX centuries BC) and the archaic period (VIII-VI centuries BC). The Dark Ages are often called the Homeric period because, along with archaeological evidence, the main sources for studying this time are the poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey", attributed to Homer. Usually XI-IX centuries. BC e. is considered an intermediate stage, at which, on the one hand, in comparison with Achaean Greece, the level of development decreases, but, on the other hand, with the beginning of the production of iron tools, the prerequisites are created for the further flourishing of the Greek states. The Archaic period is characterized by two main processes that had a decisive influence on the development of Greek civilization: 1) The Great Colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and Azov Seas, 2) The formation of the polis as a special type of community.
Sectoral structure of the economy In the XI-IX centuries. BC In the Greek economy, the natural type of economy dominated; crafts were not separated from agriculture. As before, the main agricultural crops were grains (barley, wheat), grapes, olives. Irrigation systems were still created and soil manure was used. There was some improvement in tools, in particular, a plow with a metal (especially iron) coulter appeared. Livestock also played an important role in agriculture, with livestock considered one of the main forms of wealth. In the craft of the XI-IX centuries. BC e. there was some differentiation, weaving, metallurgy, and ceramics were especially developed, but production, as in agriculture, was focused only on meeting the immediate needs of people. In this regard, trade developed very slowly and was mainly of an exchange nature. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The economic situation in Ancient Greece changed significantly. During this period, crafts separated from agriculture, which remained the leading sector of the economy. The weak development of agricultural production at the previous stage and the inability to provide food to the growing population of the policies became one of the main reasons for Greek colonization. The most important function of the colonies located in the Black Sea basin was to supply the metropolises with bread. In many Greek policies, they refuse to grow grains, and the main attention is paid to crops, the cultivation of which is more consistent with the natural conditions of Greece: grapes, olives, all kinds of garden and garden crops; As a result, agriculture is becoming increasingly market-oriented. This is also facilitated by the wider distribution of iron tools. Handicraft production also acquired a commercial character, and, as in agriculture, Greek colonization played an important role in this, contributing to the expansion of the raw material base and the development of trade. Many Greek city policies are becoming large craft centers, with entire artisan neighborhoods appearing in them. Greek trade during the era of the Great Colonization developed very actively. Constant connections are being established between the metropolises, exporting mainly handicraft products, and the colonies, supplying various types of raw materials (especially metal, timber) and agricultural products (especially grain). In addition, the colonies become intermediaries between Greece and the distant barbarian periphery. In the most developed Greek policies, maritime trade became one of the most important sectors of the economy.
Land ownership. Organization of production During the Dark Ages, land was the property of the territorial community, the main production unit there was an oikos (from the gr. house) - the household of a patriarchal family. Each family included in the community was assigned a plot of land, passed on by inheritance; however, it is possible that land redistributions were carried out from time to time. Slavery in the XI-IX centuries. BC e. still had a patriarchal character, the main producer of products was the free farmer. The Archaic period brought great changes to property relations. The leading form of land ownership becomes polis (or ancient) - only citizens had the right to own land on the territory of the polis; personally free people who were not citizens (metics) did not have this right. Citizens could sell, mortgage land, and rent it out. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. An important change also occurs in the organization of production—slavery of the classical type begins to form. This process was associated with the development of commodity production and a significant increase in the number of slaves - foreigners coming from the colonies. Cheap slave labor made it possible to obtain more income and was more actively used in the main industries.
Money relations
At the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennium BC. e. Due to the predominance of subsistence farming and the weak development of trade, there was no money as such; its role was played mainly by cattle. During the era of the Great Colonization, metal ingots, bars, and, finally, around the turn of the 7th-6th centuries, were increasingly used as money. BC e. coin minting begins. By the 6th century BC e. In Greece, there were two main monetary systems - Aeginian and Euboean. The basis of each system was talent - a weight unit which on Euboea was 26.2 kg, and on Aegina - 37 kg. One talent was minted into 6 thousand drachmas - silver coins. The Aeginian standard was distributed throughout most of Greece and the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Euboean standard - on the island of Euboea, in many western Greek colonies, as well as in the two largest policies - Corinth and Athens. During the archaic period, usury developed among people with money circulation, and insolvent debtors, as a rule, were turned into slaves and could even be sold abroad.
The role of the state in economic life The main distinctive feature of the Greek polis was the participation of all members of the civil community in government, and this feature largely determined the internal policy of the policies. In particular, many Greek city-states had laws restricting the acquisition and sale of land, aimed at protecting the landed property of individual citizens. However, despite this, in most parts of Greece the development of commodity production and the shortage of land led to the growth of large landownership, increased social differentiation and an intensification of the conflict between the aristocracy and the people (demos). In many cities of the archaic era, socio-political conflicts often ended in the establishment of tyranny - a regime of personal power. In most cases, tyrants sought to enlist the support of the demos, took care of improving its position, promoted the development of crafts and trade, and the improvement of cities. However, tyrants were constantly in need of money and in various ways pumped them out of the population; in the end, in most policies, tyranny was overthrown.
Conclusions: The economy of the Homeric period was quite backward. Dominated subsistence farming, livestock was considered a measure of wealth; society did not know money. However, important changes occurred during this period. Firstly, in the X-IX centuries. BC e. Iron was widely introduced into the Greek economy. Secondly, the autonomous economy of the small patriarchal family came to the fore. Slavery is not widespread. The settlement of the polis became the political and economic center. The main population of the city were cattle breeders and farmers. Thus, by the end of this period, Greece was a world of small poleis-communities, associations of peasant farmers, with a lack of external relations, the top of society was not very distinguished. During the archaic period, Greece overtook all neighboring countries in its development. The main units of agricultural production were small peasant farms and larger estates of the family nobility. Crafts concentrated in cities. Main industries: metallurgy, metalworking, shipbuilding. The leading industry was trade. Money appeared. Usury arose, and with it debt slavery. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The Great Greek Colonization took place. The reasons for colonization are the following: lack of land, due to an increase in population and its concentration in the hands of the nobility, the need for new sources of raw materials, the search for markets for their products, the need for metal (there was very little of it left in Greece itself), the desire of the Greeks to put under control all maritime trade ways, political struggle. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The formation of ancient city policies was underway. The policies were based on the ancient form of ownership. The polis had the right of supreme ownership of land. The main economic principle of the policy was the idea of self-sufficiency.